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Fluid Mechanics II Part 2 I- Boundary Layer Theory II- Potential Flow Jafar Ghazanfarian Mechanical Engineering Department ghazanfarian.ir Part I: External Flows OR Boundary Layer Theory (BL) External flow: Flow over bluff/blunt bodies which are surrounded by an infinite fluid. External flow is a special case of internal flow. ghazanfarian.ir 2 3 new important phenomena in external flows are: 1- Stagnation point ghazanfarian.ir Normal contact of a fluid particle to the body front The flow is divided into 2 branches The velocity is zero not due to the viscosity effect On other points over body the velocity is zero due to noslip condition (roughness + viscosity) Not a viscous effect (It exists in potential flow) Normal component is zero: lack of porosity effect Tangential velocity is zero: local symmetry Bernoulli Equation holds 3 2- Boundary layer formation ghazanfarian.ir Ludwig Prandtl (1904) Added a new horizon in fluid mechanics The first semi-analytical solution of the N.S. A 3-unit course in MSc, with a 800-page reference book An example of a boat moving over a outgrowth on the floor The distance through which the effect of outgrowth is sensed by you? How this distance changes by travelling in flow direction? Combine millions of these outgrowths to form the surface roughness Now, the boat is the fluid particle 4 2- Boundary layer formation We divide the flow region around bodies into 2 zones: ◦ The near-wall region in which: The flow is rotational The Bernoulli’s Equation fails Viscous effect is important ghazanfarian.ir ◦ Flow region far from body in which: The flow is irrotational The Bernoulli Eq. holds Viscous effect is damped Boundary Layer is a layer which is a boundary of two regions. As viscosity increases this region thickens or shrinks? Re=VD/ʋ As flow velocity increases this region thickens or shrinks? As flow regime changes to turbulent this region thickens or shrinks (in constant Re) ? Starts from stagnation point Along BL the velocity profile is drawn OR it’s slop is reduced 5 3- BL Separation In stagnation point V=0, P is maximum Before reaching top: ghazanfarian.ir ◦ V increases, P decreases in flow direction ◦ Favorable pressure gradient ◦ Pressure and momentum acting in same directions After passing the top point: ◦ V decreases, P increases in flow direction ◦ Strong adverse pressure gradient ◦ Pressure and momentum acting on opposite directions 6 3- BL Separation ghazanfarian.ir Adverse pressure gradient is necessary condition for separation but not enough Pressure gradient is a geometric parameter Separation should be prevented As flow velocity increases what happens for separation? Re=VD/ʋ As flow regime changes to turbulent what happens for separation (in constant Re)? Turning-point for ◦ Separated flow is located in the flow ◦ In the separation point is located on the body ◦ Before separation point is located inside the solid body The shear stress on the wall in the separation point is zero. There is a separate flow/reversed flow/back flow with low pressure region 7 BL Flow regimes Similar to other viscous flows we have 3 flow regimes ◦ Laminar: over starting point of the body ◦ Transition: mid-locations of the body ghazanfarian.ir ◦ Turbulent: ending parts of the body Re = xV/ʋ is geometric parameter ◦ X is a coordinate placed over body and starting from the stagnation point ◦ The BL thickness grows faster in turbulent flow (higher BL slope) 8 Aero/hydro-dynamic forces in external flows Total force is the sum of two components: ◦ Parallel to the upstream flow direction drag force ◦ Normal to the upstream flow direction lift force ghazanfarian.ir The two origins of total force are: ◦ Pressure force: normal to surface ◦ Shear force: tangent to surface ◦ In a motion: Thrust Drag force Weight Lift force 9 Aero/hydro-dynamic forces: goal in external flows Using dimensional analysis: We can find the f using experimental or analytical or numerical methods. In BL theory we are going to use analytical approach. The separation controls the pressure lift/drag Viscosity and the wetted area control the shear lift/drag ghazanfarian.ir Assumptions of BL theory 1- incompressible flow 2- steady state 3- 2D flow tangent and normal to the body ◦ x is attached to the body surface (curvilinear coordinate) ◦ The curvature of the surface cannot be sensed by the fluid particle ◦ High radius of curvature (like smooth earth and humans) 4- High Reynolds number 10 Assumptions of BL theory 4- High Reynolds number ghazanfarian.ir ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Re=Ux/ʋ >105-107 The viscous force is small relative to the inertia force It seems to be a paradox but it is not. Flow can be laminar or turbulent. The viscous force should be small for the use of BL theory WHY? ◦ NEVER FORGET: THE VISCOUS FORCE NEVER CAN BE NEGLECTED. فلفل نبین چه ریزه بشکن ببین چه تیزه ◦ When the viscous force is small the region which is affected by the viscous force is small. ◦ So, the BL is very thin. ◦ So, to use the BL theory the thickness of BL should be small. BUT NOT ZERO ◦ Thinner boundary layers are more destroying. ◦ Great amount of heat is generated in boundary layer. 11 D’alembert Paradox The drag force of an inviscid flow over any arbitrary shaped object is zero, which is obviously a wrong statement. This paradox was solved when the viscous terms were added to the Euler equation (1755) to create the full NS equations (1855). ghazanfarian.ir Bernoulli‘s equation and BL Why the BL should be assumed to be thin? ◦ The pressure distribution at the edge of BL is a known parameter in BL theory. ◦ We want to estimate the pressure at the edge of BL by the pressure on the body. ◦ We can compute the pressure over the body using Bernoulli’s equation ◦ We neglect the pressure gradient normal to the BL. ◦ This fact is valid when the BL is thin ◦ Example of a paper and a cleaner over the whit board. 12 Bernoulli ‘s equation and BL Note Bernoulli’s equation between BL edge and upstream flow (1): Pressure coefficient is defined as: ◦ P is pressure at the BL edge ghazanfarian.ir ◦ P0 is a reference pressure OR upstream pressure (1) This parameter is 1 at the stagnation point and then starts to decrease 2 Students of Prandtl We learn two approaches in this course: Differential approach: Blasius solution ◦ Exact but Difficult Integral approach: Von Karman integral ◦ Approximate but Easy 13 Note 3 BL thicknesses 1- BL Thickness U=0.99 U∞ 2- Displacement thickness: ghazanfarian.ir ◦ The flow decreases relative to the inviscid flow due to viscosity effects ◦ Displacement of streamlines relative to the inviscid flow due to viscosity effects 3- Momentum thickness: Momentum decreases relative to the inviscid flow due to viscosity effects 4- Energy thickness Shape factor: δ>δ*>θ 14 Viscous force computation on immersed bodies ghazanfarian.ir Viscous force is created due to the shear stress on wetted surfaces In order to ignore the pressure force we ignore the separation The pressure gradient is favorable. Pressure force is zero If the plate is thick, the pressure force is created (square) The flat plate is the most important case Note Von Karman integral solution using control volume for arbitrary shapes BL is not a streamline There is an entrance of flow into the BL 15 Von Karman (VK) Integral equation ghazanfarian.ir U is the velocity of BL edge known from the Bernoulli’s equation The first term is surface force originated from shear stress The second term is the exchange of momentum from C.S. The last term is surface force originated from pressure Is valid for both laminar and turbulent flows A combined integral-differential equation difficult to solve Solution procedure of VK integral 1- Obtain U from Bernoulli’s equation out of BL and potential flow 2- Guess the velocity profile within the BL 3- Compute the shear stress (Newtonian fluid) , displacement and momentum thicknesses 4- Solve the final ODE to fined δ 5- Substitute computed δ to find the shear stress on the wall 16 Solution procedure of VK integral Comment: The guessed velocity profile should satisfy the boundary conditions: ◦ U=0 @ y=0 ◦ U=Us @ y= δ ghazanfarian.ir ◦ τ=0 @ y= δ ◦ d2U/dy2=0 @ y= δ ◦ … The second order polynomial is a good profile but with non-zero second order derivative. This profile is good when there is no separation Flat Plate VK integral solution for flat plate U=cte Second order polynomial and sinusoidal profile are selected δ, θ, δ*, τw in laminar BL of flat plate is proportional to inverse of square root of Rex The drag force is totally viscous force no pressure drag Compare with the exact Blasius solution Consider the geometrical and physical interpretation Note 17 VK integral solution for flat plate The drag coefficient is proportional to the momentum thickness at the end of plate There is no separation (dP/dx=0) We computed: ghazanfarian.ir ◦ δ, θ, δ*, τw ◦ Cf: dimensionless wall shear stress ◦ FD,: integration of Cf over entire plate Turbulent boundary layer 18 Turbulent boundary layer ghazanfarian.ir Note Similar idea stemming from the internal flow solution In internal flow BL edges make contact The BL edge pressure is not constant anymore In external flow there is no BL contact! The BL edge pressure is constant (for flat plate) This approximation is valid for 5×105< Re<107 We use the power-law velocity profile to compute δ, θ, δ* But τw is computed using Blasius formula for smooth pipe . . . Example The BL slope is increased relative to the laminar BL All quantities are proportional to inverse of Re-1/5 19 Pressure gradient in BL In order to obtain zero shear stress at wall, two terms on RHS must be with opposite signs Separation occurs in the positive pressure gradient ghazanfarian.ir Note Viscous drag coefficient computation The pressure force is supposed to be zero Drag force (FD) is the integration of wall shear stress (τW) Drag coefficient (CD) is the integration of friction coefficient (Cf) These formulas are valid for 5×105< Re<107 . Why? For 107< Re<109 we use the Schilichting’s formula If the flow is initially laminar and then becomes turbulent Example ◦ The mixed drag force is less than the fully turbulent drag force ◦ In this case we use the modified Schilichting’s formula 20 Pressure drag (form drag) ghazanfarian.ir The geometry is in a way that the drag force is totally pressure drag Similar to totally viscous case the body is thin The pressure distribution around body (CP) should be known In such cases the separation point is not a function of Re Example for a vertical flat plate Pay attention to the sign of integrals Example Note 21 Drag coefficient over thick bodies ghazanfarian.ir We have studied two limiting cases of horizontal and vertical flat plates Now we study thick bodies The drag force is mixed pressure-viscous force The separation point is dependent on Re and roughness The separation controls the portion of pressure drag Wetted area and viscosity control the portion of viscous drag The separation creates a relatively constant low pressure region behind body If flow separates earlier the pressure drag increases Flow over ellipse 22 Flow over cylinder and sphere Separation point varies with Re Transition occurs at 3.5×105 We introduce 3 new phenomenon: ◦ Vortex shedding ghazanfarian.ir ◦ Vortex locked-on ◦ Von-Karman vortex street Re<1: Low Re flow/ creeping flow/ Stokes flow ◦ Drag force is totally viscous ◦ No data for cylinder!!! ◦ Steady flow: L=0; D≠0; Why? 1<Re<30 ◦ Flow separates near back stagnation point ◦ Separation point moves towards the upstream. Why? ◦ Steady flow: L=0; D≠0; Why? ◦ Symmetric and attached vortices ◦ Combined pressure and viscous drag force 23 Flow over cylinder and sphere 30<Re<104 ◦ Vortex shedding starts ◦ Karman vortex street ◦ No 2D symmetry ◦ Oscillating drag and lift forces ghazanfarian.ir ◦ L (t)≠ 0; D(t)≠0; Why? ◦ Lmean=0; Dmean ≠0 ◦ Flow induced Vibration of cylinder ◦ Dimensionless Frequency of oscillation is called Strouhal number ◦ St=f D/V=0.2 ( 1 - 20/Re ) ≈ 0.2 (high Re) ≡ 5 second of one period ◦ Resonance (Vortex Locked-on): equality of f with natural frequency of structure 104<Re< 3.5×105 Re= 104 ◦ Still laminar ◦ Vortex shedding is intense CD is slightle increase (constant) Why? D’alembert paradox Separation is at 80ᵒ? Why? 24 Flow over cylinder and sphere 3.5×105 <Re ◦ Transition to turbulent flow occurs ◦ Separation jumps from 80ᵒ to 115ᵒ. Why? ◦ CD decreases up to 50 %! Very nice! ghazanfarian.ir ◦ Golf ball: artificial transition to turbulent flow by wall roughness to use the benefit of 50 % decrease ◦ Then CD starts to increases 25 Flow over cylinder and sphere Pressure distribution: sphere/ cylinder Lower pressure in separated flow for laminar regime CD versus Re Make the flow turbulent to decrease the pressure behind the body Other bluff bodies ghazanfarian.ir 2 Examples 26 Flow over bluff bodies Roughness effects ghazanfarian.ir 27 BL control OR drag reduction Thin bodies airfoil, flat plate ◦ No separation ◦ Smoothed surface ◦ Keep flow laminar ghazanfarian.ir Bluff bodies ◦ Use 50 % reduction for turbulent flow by roughness ◦ Streamlining, aerodynamic design ◦ Controls flow separation 28 BL control OR drag reduction Other methods ghazanfarian.ir ◦ Suction ◦ Injection (reenergizing) ◦ Slot Low mechanical design ◦ Wall movement Wall rotation 29 Attack/incident angle Very important parameter for control of separation Angle between upstream flow and the body (f35) High attack angle leads to Stall ghazanfarian.ir 30 Stall Sudden reduction of lift force for any reason This reason may be separation for high attack angle There is an attack angle for maximum lift coefficient For short landing distances sometimes stall is very helpful ghazanfarian.ir Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of the square of the wing length to the planform area=b2/A=b2/bc=b/c 31 Polar curve Polar curve is the variation CL against CD Finite Wing ghazanfarian.ir For infinite wing the aspect ratio is infinity Relating high and low pressures down and top of the wing creates a secondary flow called trailing vortex (TV) This vortex reduces the net lift force More heavy the aircraft more powerful these vortices These vortices creates two line of water vapor in the sky These vortices may exist up to 10 miles (15 Km) away from the airplane path and several hours after flight Very dangerous for small airplanes 32 Finite Wing Finite wing has less lift force, greater drag force, smaller CL/CD Cruise flight ghazanfarian.ir Note V2=2W/(CLAρ) V must be minimized but greater than 1.1Vstall W should be reduced, CL,A,ρ should be increased Flaps help us increase A Flaps also increase CD, So they are used in landing The cross section of wing increases by reaching the body, Why? Airbus A319 A340 33 Flaps Fowler: airbus 340/330+ Boeing 777 There are other kinds: leading edge, double slotted ghazanfarian.ir 34 Rotating sphere/cylinder (CW) ghazanfarian.ir Nonsymmetrical flow which creates lift force Momentum increases on top and decreases underneath Stagnation point moves towards the bottom side and then enters the fluid The separation point on top moves towards downstream and on bottom moves towards upstream 5 Re=10 Streamlines are denser on top Velocity increases Bernoulli says the pressure on top is reduced An upward lift force is created Example 35 Differential equations of BL Blasius Solution Flow over flat plate Write full N.S. equations + continuity ghazanfarian.ir Note Use Prandtl BL assumptions Perform order of magnitude analysis to omit some terms 36 Differential equations of BL Blasius Solution Omit velocity from equations using stream function concept Convert Prandtl equation (PDE) to Blasius equation (ODE) by: Similarity solution Defining similarity parameter Obtain f (flow rate), f’ (velocity), f” (shear stress) ghazanfarian.ir Note Example 37 ghazanfarian.ir Types of Drag force 1- Skin friction drag shear stress 2- Pressure drag (form drag) separation 3- Profile drag (1+2) 4- Sink drag (energy needed for injection and suction) 5- Wave making drag (free surface flows on floating body) bulb 6- Wave drag (free surface on immersed body) 7- Induced drag 8- compressible wave drag 38 Introduction to Airfoils ghazanfarian.ir Trailing/ leading edges Symmetrical wings need more attack angle, CL=0 Chord length (c) Camber line (h: distance to chord) Span length (b) A=bc Thikness: t Re is defined based on chord length NACA 2415 For nonsymmetrical airfoils hmax=0.2c, b=hmax is placed at 0.4c, cd=tmax=0.15c NACA 0012 For symmetrical airfoils 2 Examples 39 ghazanfarian.ir Part II: Potential flow OR Ideal flow OR Out-of-BL flow OR Inviscid flow OR Non-Rotational Flow The flow in which the effect of viscosity can be ignored. 40