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RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATACEREMONYCOMMEMORATINGTHE40THANNIVERSARYOF
THENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”POINTEDUHOC,FRANCE(6JUNE1984)
and
RONALDREAGAN,“REMARKSATAUNITEDSTATES-FRANCECEREMONYCOMMEMORATING
THE40THANNIVERSARYOFTHENORMANDYINVASION,D-DAY,”OMAHABEACH,COLLEVILLE
SURMER,FRANCE(6JUNE1984)
AllisonM.Prasch
UniversityofMinnesota
Abstract:ThisessayanalyzestwospeechesdeliveredbyPresidentRonaldReaganonJune6,
1984,withinthebroadercontextofReagan'sColdWarforeignpolicyrhetoric.Inhisremarksat
PointeduHocandOmahaBeach,ReaganprovidedavividnarrativeofD-Dayandappliedthe
morallessonsofWorldWarIItothepresentColdWarstrugglebetweenU.S.democracyand
Sovietcommunism.
KeyWords:RonaldReagan;D-Day;ColdWar;PointeduHoc;OmahaBeach;Epideictic
OnJune6,1984,PresidentRonaldReagandeliveredtwospeechesinNormandy,France,
markingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day:oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach.
Inbothspeeches,Reaganpraisedthemenwhostormedthebeachesandscaledthecliffsof
Normandy,usingthestoryofD-DaytoreaffirmtheWest'scommitmenttodemocracyin
Europe.HecomparedthestrugglesofWorldWarIItothechallengesstillfacingEuropean
democracies,pledgingthattheUnitedStateswouldstandwithothernationsdefending
freedomagainstthethreatposedbytheSovietUnion.ForReagan,thishistoriccelebrationof
theAlliedvictoryatD-DaywasanopportunemomenttorecommittheUnitedStatesandits
WesternalliestotheColdWarstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunism.
Inthisessay,Ianalyzebothspeeches—Reagan'saddressatPointeduHocandhis
remarksatOmahaBeach—asindependentandyetinterrelatedrhetoricalmomentswithin
Reagan'slargerColdWarforeignpolicynarrative.BothspeechesexemplifyReagan’scommon
themesofU.S.patriotism,moralresolve,andcommitmenttotheWesterndemocraticalliance.
IfirstdescribehowReagan'sspeechesonthefortiethanniversaryofD-Dayechoedthemes
fromhis1982AddresstotheBritishParliamentandhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociation
ofEvangelicals.Ithenanalyzeeachspeechseparately,drawingonthearchivesoftheReagan
LibrarytoilluminatetheWhiteHouse'sgoalsforReagan'sremarksandshowinghowthose
goalsweremanifestedinthespeechesthemselvesthroughaclosereadingofbothtexts.
AllisonPrasch:[email protected]
Lastupdated:March2016
VoicesofDemocracy,ISSN#1932-9539.Availableathttp://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
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Finally,IshowhowReagan'scommemorationofD-Daywaslaterrepurposedbyhis1984
presidentialcampaign,andhowsuccessiveU.S.presidentshavecontinuedthetraditionof
rememberingD-DaybyspeakingatNormandy.
RonaldReagan'sColdWarDiplomacy
WhenRonaldReagandefeatedincumbentJimmyCarterinthe1980presidential
election,manysawReagan'slandslidevictoryasadirectrejectionoftheCarter’spoliciesat
homeandabroad.1AccordingtoaNewYorkTimes/CBSNewsPoll,votersoustedCarter
becauseoftwomainissues:thefailingU.S.economyandthenation'sforeignpolicyfailures,
includingitstroubledrelationshiptotheSovietUnion.TheNewYorkTimesreportedthattwothirdsofvoters"citedeconomicproblemssuchasunemployment,taxesandinflationasakey
reasonfortheirvote."Moreover,thosepolled,byamarginofalmosttwo-to-one,saidthey
wantedtheUnitedStatestobe“moreforceful”indealingwiththeSovietUnion“evenifit
increasedtheriskofwar.”2"WhenRonaldReagantookofficeinearly1981,"writesPaul
Fessler,"theUnitedStatesappearedweakandfaltering.Inforeignaffairs,theUnitedStates,
stillreelingfromdefeatinVietnam,facednotonlyaSovietUnionexpandingintoAfghanistan
butalsoamajorhostagecrisisinIran....ItseemedasifAmerica'sself-imageasaconfident
andstronginternationalsuperpowerwasfadingintoadistantmemory."3Reagancountered
thisperceptionofaweakenedAmericainhisinauguraladdress,pledgingthatasthenation
tookstepsto"renewourselveshereinourownland,wewillbeseenashavinggreaterstrength
throughouttheworld.Wewillagainbetheexemplaroffreedomandabeaconofhopefor
thosewhodonotnowhavefreedom."4
Earlyinhisfirstadministration,asReaganimplementedpoliciestorevitalizethe
economy,healsodeliveredseveralimportantforeignpolicyaddressesthatoutlinedhisviews
ontheColdWar,communism,andtheSovietUnion.Ina1997interview,Anthony"Tony"
Dolan,oneofReagan'schiefspeechwriters,explainedthatReagan'sforeignpolicyrhetoric
from1981to1983displayedthe"evolutionofacounter-strategytotheSoviets"that
accomplishedtwothings:
First,itreject[ed]thenotionthatyoucannotbemorallycandidandconfrontthe
SovietUnion.Inotherwords,itestablishesasortofdualstrategy—aparadoxical
strategy—ofcandorandreconciliation.Toughrhetoricandatthesametimean
offerofdiplomaticengagement—manyoffersofdiplomaticengagement.Butit
didsomethingelse:Itrejectedcontainment.ItsaidtheSovietUnionisaboutto
collapseandwe'regonnapushit.That'sallit'severreallyneeded.Andwe'renot
goingtostayonoursideofthefiftyyardlineanymore.5
Thirty-fiveyearslater,itisdifficulttofullyappreciatetheboldnessofthisapproach.Butaftera
longhistoryofdétente,withU.S.presidentsstrivingtoappeasetheSovietUnion,Reagantook
amoreaggressiveand,inasense,idealisticapproach.Reagan'sstrength,writesColdWar
historianJohnLewisGaddis,"layinhisabilitytoseebeyondcomplexitytosimplicity.Andwhat
hesawwassimplythis:thatbecausedétenteperpetuated—andhadbeenmeantto
perpetuate—theColdWar,onlykillingdétentecouldendtheColdWar."6
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Twospeechesinparticular—Reagan’s1982AddresstoMembersoftheBritish
Parliament,andhis1983speechtotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals—setforthhisnew
visionofAmericanforeignpolicyandprovidedafoundationforhislaterspeechesinNormandy.
ReaganAttorneyGeneralandconfidanteEdwinMeeselaterwrotethatthesetwospeeches
weresignificantbecausethey"setforth[Reagan's]viewofcommunism,theSovietsystem,and
therequiredfreeworldresponseincomprehensivefashion."7Thus,abriefconsiderationof
Reagan's1982speechatWestminsterandhisso-called“EvilEmpire”speechthefollowingyear
isnecessarytoappreciatefullythecontextforhisspeechesatNormandyin1984.
OnJune8,1982,ReaganspoketomembersoftheBritishParliamentintheRoyal
GalleryofWestminster.Inthisspeech,thepresidentpromisedsupportforEuropeannations
seekingfreedomfromSovietdomination,intheprocesspredictingthat"themarchoffreedom
anddemocracy...willleaveMarxism-Leninismontheash-heapofhistory."Healsospokeof
thespecialpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain,onethatwascemented
duringWorldWarIIandfosteredbyPresidentRooseveltandPrimeMinisterChurchill.As
leadersontheworldstage,ReagandeclaredthattheUnitedStatesandGreatBritainhada
responsibilitytolearnfromthemistakesofWorldWarIIandactas"[f]reepeople,worthyof
freedomanddeterminednotonlytoremainsobuttohelpothersgaintheirfreedomaswell."8
Reflectingontheaddressafterhispresidency,Reagancalledit"oneofthemostimportant
speechesIgaveaspresident."Henotedthatalthoughmanyconsidered1982awatershedyear
forhisdomesticandeconomicpolicyinitiatives,"therealstoryof1982isthatwebegan
applyingconservatismtoforeignaffairs."9TheWestminsterAddresswasReagan'sopportunity
tochartanewcourseforU.S.foreignpolicyandrenewtheUnitedStates'partnershipwith
GreatBritain.AlthoughReagan'swillingnesstorelegateSovietcommunismtothe"ash-heapof
history"strucksomecriticsasrecklessandnaïve,hispredictionprovedcorrectovertime.10
ThesecondspeechthatbearsmentionisRonaldReagan'sMarch8,1983addressatthe
annualmeetingoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicalsinOrlando,Florida.Althoughthe
speechwasdesignedforareligiousaudience,Reagan'sremarksreceivedbothpraiseand
criticismfordescribingcommunisminexplicitlymoralterms.Hecalledonhisaudiencetoresist
thetemptation"toignorethefactsofhistoryandtheaggressiveimpulsesofanevilempire,to
simplycallthearmsraceagiantmisunderstandingandtherebyremoveyourselffromthe
strugglebetweenrightandwrongandgoodandevil."Reaganalsomaintainedthatthestruggle
betweendemocracyandcommunismwasnotultimatelyamatterofmilitarymight,buta
spiritualchallenge—“atestofmoralwillandfaith."11InsteadofsimplypresentingU.S.
democracyandSovietcommunismastwocompetingviewsoftheworld,Reaganpronounced
onegoodandtheotherevil,withtheU.S.onthesideofwhatwasrightandgood.Assuch,the
nationhadaresponsibilitytoextenddemocraticlibertiestothosestilloppressedbySoviet
communism.12
ThesetwospeechesestablishedanimportantfoundationforReagan'slaterspeechesat
Normandyinatleasttwoways.First,thepresident'saddressatWestminsterandhis“Evil
Empire”speechemphasizedtheneedforashareddemocraticalliancebetweentheUnited
StatesandotherWesterndemocracies,mostnotablyGreatBritain.In1982,thepresident
emphasizedthevitalityofaU.S.-Britishpartnershipthroughouthistory.HeremindedhisBritish
audience(andtheU.S.audienceathome)thatthetwonationshadworkedtogethertodefeat
NaziGermany,therebylinkingtheworldsituationin1941withthecurrentstruggleagainst
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Sovietcommunism.Reaganarguedthat"[i]fhistoryteachesanythingitteachesthatselfdelusioninthefaceofunpleasantfactsisfolly,”andhepraisedPrimeMinisterWinston
Churchill'scourageousleadershipduring"thedarkdaysoftheSecondWorldWar."Thechoice
in1982wasthesameasitwasduringWorldWarII:WouldtheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain
standstrongorlet"freedomwitherinaquiet,deadeningaccommodationwithtotalitarian
evil?"Attheendofhisspeech,Reaganansweredhisownquestion:"[T]ogether...[l]etusnow
beginamajorefforttosecurethebest—acrusadeforfreedomthatwillengagethefaithand
fortitudeofthenextgeneration."13ThisexplicitlinkbetweentheAlliedcauseinWorldWarII
andthepresentsituationcontinuedinReagan'sD-Daycommemorationsin1984.
ThesecondwaythesespeechesprovidedafoundationforReagan'srhetoricat
NormandywasinhisportrayaloftheColdWarasamoralstrugglebetweengoodandevil.
Reagan'sdeclarationthatcommunismwasan"evilempire"wasradicalin1983;allprevious
U.S.presidentshadarguedforapolicyofaccommodationanddétentetowardstheSoviet
Union.WhenReaganspokeatNormandyin1984,hesoftenedhistonebutstillhintedatthe
underlyingspiritualethicoffightingtotalitarianism.ReaganreferredtotheAllies'"rockhard
beliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere;thatGod
wasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).14NamingGodasan"ally,"thepresident
arguedthatProvidencewasonthesideofthosewhofoughtNaziGermany.Hestatedthatthe
Allieswere"boundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties,traditions,and
beliefs"(PointeduHoc,24).Linkingthepresentstrugglebetweendemocracyandcommunism
toWorldWarII,ReaganimplicitlyarguedthatGodwasonstillonAmerica’ssidein1984.
SettingtheStageatNormandy
RonaldReagan's1984visittoNormandywaspartofaten-dayEuropeantourdesigned
tostrengthenU.S.tieswithitsWesternallies,particularlyGreatBritain,France,andIreland.
"[O]urobjective,"wroteNationalSecurityAdvisorRobertC.McFarlanetoDeputyChiefofStaff
MichaelK.Deaver,"bythetimethetripiscompleted,willbetoreassertU.S.interestina
strongerandviableEuropewithinalargerpolicycontextembracingboththeAtlanticand
Pacificcommunities,whilestressingshareddemocraticvalues."15Accordingtothe“Public
DiplomacyActionPlan”thatMcFarlaneincludedwithhismemorandumtoDeaver,the"Primary
Perception"theWhiteHousesoughttoadvancewasthatofa"StrongPresidentandthe
AmericanRenewal:assertiveleadershipisessentialtoworldpeaceandprosperity."16
TheWhiteHousechosespecificgeographiclocationsthatwouldhighlightthesethemes.
InanApril1984memo,WilliamFlynnMartin,theDirectorofInternationalEconomicAffairsfor
theNationalSecurityCouncil,notedthatcertainplaceswouldplayasignificantroleinthe
president'strip.HewrotethatReagan'svisitstoIreland,Normandy,andLondonwould
"providethePresidentwithanidealbackdropforhisthemesofpeaceandprosperityandthe
importanceofAlliedsupportandcooperationintheachievementofboth."17But,asSecretary
ofStateGeorgeP.Schultznoted,thepresident'svisittoNormandywasparticularlysignificant:
"ThepublicrelationshighlightofyourtriptoEuropewillundoubtedlybethecelebrationsin
Normandy....Theintensemediainterestprovidesanopportunityforyoupersonally,and
alliedleadersasagroup,toreachanunprecedentedaudienceonbothsidesoftheAtlantic."18
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HistorianDouglasBrinkleyprovidessomeinsightintohowReagan'svisittoNormandy
wouldlinkthesacrificesofWorldWarIIwiththepresentmoment.HerecallsaTimecoverstory
thatranonMay28,1984,entitled"D-Day:FortyYearsAftertheGreatCrusade."Anunderlined
copyofthisarticlesitsinthespeechwritingfilesattheReaganLibrary.LanceMorrow,the
authorofthearticle,wrotethatWorldWarIIveteranswould"goupagaintoPointeduHocand
shaketheirheadsagaininwonderatthemenwhoclimbedthatsheercliffwhileGermansfired
downstraightintotheirfaces."Ofmoreimportance,however,isMorrow'sclaimthatthe
fortiethanniversaryofD-Daywould"becometheelectionyearsymboloftheReagan
administration'sNewPatriotism."AccordingtoMorrow,
TheceremoniesinNormandywillcelebratethevictoryandmournthedead.
Theywillalsomournthemoralclaritythathasbeenlost,asenseofcommon
purposethathasallbutevaporated.Neveragain,perhaps,wouldtheAlliesso
handsomelycollaborate.TheinvasionofNormandywasathunderouslyheroic
blowdealttotheevilempire.Neveragain,itmaybe,wouldwarseemso
unimpeachablyright,sonecessaryandjust.Neveragain,perhaps,would
Americanpowerandmoralitysoperfectlycoincide.19
Inthisarticle,Brinkleyexplains,Morrowdemonstrated"howtheD-Daystoryhadspellbinding,
redemptivequalitiesthatReagancouldselltoColdWarAmerica....Morrow,perhapsplacing
himselfintothePresident'smind-setorpsyche,explainedD-DaytoTimereadersasan
Americanreligiousfableorsterlingfolkloremoment."20Ofcourse,Morrow'sdecisionto
describeNaziGermanyas"theevilempire"wasmostcertainlyadirectreferencetoReagan's
earliercharacterizationoftheSovietUnion.Althoughtheextenttowhichthisarticleinfluenced
theReaganspeechwritersisnotclear,itaccuratelypredictedhowReagan'sspeechesatPointe
duHocandOmahaBeachwouldtapintothemythicheroismofD-Day.
ReaganmadethreestopsinNormandyonJune6,1984—PointeduHoc,OmahaBeach,
andUtahBeach—anddeliveredpreparedremarksatthefirsttwosites.Inowanalyzebothof
thesespeechesinturnthrougharchivalsources,historicalaccounts,andclosetextualcriticism
toilluminatehowReaganusedthisoccasiontohonorthesoldierswhofoughttoliberate
FrancefromNazityrannyandcalluponhispresent-dayaudience"tocontinuetostandforthe
idealsforwhichtheylivedanddied"(PointeduHoc26).
ReaganatPointeduHoc
AlthoughRonaldReaganwoulddelivertwoaddressesonthefortiethanniversaryofDDay,theWhiteHousesawPointeduHocasespeciallysignificant.21InaMay1984
memorandumtoReagan,SecretaryofStateGeorgeP.SchultzwroteofPointeduHoc:
ItwashereonJune6,1944thattheUSArmyRangersscaledthecliffsunder
heavyfireandsecuredtheareatoprotectthelandingsatOmahaandUtah
Beaches…Hereyouwillmakeyourprincipalstatementoftheday--a15minute
speechstressingthebraveryofthefallenandthesurvivorsofthisbattleand
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emphasizingthatNormandymarkedthebeginningofacontinuousU.S.
commitmenttothesecurityofEurope.22
Inthismemo,SecretarySchultzstressedtheforeignpolicygoalsofReagan’saddress:
memorializethedead,honortheliving,andshowhowtheeventsofD-Dayworkedto
strengthenU.S.-Europeantiesinthefuture.AspeechdraftfromtheNationalSecurityCouncil
commentedonthesymbolismofPointeduHoc:“TheCliffswhichfallawaytothisoftenrough
seawitnessedextraordinaryheroism.Fortyyearsago—aspartofagreatAlliedeffort—brave
AmericanRangersscaledtheseheightsunderfire.Thisceremonyandthisplacehonors
them.”23ThepersuasivepowerofPointeduHocasplacecontinuedthroughoutsuccessive
speechdraftsleadinguptoReagan’saddress.AhandwrittennoteonthetopofaMay21,1984
speechdraftsummarizedthespeech’soverarchingtheme:“PointeduHocasymbolofour
selflesseffort—againstimpossibleoddsmenwillingtodogreatdeeds.”24Thisnotationhinted
attheconnectionReaganwoulddrawbetweentheU.S.ArmyRangers’heroicactionin1944
andtheUnitedStates’ongoingcommitmenttodefendingdemocracyagainstSoviet
expansion.25
WhiteHousespeechwriterPeggyNoonanwastaskedwithwritingReagan'sspeechat
PointeduHoc.InhermemoirofheryearsattheWhiteHouse,shedescribedthechallengeof
craftingaspeechthatwoulduse"big,emotionalwordsandimagesso[theWhiteHouseOffice
of]advanceandMikeDeaverwouldbehappy"butalsoretellthestoryofD-Daysoanyone,
youngorold,wouldunderstandwhatthedaysymbolizedfortheAlliesin1944andfreedomlovingnationsin1984."IthoughtthatifIcouldgetatwhatimpelledtheRangerstodowhat
theydid,"shewrote,"Icoulduseittosuggestwhatimpelsuseachdayasweliveasanationin
theworld.Thiswouldremindbothusandouralliesofwhatitisthatholdsustogether."26
Noonanwrotefortwoaudiences:theU.S.publicwatchingthespeechonthemorning
news,andReagan'simmediateaudienceinFrance,particularlythesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangers
whohadclimbedthecliffs.SheknewthatthespeechwouldbebroadcastliveintheUnited
States,27andsheimaginedthe"kidswatchingTVathomeinthekitchenatbreakfast."By
describingtheeventsofD-Day,Noonanwantedtoplace"itallintimeandspaceformyselfand,
byextension,fortheaudience.Ifwereallylistentoandhearthesnapoftheflags,therealityof
thatsound...willhelpusimaginewhatitsoundedlikeonD-Day.Andthatwouldhelpus
imaginewhatD-Dayitselfwaslike....Historyisreal."28Byusingtheimagesofsightandsmell
andsound,Noonansaidshe"wantedAmericanteenagerstostopchewingtheirRiceKrispies
foraminuteandhearaboutthegreatnessofthosetoughkidswhoarenowtheirgrandfathers.
...Pause,sinkin,bringitbacktonow,historyisreal."29ThegoalwastohelptheU.S.audience,
althoughfarremovedfromthesceneofbattle,toconnectpasthistorywiththepresent.
AsimportantastheU.S.publicwas,Noonanstructuredthespeechsothepresident
couldspeakdirectlytotheheroesofhisstory:thesurvivingU.S.ArmyRangerswhowereinthe
audienceforthespeech.Inthemidstofherpreparations,theheadofReagan'sadvanceoffice
toldNoonanthatthemenwhoscaledthecliffsofPointeduHocwouldbesittingrightinfront
ofReaganashespoke.Noonanlaterrecalledhowthisinformationchangedherapproachto
thespeech:"[T]heRangersweregoingtobesittingalltogetherinthefrontrows,sittingright
therefivefeetfromthepresident....Wellthenheshouldreferdirectlytothem.Heshouldtalk
tothem.Heshoulddescribewhattheydidandthensay—....'ThesearetheboysofPointedu
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Hoc.'"30Bytalking"directlytothem,"Reagancouldcelebratetheirheroicactionsandcallonhis
audiencetoshowsimilarresolveandbraveryinthefightbetweendemocracyandcommunism.
PresidentReaganspokewithhisbacktotheEnglishChannel,withthe"boysofPointe
duHoc"seatedonbothsidesofhim.Thisstagingwasdeliberate.Amiscellaneousnote
scratchedonthebackofaWhiteHousenotepaddescribedthesetup:"RRstandsinfrontof
memorialdaggerw/Rangers,Mrs.Rudder&Mrs.Reaganseatedinfrontonsamelevel–In
horseshoe–vetsdependents[,]otherveterans[,]VIP–militarybrass[,]official.RRwon'teven
beannounced.Nooneelsespeaks."31Thisarrangementhadseveralimportanteffects.
AlthoughU.S.presidentsmostoftenspeakfromanelevatedpodiumorplatformatsome
distancefromtheaudience,Reagansituatedhimselfonthe"samelevel"astheU.S.Army
Rangers.Thepresidentandthe"boysofPointeduHoc"werefeaturedtogetherontheelevated
stage,withthelargeraudienceassembledaroundthestageina"horseshoe"formation.This
allowedtworhetoricalexchangestooccursimultaneously.Inthefirst,Reaganspokedirectlyto
anintimategroupofsixty-twoU.S.ArmyRangerswhohadfoughttosecuretheverygroundon
whichtheysat.Inthesecond,theU.S.ArmyRangersworkedalongsideReaganassilent
symbols,theirphysicalpresencetestifyingtothissacredoccasionandwhatD-Daymeantfor
futuregenerations.Forthebroaderaudienceassembledaroundthestage,itwasimpossibleto
lookatReaganwithoutseeingtheU.S.ArmyRangersoneitherside.Thesecondpartofthe
noterevealsanunusualdeparturefromprotocol.Thepresidentwasneverannouncedtothe
audience,butinsteadsimplywalkedupbehindthepodium(whichdidnotcontainthetypical
presidentialseal)andbegantospeak.Thisdecisionworkedasasubtlereminderthatthe
presidentwasnotthefeaturedheadlinerofthisevent.Instead,"theboysofPointeduHoc"
werethemainattraction.
Reaganbeganhisaddressbyrecallingwhatwasbeingcommemorated:"We'rehereto
markthatdayinhistorywhentheAlliedarmiesjoinedinbattletoreclaimthiscontinentto
liberty"(PointeduHoc,1).Inthisopeningpassage,Reaganinvitedtheaudiencetoimaginethe
historicalcontextofJune6,1944."For4longyears,muchofEuropehadbeenunderaterrible
shadow.Freenationshadfallen,Jewscriedoutinthecamps,millionscriedoutforliberation.
Europewasenslaved,andtheworldprayedforitsrescue"(PointeduHoc,1).Thelackof
conjunctionsunderscoredtherelationshipsamongtheseevents,andReagan'sdualuseof
"cried"emphasizedthehorrorofNazioccupationandtheconcentrationcamps,asifthe
sufferingcontinued,unbound,withnoendinsight.Thesestylisticdevicescreatedadistinct
rhythmthatsetthetone—solemn,reverent,patriotic—fortherestofthespeech.
Inaddition,Reaganusedwordsthatvividlyfusedthepresentmomentwiththepast
actionsoftheheroicAlliedforces.Heshiftedabruptlyfromthepasttothepresenttodescribe
theimmediatescene—“alonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance"—andto
contrastthatscenetothemayhemofbattlefortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2).Althoughthe
airwasnow"soft,"Reaganremindedhisaudiencethat"40yearsagoatthismoment,theair
wasdensewithsmokeandthecriesofmen,andtheairwasfilledwiththecrackofriflefireand
theroarofcannon"(PointeduHoc,2).Thesepowerfulmetaphorsofsight,sound,andsmell
madetherealitiesofwarviscerallypresent.Boomingverbs,suchas"crack"and"roar,"
anchoredthesentence,causingittoflowrhythmicallyandheavily,almostlikethesharp
poppingofartillery.
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Afterpositioningtheaudienceintimeandplace,Reaganreferredrepeatedlytothe
physicalspaceasacatalystfortheU.S.ArmyRangers'actions.
Atdawn,onthemorningofthe6thofJune,1944,225Rangersjumpedoffthe
Britishlandingcraftandrantothebottomofthesecliffs.Theirmissionwasone
ofthemostdifficultanddaringoftheinvasion:toclimbthesesheerand
desolatecliffsandtakeouttheenemyguns.TheAllieshadbeentoldthatsome
ofthemightiestofthesegunswerehereandtheywouldbetrainedonthe
beachestostoptheAlliedadvance.TheRangerslookedupandsawtheenemy
soldiers--theedgeofthecliffsshootingdownatthemwithmachinegunsand
throwinggrenades.AndtheAmericanRangersbegantoclimb.Theyshotrope
laddersoverthefaceofthesecliffsandbegantopullthemselvesup.Whenone
Rangerfell,anotherwouldtakehisplace.Whenoneropewascut,aRanger
wouldgrabanotherandbeginhisclimbagain.Theyclimbed,shotback,andheld
theirfooting.Soon,onebyone,theRangerspulledthemselvesoverthetop,and
inseizingthefirmlandatthetopofthesecliffs,theybegantoseizebackthe
continentofEurope.(PointeduHoc,2-3)
Inthispassage,Reaganreliedonwhatwasvisuallyevidentandphysicallypresent:the"sheer
anddesolatecliffs,"thebeachheadatthe"bottomofthesecliffs,"andthehazardousclimbto
the"topofthesecliffs."Throughhisrepeatedreferencesto"thesecliffs,"Reaganremindedhis
audiencethattheyweresittingontopoftheverycliffswheretheU.S.ArmyRangershad
foughtanddied.Insodoing,Reaganbroughtthepresentaudienceintothepast,invitingthem
torespondkinestheticallytotheimageoftheRangersjumpingofflandingcraftandrunning
towardthecliffsuponwhichtheywereseated.Itwouldbenearlyimpossibletolistento
Reagan'snarrativeasamemberoftheimmediateaudienceandnotrealizethatonewasseated
intheexactspotfromwhichtheGermansoldiersfireddownupontheRangers“with
machinegunsand...grenades.”Inthatmomentofcommemoration,withflagsandhonor
guardsandwell-dresseddignitaries,thecontrastbetweenpastandpresentwasstark.TheU.S.
ArmyRangersscaledthecliffssothisaudience,manyofwhomwerebutchildrenonJune6,
1944,couldcommemoratetheirheroicsacrificefortyyearslater.
Uptothispointinthespeech,ReaganhadbeendescribingtheAlliedadvanceonPointe
duHocasaneventinthepast.Althoughthepresidenthadconnectedtheimmediatesceneof
D-Daytothepresent("thesecliffs"werethesamein1944and1984),hecouldhavebeen
referringtoaneventthattookplacetwohundredyearsearlier.However,afterrecountinghow
theU.S.ArmyRangersclimbedtothetopofthesecliffsand,indoingso,"begantoseizeback
thecontinentofEurope,"Reaganintroducedthehumanactorswholinkedthepastwiththe
present.
Twohundredandtwenty-fivecamehere.After2daysoffighting,only90could
stillbeararms.BehindmeisamemorialthatsymbolizestheRangerdaggersthat
werethrustintothetopofthesecliffs.Andbeforemearethemenwhoput
themthere.ThesearetheboysofPointeduHoc.Thesearethemenwhotook
thecliffs.Thesearethechampionswhohelpedfreeacontinent.Thesearethe
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
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heroeswhohelpedendawar.Gentlemen,IlookatyouandIthinkofthewords
ofStephenSpender'spoem.Youaremenwhoinyour"livesfoughtforlife...
andleftthevividairsignedwithyourhonor."(PointeduHoc,3-6)
Inthispassage,ReaganreferredtotheU.S.ArmyRangersseatedbeforehim:"Thesearethe
boysofPointeduHoc."Thepresidentusedthesameword,"these,"todescribeboth"these
cliffs"and"these...boys....men....champions....[and]heroeswhohelpedendawar."
ThiswordchoiceallowedReagantodrawtheaudience'sattentiontothejaggedrocksdirectly
behindhimandtheelderlymeninfrontofhim.Afterrecountingthehistoricalnarrative,the
presidentintroducedthemainactorsofhisstory:theboysofPointeduHoc.Inaclimax
construction,Reaganredefinedhowthisstrugglehadchangedthesewarriors.Initially,they
were"theboysofPointeduHoc."Thentheybecame"themenwhotookthecliffs....the
championswhohelpedfreeacontinent."Nowtheywere"theheroeswhohelpedendawar."
Throughthisconstruction,ReagandescribedtheU.S.ArmyRangers'climbasamovement
towardmaturity;astheytookthecliffs,theyweretransformedfromboystochampions.Inthis
way,theirbodiesshiftedthediscoursefromtheimaginarytotheimmediate.TheRangers
becamepartofReagan'srhetoricaltext,alivingrepresentationofwhathadhappenedforty
yearsago.
ReaganthenlinkedthesebravementootherAlliedtroops,usingvignettesvividintheir
specificitytodescribeothersoldiersandnationswhohadfoughtbesidetheU.S.ArmyRangers
(PointeduHoc,7-10).ScottishsoldierBillMillinofthe51stHighlanderscheerfullyplayedhis
bagpipesasheledagroupofreinforcementstorescueBritishsoldierstrappednearabridge,
andLordLovatofScotlandapologizedforbeing"afewminuteslate"comingfrom"thebloody
fightingonSwordBeach,whichheandhismenhadjusttaken"(PointeduHoc,7-8).There
wereothers,too.Reaganpraisedthe"impossiblevalorofthePoleswhothrewthemselves
betweentheenemyandtherestofEuropeastheinvasiontookhold,andtheunsurpassed
courageoftheCanadianswhohadalreadyseenthehorrorsofwaronthiscoast.Theyknew
whatawaitedthemthere,buttheywouldnotbedeterred"(PointeduHoc,9).Reagan
enumerated"arollcallofhonor":theRoyalWinnipegRifles,Poland's24thLancers,theRoyal
ScotsFusiliers,theScreamingEagles,theYeomenofEngland'sarmoreddivisions,theforcesof
FreeFrance,andtheCoastGuard's"MatchboxFleet"(PointeduHoc,10).Byspecificallynaming
thesegroups,thepresidentmadetheirsacrificespresenttotheassembledaudienceand
emphasizedthattheU.S.Rangershadnotwonthebattlealone.Thislistingalsounderscored
theneedforAlliedcooperationinthepresent-daystruggleagainstSovietcommunism.
AfterrecognizingtheothernationsthatfoughttofreeEurope,Reaganreturnedtothe
heroesofhisstory.HerecalledhowyoungtheRangerswereandfocusedhisaudience's
attentionontheirmoralresolve:
Fortysummershavepassedsincethebattlethatyoufoughthere.Youwere
youngthedayyoutookthesecliffs;someofyouwerehardlymorethanboys,
withthedeepestjoysoflifebeforeyou.Yet,youriskedeverythinghere.Why?
Whydidyoudoit?Whatimpelledyoutoputasidetheinstinctforselfpreservationandriskyourlivestotakethesecliffs?Whatinspiredallthemenof
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thearmiesthatmethere?Welookatyou,andsomehowweknowtheanswer.It
wasfaithandbelief.Itwasloyaltyandlove.(PointeduHoc,11)
Thepresidentexplainedthatasheandtherestoftheaudiencelookedatthem,theycould
understandwhytheyriskedeverythingtoseizethecliffsofPointeduHoc.Thesemen,although
greyandfrail,werethelivingproofthattheAlliesunderstoodthe"profound,moraldifference
betweentheuseofforceforliberationandtheuseofforceforconquest"(PointeduHoc,12).
AsReagantranslatedtheheroicactionsofthemensittingbeforehim,heshiftedthe
speechtotransformcommemorationintofutureresolveforthelargeraudience."Youallknew
thatsomethingsareworthdyingfor.One'scountryisworthdyingfor,anddemocracyisworth
dyingfor,becauseit'sthemostdeeplyhonorableformofgovernmenteverdevisedbyman"
(PointeduHoc,13).Thisboldclaimpositioneddemocraticfreedomaboveallother
governmentalstructures,inparticularthe"tyranny"themenofNormandycametofight:"Allof
youwerewillingtofighttyranny,andyouknewthepeopleofyourcountrieswerebehindyou"
(PointeduHoc,13).ReaganthenlinkedtheRangerstothoseathomewhosupportedthem,
identifyingparticulargroupsofcitizensintheirspecificlocales.In"Georgiatheywerefillingthe
churchesat4a.m.,inKansastheywerekneelingontheirporchesandpraying,andin
PhiladelphiatheywereringingtheLibertyBell"(PointeduHoc,14).Healsoevokedtheir
"rockhardbeliefthatProvidencewouldhaveagreathandintheeventsthatwouldunfoldhere;
thatGodwasanallyinthisgreatcause"(PointeduHoc,15).Again,sharplydrawnexamples
madethatpointintensely.HetoldofLt.Col.RobertLeeWolverton,commanderofthe101st
AirborneDivisionoftheU.S.Army,whoaskedhisparachutetroopstokneelwithhiminprayer,
butwhosaid:"Donotbowyourheads,butlookupsoyoucanseeGodandaskHisblessingin
whatwe'reabouttodo"(PointeduHoc,15).HetoldofGeneralMatthewRidgway,whorelied
forstrengthontheBible,"listeninginthedarknessforthepromiseGodmadetoJoshua:'Iwill
notfailtheenorforsakethee'"(PointeduHoc,15).Reaganrecreatedthebattle,thefearsand
hopesofthosewhofoughtthere,andinsodoingrecreatedintensepatrioticandreligious
feelingsabouttherightnessofthecauseforwhichtheU.S.andAlliedforcesfoughtanddied.
Inthesecondhalfofhisspeech,ReaganlinkedtheAlliedvictoryonD-Daytopresent
andfutureactionbytheUnitedStatesanditsEuropeanallies.Thepresidentassumedhisrole
ashistoricalnarrator,moralguide,andinterpreterofimportantevents."Whenthewarwas
over,therewerelivestoberebuiltandgovernmentstobereturnedtothepeople.Therewere
nationstobereborn.Aboveall,therewasanewpeacetobeassured.Thesewerehugeand
dauntingtasks.ButtheAlliessummonedstrengthfromthefaith,belief,loyalty,andloveof
thosewhofellhere"(PointeduHoc,17).ReagandescribedAlliedeffortstorebuildEurope,
includingtheMarshallPlanandtheAtlanticAlliance.Butdespite"ourgreateffortsand
successes...[s]omeliberatedcountrieswerelost.Thegreatsadnessofthislossechoesdown
toourowntimeinthestreetsofWarsaw,Prague,andEastBerlin"(PointeduHoc,19).Once
again,thepresidentmadetheselossestangibleandspecific.Thetragedywas,inhiswords,that
"Soviettroops...didnotleavewhenpeacecame.They'restillthere,uninvited,unwanted,
unyielding,almost40yearsafterthewar.Becauseofthis,alliedforcesstillstandonthis
continent"(PointeduHoc,19).Thepresent-daySovietpresenceinEuropewasacontinuation
oftheSecondWorldWar,implyingthattherewasstillmoretoaccomplishevenaftertheAllied
victoryin1944.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
30
Inthefinalminutesofthespeech,Reaganofferedthemoraltothisstory,explaining
whatwastobelearnedfromtheseevents:
Itisbettertobeherereadytoprotectthepeace,thantotakeblindshelter
acrossthesea,rushingtorespondonlyafterfreedomislost.We'velearnedthat
isolationismneverwasandneverwillbeanacceptableresponsetotyrannical
governmentswithanexpansionistintent.(PointeduHoc,20)
Yetlearningwasnotenough;specificactionswerenecessary."[W]etryalwaystobeprepared
forpeace;preparedtodeteraggression;preparedtonegotiatethereductionofarms;andyes,
preparedtoreachoutagaininthespiritofreconciliation"(PointeduHoc,21).Therhythm
underscoredtheimportanceofpreparingtorespondtopossibilitiesandrisks.Reaganstated
thattheUnitedStateswelcomedreconciliationwiththeSovietUnionsothatbothcountries
could"lessentherisksofwar,nowandforever"(PointeduHoc,21).Theshiftwassubtleand
somewhatunexpected,thelanguagereflectingadesiretoreuniteinaneffortthatechoedtheir
pastalliance.
Thisspiritofreconciliationwasunderscoredbyhispublicrecognitionof"thegreat
lossesalsosufferedbytheRussianpeopleduringWorldWarII:20millionperished,aterrible
pricethattestifiestoalltheworldthenecessityofendingwar"(PointeduHoc,22).The
NationalSecurityCouncilandStateDepartmenthadpushedthespeechwritingstafftoinclude
thisline,notingthat"anadditionofashortparagraphalludingtoSovietlosses...willassistus
inmaintainingthemoralhighgroundwehavesecuredinourpublicdiplomacystrugglewiththe
Soviets."32ReaganusedthisinclusiontostressthattheUnitedStatesdidnotdesirewar,but
wanted"towipefromthefaceoftheEarththeterribleweaponsthatmannowhasinhis
hands"(PointeduHoc,22).However,ReaganplacedresponsibilityontheSovietUnion,stating
thattheRussiansneededtodemonstratea"desireandloveforpeace,andthattheywillgive
upthewaysofconquest"sothattheUnitedStatescould"turnourhopeintoaction"(Pointedu
Hoc,22).
Afterdescribinghisvisionforapost-ColdWarworld,Reaganreturnedtotheimmediate
sceneandspokeinhisownvoiceasU.S.president.Hecalledonhisaudiencetorededicate
themselvestothevaluesforwhichtheAlliesfoughtanddied.Atthisceremony
commemoratingthefortiethanniversaryofD-Day,hestatedthatitwas"goodandfittingto
renewourcommitmenttoeachother,toourfreedom,andtothealliancethatprotectsit"
(PointeduHoc,23).Hethenconcluded:
Weareboundtodaybywhatboundus40yearsago,thesameloyalties,
traditions,andbeliefs.We'reboundbyreality.ThestrengthofAmerica'salliesis
vitaltotheUnitedStates,andtheAmericansecurityguaranteeisessentialtothe
continuedfreedomofEurope'sdemocracies.Wewerewithyouthen;weare
withyounow.Yourhopesareourhopes,andyourdestinyisourdestiny.Here,
inthisplacewheretheWestheldtogether,letusmakeavowtoourdead.Letus
showthembyouractionsthatweunderstandwhattheydiedfor....
Strengthenedbytheircourageandheartenedbytheirvalue[valor],andborne
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
31
bytheirmemory,letuscontinuetostandfortheidealsforwhichtheylivedand
died.(PointeduHoc24-26)
Inthisconclusion,ReagandirectedhisaudienceyetagaintotheU.S.ArmyRangersseated
beforehimatPointeduHocandthoseburiedattheNormandyAmericanCemeterydownthe
road.Thesemenweretheliving,enduringlinkbetweenthepastandpresent.Theyhadrisked
andevengiventheirlives;howcouldtheAlliedcoalitionnothonortheirsacrifice?Here,inthis
sacredplace,ReaganspokeasnationalpriestandcalledontheAlliestoconsecratethemselves
tothetasksetbeforethem.This"lonely,windsweptpointonthenorthernshoreofFrance"
was"theplacewheretheWestheldtogether"fortyyearsearlier(PointeduHoc,2;25).Now,
withnuclearwarasaveryrealthreattohumanity,whatmightPointeduHocsymbolizefor
relationsbetweentheSovietUnionandtheWesternallies?Inhisspeech,Reaganreconstituted
theveryplaceforwhichmenfoughtanddiedtocallonWesternleaderstostandagainst
communismwhileseekingpeacewithRussia.Althoughmanyintheimmediateaudiencewere
notpresentatPointeduHocin1944,thepresidentinvitedthemtobecomefellowsoldiersfor
thecauseofdemocraticfreedomanddemonstratetheirmoralresolveto"standfortheideals
forwhich[theAlliedsoldiersin1944]livedanddied"(PointeduHoc,26).
ReaganatOmahaBeach
AfterdeliveringhisspeechatPointeduHoc,thepresidentgreetedthesurvivingU.S.
ArmyRangersandthendepartedviahelicopterforOmahaBeachforajointceremonywith
FrenchPresidentFrançoisMitterrand.WherethePointeduHoceventwas"strictlyanAmerican
commemoration,"Reagan'sremarksatOmahaBeachwerepartofalargerAlliedceremony."At
OmahaBeach,"explainedaSecretarySchultzinabriefingmemorandumtoReagan,"youwill
bejoinedbyPresidentMitterrandandotherFrenchofficialsinpayingtributetotheAmerican
commitmenttotheliberationofFrance....BothyouandPresidentMitterrandwillmakebrief
remarksatthisevent.Yourswillstressthethemeofabroadenedwesternsolidarityevolving
fromthewartimealliance."33Oneofficialscheduledescribedthisceremonyasa"Joint
Ceremonywithbriefremarks,"34andanotherdocumentnotedthe"timeguidelines"of"3-5
minutes"forthepresident'sremarksatOmahaBeach.35Andalthoughthisceremonywasto
stresstheU.S.-FrenchpartnershipduringtheSecondWorldWar,Reaganprovidedanother
vividnarrativeofoneU.S.soldiertoencapsulatethestoryofD-Day.
AnthonyDolanwasassignedtheOmahaBeachremarksandstructuredthespeech
aroundoneparticularaccountfromLisaZanattaHenn,thedaughterofaD-Dayveteran.Ina
letterdatedMarch15,1984,ZanattaHennwrotetoReaganaskingforhisassistancein
attendingtheU.S.ceremonyatNormandyinJune."DearMr.President,"shewrote,"Myfather,
PeterRobertZanatta,PFC,37thEngineerCombatBattalion,landedontheFirstWaveofOmaha
BeachonDDay.Thiseventwasprobablythemostimportanteventofhislife.Healways
plannedtogobacksomeday.Sinceheisnolongerliving—mymother,brothers,andIare
planningtoattend.Wewouldliketoattendnotjustastouristsbutasrepresentativesofthe
UnitedStates."36Inthisletter,ZanattaHennenclosedabriefbutmovingnarrativeshewrote
aboutherfather,portionsofwhichReaganwouldreadaloudatOmahaBeach.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
32
ColonelM.P.Caulfield,DeputyDirectoroftheWhiteHouseMilitaryOffice,responded
toLisaZanattaHenn'sletteronMay10,1984,stating,"[t]hePresidenthasrequestedthe
SecretaryofDefensetoincludeyouandyourfamilyontheUnitedStatesInvitationListforthe
OmahaBeachcommemorationonthe6thofJune."CaulfieldspecifiedthattheU.S.government
wasunabletoprovidetravelarrangementstoZanattaHennandherfamily,buthedidstate
thattheywould"begivenwhateverassistanceisrequiredonceyouarriveinFrance."37
Reagan'spersonalsecretary,Kathleen"Kathy"Osborne,sharedCaulfield'sresponsewiththe
president,writing:"IranthisbyDickDarmanandhethoughtthatpage4ofthisletter[Zanatta
Henn'snarrative]mightbeusefultospeechwritersforpossibleuseinEuropeorforradio
speechfromEurope.Anyobjections?"Reagan'sresponse:"NOTATALL."Thepresidentthen
added,"IfLisa'sproblemisinabilitytoaffordtransportationhowaboutapvt.[private]initiative
toraisemoneyforsomepeoplelikethis?"38ItisunclearwhetherReagan'ssuggestionfora
privatefundraisinginitiativeeveroccurred.However,wedoknowthatthePresidentandMrs.
ReagandidmeetprivatelywithLisaZanattaHenn,hermother,andherthreebrothersforten
minutespriortothepresident'sspeechatOmahaBeachonJune6,1984.39
DolanincorporatedZanattaHenn'sstoryintotheveryfirstdraftsofReagan'sremarksat
OmahaBeach,buttheheavyfocusononesoldier'sexperienceconcernedsomeWhiteHouse
staffmembers.AsRobertKimmitt,DeputyAssistanttothePresidentforNationalSecurity
Affairs,explainedtoRichardDarman,theNationalSecurityCouncilwasconcernedthatDolan's
draft"concentratedheavilyononepersonalexperience"andrecommendedthatthespeechbe
refocused"towardabroadtributetothesacrificesoftheAmericanandAlliedSoldiers."40
Althoughsomeofthesechangeswereadopted,Reagan'sfinalversiondevoted494words—
abouthalfofthespeech—toZanattaHenn'snarrative.
Thepresidentbeganbyrootinghisaudienceinplaceandrecallingtheliveslostat
OmahaBeach:"Mr.President,distinguishedguests,westandtodayataplaceofbattle,one
that40yearsagosawandfelttheworstofwar.Menbledanddiedhereforafewfeetof–or
inchesofsand,asbulletsandshellfirecutthroughtheirranks"(OmahaBeach,1).41Reagan
thenunderscoredhisowninabilityto"adequatelyportraytheirsuffering,theirsacrifice,their
heroism"byinvokingAbrahamLincoln:"PresidentLincolnonceremindedusthatthroughtheir
deeds,thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyoftheliving
evercould.Butwecanonlyhonorthembyrededicatingourselvestothecauseforwhichthey
gavealastfullmeasureofdevotion"(OmahaBeach,2).Thiswasmorethananinference;here
ReagandirectlyquotedfromtheGettysburgAddresswhenhestatedthatthosewhodiedgave
a"lastfullmeasureofdevotion."42ReaganalsoappropriatedkeythemesfromLincoln's
rhetoricalmasterpiece,particularlyhisadmonitionthatthelivingshouldhonorthedeadby
rededicatingthemselvestovaluesandidealsforwhichtheydied."Todaywedorededicate
ourselvestothatcause,"Reagansaid."Andatthisplaceofhonor,we'rehumbledbythe
realizationofhowmuchsomanygavetothecauseoffreedomandtotheirfellowman"
(OmahaBeach,3).
ThepresidentthenintroducedthestoryofPrivateZanattathroughthewordsofhis
daughter,Lisa.
"Someday,Lis,I'llgoback,''saidPrivateFirstClassPeterRobertZanatta,ofthe
37thEngineerCombatBattalion,andfirstassaultwavetohitOmahaBeach."I'll
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33
goback,andI'llseeitallagain.I'llseethebeach,thebarricades,andthegraves.''
ThosewordsofPrivateZanattacometousfromhisdaughter,LisaZanattaHenn,
inaheart-rendingstoryabouttheeventherfatherspokeofsooften."Inhis
words,theNormandyinvasionwouldchangehislifeforever,''shesaid.Shetells
someofhisstoriesofWorldWarIIbutsaysofherfather,"thestorytoendall
storieswasD-day.''(OmahaBeach,5-6)
TheinclusionofthisstorynotonlyprovidedReaganwiththeperspectiveofasoldierwho
foughtatOmahaBeachfortyyearsago,butitalsoallowedhimtounderscorehisearlierpoint
that"thedeadofbattlehavespokenmoreeloquentlyforthemselvesthananyofthelivingever
could"(OmahaBeach2).ReagancontinuedtoreadaloudfromZanattaHenn'sletter:
"Hemademefeelthefearofbeingonthatboatwaitingtoland.Icansmellthe
oceanandfeeltheseasickness.Icanseethelooksonhisfellowsoldiers'faces–
thefear,theanguish,theuncertaintyofwhatlayahead.Andwhentheylanded,I
canfeelthestrengthandcourageofthemenwhotookthosefirststepsthrough
thetidetowhatmusthavesurelylookedlikeinstantdeath.'"(OmahaBeach,7)
ZanattaHenn'spersonalreflectiononherfather'sexperienceatOmahaBeachprovidedavivid
narrativethatencompassedtheexperienceofnotjustonesoldier,butallthosewhocameto
Normandy.
AfteridentifyingPrivateZanattaasspecificexampleofsacrificeandU.S.patriotism,
Reaganconnectedthesoldier'spersonalexperiencetothelargerstoryofD-Day:
WhenmenlikePrivateZanattaandallouralliedforcesstormedthebeachesof
Normandy40yearsagotheycamenotasconquerors,butasliberators.When
thesetroopssweptacrosstheFrenchcountrysideandintotheforestsofBelgium
andLuxembourgtheycamenottotake,buttoreturnwhathadbeenwrongly
seized.WhenourforcesmarchedintoGermanytheycamenottopreyona
braveanddefeatedpeople,buttonurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthose
whoyearnedtobefreeagain.(OmahaBeach,10)
TheparallelbetweenZanettaandtherestoftheAlliedforcesalsoextendedintothepresent
dayasReagannoddedtothecurrentpartnershipbetweentheUnitedStatesandother
Europeandemocraciesfightingagainstthespreadofcommunism.Theimpliedmessagewas
similartoReagan'smoreovertargumentatPointeduHoc:justastheAlliedforcescame
"nurturetheseedsofdemocracyamongthosewhoyearnedtobefreeagain"duringWorld
WarII,sotoowouldtheWesttakeactivestepstoencourage"seedsofdemocracy"tosprout
andtakerooteveninthehostilesoilofSovietcommunism(OmahaBeach,10).
AsReaganmovedtowardhisconclusion,heremindedhisaudienceofwhattheywere
theretocelebrateandthelessonstobelearnedfromtheAlliedassaultfortyyearsearlier.
"Today,intheirmemory,andforallwhofoughthere,wecelebratethetriumphofdemocracy..
..Fromaterriblewarwelearnedthatunitymadeusinvincible;now,inpeace,thatsameunity
makesussecure"(OmahaBeach,12-13).Thejuxtapositionofpastandpresenttense
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
34
underscoredthemodern-dayrelevanceofthelessonsofhistory."Today"theassembled
audiencehadgatheredto"celebratethetriumphofdemocracy"fortyyearsearlier."[A]terrible
war"taughttheUnitedStatesanditsalliestheimportanceofaunifiedallianceagainst
totalitarianism;today,"thatsameunity"madetheWest"secure."
Thepresidentreemphasizedthisconnectionbetweenpastandpresentbyclosingwith
anothermovingpassagefromZanattaHenn'sletter.
LisaZanattaHennbeganherstorybyquotingherfather,whopromisedthathe
wouldreturntoNormandy.Sheendedwithapromisetoherfather,whodied8
yearsagoofcancer:"I'mgoingthere,Dad,andI'llseethebeachesandthe
barricadesandthemonuments.I'llseethegraves,andI'llputflowerstherejust
likeyouwantedtodo.I'llfeelallthethingsyoumademefeelthroughyour
storiesandyoureyes.I'llneverforgetwhatyouwentthrough,Dad,norwillIlet
anyoneelseforget.And,Dad,I'llalwaysbeproud.''Throughthewordsofhis
lovingdaughter,whoisherewithustoday,aD-dayveteranhasshownusthe
meaningofthisdayfarbetterthananyPresidentcan.(OmahaBeach,15-16)
HereReaganrepeatedhisearlierstatementthat"[n]ospeechcanadequatelyportraytheir
suffering,theirsacrifice,theirheroism"(OmahaBeach,2).Throughthepersonalexperienceof
PrivateZanatta(asrecountedbyhisdaughter),Reagandrewonthepatrioticthemesand
mentalimagesofoneyoungsoldierstormingthebeachesfortyyearsearlier.Insodoing,
PrivateZanattabecameametaphoricalrepresentationof"allthemenofhonorandcourage
whofoughtbesidehimfourdecadesago"(OmahaBeach,16).Tothem—boththosewhodied
onJune6,1944,andthosewhosurvivedtoattendtheceremoniesfortyyearslater—Reagan
promisedthattheUnitedStatesandtherestoftheAlliednationswouldnotforgettheir
sacrifice."Wewillalwaysremember.Wewillalwaysbeproud.Wewillalwaysbeprepared,so
wemaybealwaysfree"(OmahaBeach,16).
RememberingD-Day:ReaganandBeyond
Thirtyyearslater,Reagan'stwospeechesatNormandycontinuetoreceivecritical
acclaimandhavebecomeexemplarsofU.S.presidentialcommemoration.Indeed,Reaganisto
NormandyasKennedyistoBerlin;allsuccessivepresidentialaddressesatNormandyare
judgedbyReagan'sspeechesin1984.43ReflectingonReagan'sPointeduHocspeechin2004,
WashingtonPostreporterandReaganbiographerLouCannondescribedtheaddressas
"elegiac,"atermthatcapturesthecadenceorrepeatedrhythmsadoptedbyGreekpoetsto
recitenationalhistoryandmemorializethedead.44AtNormandy,Reaganrecountedtheevents
ofD-Dayandimmortalized"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivateFirstClassPeterRobert
Zanattabysituatingtheirdaringactswithinthebroaderhistoricalcontextandthencomparing
theAllieddefeatofNaziGermanytothepresentmoment(PointeduHoc,5).Inthisway,
Reagan'srhetoricaccomplishedtwospecificrhetoricalpurposes:honoringtheheroesofWorld
WarIIandusingtheiractionstoillustratethevaluesthatshouldguidepresentandfutureU.S.
ColdWar.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
35
TheimmediatepresscoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach
stressedthelinkagesbetween1944and1984.InaspecialreportfortheNewYorkTimes,
militarycorrespondentDrewMiddletonnotedthatReagan'sspeeches"touchedcommon
themes,includingthebraveryoftheGermanenemyandsacrificesmadebytheSovietUnion
duringWorldWarII."45TheLosAngelesTimesdescribedhowReagan"issuedacallto'wipe
fromthefaceoftheearththeterribleweaponsmannowhasinhishands,'"andmadespecial
mentionofthepresident'sreferenceto"the20millionSovietcitizenswholosttheirlivesinthe
war."46AccordingtoBenjaminTaylor,awriterfortheBostonGlobe,"[t]henowpeaceful
beachesofNormandyservedasadramaticbackdropyesterdayforaceremony
commemoratingthe40thanniversaryofD-Day....Inremarkslacedwithemotionand
patriotism,ReagancastigatedtheSovietUnionforitsmilitarydominationofEasternEurope
evenashecontinuedtoextendtheolivebranchofreconciliationif'theywillgiveuptheirways
ofconquest.'"47ThesereportshighlightedthecleardualmessageofReagan'sspeechesat
Normandy:commemoratethepastAlliedtriumphoverNazityrannyandrededicatethe
Westernalliancetodefending—andspreading—democracyduringtheColdWar.
Ina2013interview,ReaganspeechwriterPeggyNoonancommentedonthesetwogoals
asexpressedinReagan'sspeechatPointeduHoc:
Thetextofthespeech—theostensiblethingthatwasbeingsaid—was,"Look,civilized
nationsoftheWest,lookwhatyoudidfortyyearsagowhenyouheldtogether,joined
together,youdefeatedaterribletyrannycalledHitler'sGermany."Sothat'swhatthe
speechis.Underneaththat,Reaganwasreallysayingtoallthegatheredleadersofthe
Westwhoweretherethatday,"Guys,lookwhatyourparentsandgrandparentsdid.If
weholdtogetherastheydid,wearegoingtodefeattogetherthetyrannyofourtime—
andthatisSovietcommunism."So,bylaudingtheWorldWarIIgeneration,Reaganwas
alsotryingtoinspirethosewhonowstillhadtoholdtogether—theBerlinWallhadnot
fallen—topushthatwallover.So,heveryconsciously...usedthatspeechtosay,"Look
whatwedidlasttime.Wecanstilldoit!"48
Noonan'sreflectionunderscoreshowReaganusedhisspeechesatPointeduHocandOmaha
Beachtoarguethatthemostappropriatewaytohonorthememoryofthemenwhofoughtat
NormandywastostandagainstthepresentthreatofSovietcommunism.
ThemediacoverageofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandNormandyalso
demonstratedthepotentialforcouplingspokentextswithvisualimagesforaparticularly
memorableresult.KathleenHallJamiesonobservesthat"[t]elevisionenabledReaganto
transportthenationalaudiencetothestagehehadsetinNormandy....Thedramatization
wascompelling,thestagingunsurpassable,thevisualargumentpoliticallypotent."49The1984
Reagan-Bushcampaignamplifiedthisdramatizationwhentheyusedvideofootagefrom
Reagan'sspeechesatNormandytoportrayReaganandthenationasstrong,determined,and
confident.OnthefinaleveningoftheRepublicanNationalConventioninDallas,thecampaign
airedaneighteen-minutevideotitled"ANewBeginning"thathighlightediconicmomentsand
keyinitiativesofReagan'sfirstterminoffice.50
ThefilmfeaturedsnippetsofReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeach,
includingsweepingpanoramicshotsofthecliffsatPointeduHoc,endlessrowsofwhitecrosses
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
36
andStarsofDavidintheAmericanCemeteryatNormandy,andthelargeaudienceassembled
forthejointceremonyatOmahaBeach.Themostpoignantaspectofthissegmentwashowthe
filminterspersedReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahabeachwithactualfootageof
menstormingthebeachesonJune6,1944.Inaddition,thevideoalsocontainedcloseupshots
ofthesixty-two"boysofPointeduHoc,”alongwithPrivatePeterZanatta'sdaughter,sons,and
widow.AstheaudiencelistenedtoReagan'snarrativeoftheAlliedlandingsatNormandy,they
watchedblackandwhitefootageofsoldiersstrugglingtoreachtheshore.WhenReagan
recountedthecourageousclimboftheU.S.ArmyRangersfortyyearsearlier,thecamera
zoomedinonthefacesoftheagedveterans.AndasthepresidentreadaloudfromLisaZanatta
Henn'sletteratOmahaBeach,theaudiencewitnessedZanattaHenncryinginthefrontrow.
Thisjuxtapositionoftextandimageprovidedastrikingtributenotjusttothemenwhofought
atNormandy,butitalsoreinforcedReagan'simageasafocused,patrioticheadofstate
dedicatedtoprotectingU.S.democracyathomeandpreventingthespreadofcommunism
abroad.
SinceReagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachonJune6,1984,three
additionalpresidents—Clinton,GeorgeW.Bush,andObama—havetraveledtoNormandyto
commemoratetheanniversaryofD-DayandrededicatetheUnitedStatestocauseforwhich
theAlliedforcesfought,bled,anddied."Wecommitourselves,asyoudid,tokeep[freedom's]
lampburningforthosewhowillfollow.Youcompletedyoumissionhere.Butthemissionof
freedomgoeson;thebattlecontinues,"PresidentBillClintonsaidin1994.51Tenyearslater,
PresidentGeorgeW.BushtoldthesurvivingveteransgatheredforthesixtiethanniversaryofDDay,"[Y]ouwillbehonoredeverandalwaysbythecountryyouservedandbythenationsyou
freed."52In2009,PresidentBarackObamatoldhisaudience,"D-Daywasatimeandaplace
wherethebraveryandselflessnessofafewwasabletochangethecourseofanentire
century."53Andin2014,ontheseventiethanniversaryoftheNormandyinvasion,Obamanot
onlyhonoredthosewhofoughtatNormandy,buthealsoacknowledgedseveralU.S.service
memberswhohadservedinIraqandAfghanistansince9/11.Afterintroducingseveralofthese
individualstotheaudience,hetoldtheWorldWarIIveterans:"[Y]ourlegacyisingoodhands..
..this9/11generationofservicemembers—they,too,feltsomething.Theyansweredsome
call;theysaid'Iwillgo.'They,too,chosetoserveacausethat'sgreaterthanself,manyeven
aftertheyknewthey'dbesentintoharm'sway."54Inhisremarks,Obamadrewaparallel
betweenthe"GreatestGeneration"andpresent-daymilitaryheroesfightinginIraqand
Afghanistan.LikeReaganhaddonebeforehim,ObamausedthestoryofD-Daytoinspire
patrioticsentimentandhumbleappreciationforthese"generationsofmenandwomenwho
provedonceagainthattheUnitedStatesofAmericaisandwillremainthegreatestforcefor
freedomtheworldhaseverknown."55
TheseexamplesofU.S.presidentialcommemorationsofD-Daydemonstratehow
Reagan'sspeechesatPointeduHocandOmahaBeachinauguratedanimportanttraditionin
U.S.politicalculture.As"interpreters-in-chief"ofoursharedhistory,U.S.presidentsremindus
ofournationalidentityandsharedvalues,andoneoftheprimarywaystheydothisisthrough
publicspeech.56WhenReagannarratedtheeventsofJune6,1984,tothenationandtheworld
vialivetelevision,hetranslatedthestoryofD-Day—inallitshardshipandstruggleand
triumph—intothecontemporarymoment.Toanationrecoveringfromeconomicinflationand
alostsenseofself,theheroicactionsof"theboysofPointeduHoc"andPrivatePeterZanatta
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
37
providedamorallessonthatwasjustasapplicablein1984asitwasonthat"longestday"forty
yearsearlier.57
__________________________________
Author'sNote:AllisonPraschisadoctoralstudentattheUniversityofMinnesota.Portionsof
thisessayoriginallyappearedin“ReaganatPointeduHoc:DeicticEpideicticandthePersuasive
Powerof‘BringingBeforetheEyes,’”Rhetoric&PublicAffairs18(2015):247-276.Theauthoris
gratefultoMartyMedhurstandMichiganStateUniversityPressforgraciouslyallowingthat
materialtoappearinthisessay.
____________________________________________________
Notes
1
H.W.Brands,Reagan:TheLife(NewYork:Doubleday,2015),237.
2
AdamClymer,"TheCollapseofaCoalition,"NewYorkTimes,November5,1980.
3
PaulFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals("EvilEmpireSpeech")
(8March1983),"VoicesofDemocracy2(2007):26.
4
RonaldReagan,"InauguralAddress,"January20,1981.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.
RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1981/12081a.htm
(accessedOctober16,2015).
5
MartinJ.Medhurst,"WritingSpeechesforRonaldReagan:AnInterviewwithTonyDolan,"Rhetoric&
PublicAffairs1,no.2(1998):247.
6
JohnLewisGaddis,TheColdWar:ANewHistory(NewYork:ThePenguinPress,2005),217.
7
EdwinMeeseIII,WithReagan:TheInsideStory(Washington,DC:RegneryGateway,1992),164.
8
RonaldReagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament,"June8,1982.ThePublicPapersof
PresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.
http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1982/60882a.htm(accessedOctober12,2015).
9
RonaldReagan,SpeakingMyMind(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1989),107.
10
IntheirstudyofReagan'sWestminsterAddress,RobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jonesexplainthat
althoughthisspeechishailedbyneoconservatives"asthemomentwhenReaganandBritain'sPrimeMinister
MargaretThatcherput'freedomontheoffensivewhereitbelonged[Thatcher'sassessment],'"Reagan'saddress
"wasnotrecognizedasparticularlyimportantoreffectiveatthetime."Instead,RowlandandJonesarguethatthe
speechofferedavisionforapost-ColdWarworldthatwasdifficulttoimaginein1982:"Atthetime,fewshared
Reagan'soptimismaboutthecoldwar,andalmostnoonethoughtthatthesurvivaloftheSovietUnionwasin
doubt....Aquarter-centurylater,Reagan'sclaimthatthecoldwarwasata'turningpoint'seemsclearlycorrect,
butfewagreedwithhimin1982."SeeRobertC.RowlandandJohnM.Jones,ReaganatWestminster(College
Station,TX:TexasA&MUniversityPress,2010),13-15.
11
RonaldReagan,"RemarksattheAnnualConferenceoftheNationalAssociationofEvangelicals,"March
8,1983.ThePublicPapersofPresidentRonaldW.Reagan.RonaldReaganPresidentialLibrary.
http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1983/30883b.htm(accessedOctober12,2015).
12
Forananalysisofthisparticularspeech,seeFessler,"RonaldReagan,AddresstotheNational
AssociationofEvangelicals."
13
Reagan,"AddresstoMembersoftheBritishParliament."
14
AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatPointeduHocarecitedwithreferencetoparagraph
numbersintheauthenticatedtextontheVoicesofDemocracywebsite.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwo
speeches,"PointeduHoc"precedesallparagraphnumbers.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
38
15
RobertC.McFarlane,"PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident'sTriptoEurope,June1984
(PublicDiplomacyActionPlan),"2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,Ronald
ReaganLibrary.
16
“PreservingPeaceandProsperity:ThePresident’sTriptoEurope,June1984(PublicDiplomacyAction
Plan,”2,folder"June1984EuropeanTrip(1),"RichardG.DarmanFilesBox3,RonaldReaganLibrary.
17
Memo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy
(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
18
Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder"ThePresident'sTriptoEurope:
Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),"RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip
File,RonaldReaganLibrary.
19
Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,144-145.
20
Brinkley,TheBoysofPointeduHoc,147.
21
Brinkleywritesthatofthetwospeeches—oneatPointeduHocandtheotheratOmahaBeach—the
secondwasconsideredthemajorforeignpolicyspeech.“SomeintheWhiteHousesimplyreferredtoOmaha
Beachas‘theSpeech’andPointeduHocas‘BriefRemarks.’”WhiteHouseprincipalspeechwriterTonyDolanwas
assignedtheOmahaBeachspeech,and“PointeduHocwasconsideredasideshowonJune6,afeel-good,nonpolicy-basedmoment.Therefore,PeggyNoonanwastaskedwithpenningthe‘impressionistic’oration,while
Dolan’s‘realist’policyspeechwouldbeheadlinedbyprominentU.S.newspapersonJune7”(163).Brinkley’s
accountwaspublishedin2005,whenmultipledocumentsrelatedtothe“PointeduHoc”speechhadnotyetbeen
declassified.DuringmyvisittotheReaganLibraryinJune2013,Iaccessedanumberofdocuments(allofwhich
weredeclassifiedafter2005)thatshowthattheReaganWhiteHouseplannedfor“PointeduHoc”tobethe
centerpieceofReagan’svisittoNormandy.SeetheNationalSecurityCouncil’sofficialbriefingbook,“The
President’sTriptoEurope:Ireland,UKandNormandy,June1-10,1984,”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:
TripFile,RonaldReaganLibrary.
22
Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope:
Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip
File,RonaldReaganLibrary.
23
SpeechDraft,“DraftNo.4,ThePresident’sNormandySpeechJune6,1984,”April30,1984,folder
“PointeduHocAddress,Normandy(4),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989,
RonaldReaganLibrary.Draftalsofoundinfolder“June1984EuropeanTrip(3),”Box3,RichardG.DarmanFiles,
RonaldReaganLibrary.
24
SpeechDraft,“PresidentialAddress:PointeduHoc,Wednesday,June6,1984,(Noonan/BE),May21,
1984,3:30p.m.,”folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(8),”Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:
ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
25
SpecialAssistanttothePresidentWilliamF.MartinwrotethatthePointeduHocAddresswastobe
“emotional,stirring,andpersonal.Thethemesincludereconciliationofformeradversaries,howpostwar
cooperationhaskeptthepeaceforthelongestperiodinmodernEuropeanhistory,Alliancesolidarity,andthe
strengthoftheAmericancommitmenttoEurope.”SeeMemo,WilliamF.MartintoRobertC.McFarlane,April10,
1984,folder“President’sTriptoNormandy(2),”Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,
1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
26
PeggyNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution(NewYork:RandomHouseTradePaperbacks,1990),85,
83-84.
27
TheWhiteHousetimedthe"PointeduHoc"speechsoitcouldbebroadcastliveonU.S.networksover
themorningnews.The"DraftNotionalSchedule–TripofthePresidenttoEurope"datedMay7,1984,specified
thatReaganwouldarriveatthePointeduHoclandingzoneat8:20amEDT(2:20pmlocaltime),tourtheRanger
MemorialfortenminuteswithtwosurvivorsofthePointeduHoclanding,andbeginhis"Remarkstoassembled
VeteransandunveilingofplaquecommemoratingPoint[sic]duHoc"at8:40amEDT(2:40pmlocaltime.SeeDraft
NotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(2),"Box
161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
39
27
DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTrip
toNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan
Library.
28
Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,85.
29
Noonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,86.
30
NoonanexplainedthatthislinecameeasilybecauseshehadjustreadRogerKahn'smemoirofthe
BrooklynDodgers,TheBoysofSummer.SeeNoonan,WhatISawattheRevolution,87.
31
MiscellaneousNote,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(4),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeof
Speechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
32
Memorandum,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardG.Darman,June1,1984,folder"President'sTripto
Normandy(11),"Box162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan
Library.
33
Memo,GeorgeP.SchultztoRonaldReagan,May14,1984,folder“ThePresident’sTriptoEurope:
Ireland,UK,andNormandy,June1-10,1984–ThePresident(3of5),”RACBox4,ExecutiveSecretariat,NSC:Trip
File,RonaldReaganLibrary.
34
DraftNotionalSchedule,TripofthePresidenttoEurope,"May7,1984,page7,folder"President'sTrip
toNormandy(2),"Box161,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReagan
Library.
35
Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoBenElliott,May31,1984,folder"OmahaBeachMemorialRemarks
(Dolan)(White),"Box160,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:SpeechDrafts,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
36
LisaZanattaHenntoRonaldReagan,March15,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box
162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
37
M.P.CaulfieldtoLisaZanattaHenn,May10,1984,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box162,
WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
38
Memo,Kathy[nolastname]toRonaldReagan,nodate,folder"President'sTriptoNormandy(9),"Box
162,WhiteHouseOfficeofSpeechwriting:ResearchOffice,1981-1989,RonaldReaganLibrary.
39
"TripofthePresidenttoNormandy,France,Wednesday,June6,1984,PersonalSchedule,"folder
"Europe,"Box17,OfficeofPresidentialAdvance,Records,SeriesII:G7Summits,OA17071,RonaldReaganLibrary.
40
Memo,RobertM.KimmitttoRichardDarman,May28,1984,ID#215027,SP891,WHORM:Subject
File,Box222,RonaldReaganLibrary.
41
AllpassagesfromReagan'sJune6,1984,speechatOmahaBeacharecitedwithreferencetoparagraph
numbersintheprintedtextthataccompaniesthisessay.TodifferentiatebetweenReagan'stwospeeches,
"OmahaBeach"precedesallparagraphnumbers.
42
AbrahamLincoln,"GettysburgAddress,"November19,1863.
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gettysburgaddress.htm(accessedOctober17,2015).
43
SeeR.W.Apple,Jr.,"ClintoninNormandy:HandsAcrossaGeneration,"NewYorkTimes,June8,1994,
A16;JillAbramson,"BushSpeaksofHeroismandSacrificeatCemeteryatNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,May28,
2002,A10;RichardW.Stevenson,"InD-DayRite,BushPraisesVeteransofNormandy,"NewYorkTimes,June7,
2004,A10;MaryL.KahlandMichaelLeff,"TheRhetoricofWarandRemembrance:AnAnalysisofPresidentBill
Clinton's1994D-DayDiscourses,QualitativeResearchReportsinCommunication7(2006):15-21;JohnMcCormick,
"FamilyTapestryPartofObama'sEuropeTrip,"ChicagoTribune,June4,2009,1.12;ChristinaBellantoni,"Obama
PaysHomagetoD-DayVeterans,"WashingtonTimes,June7,2009,A1;JohnIbbitson,"BarackObamaisNoRonald
Reagan–Yet,"TheGlobeandMail,June10,2009,A15;"ReaganSettheToneforD-DayObservances,"Daily
Herald,June6,2014,2;"LostOpportunities."DailyTimes,Jun12,2014.
44
LouCannon,"At40thD-DayTribute,ReaganTooktheOccasionbyStorm,"WashingtonPost,June7,
2004,A06.
45
DrewMiddleton,"ReaganHonorsD-Day;CallsforSpiritofPeace,"NewYorkTimes,June7,1984,p.A1.
46
"D-DayRemembered:AlliedLeadersHonorHeroesofNormandy,"LosAngelesTimes,June6,1984,p.2.
47
BenjaminTaylor,"ReaganLaudsMenWhoDiedonD-Day,"BostonGlobe,June7,1984,p.1.
VoicesofDemocracy(2015):20-40
40
48
PeggyNoonan,"PeggyNoonanonReagan'sD-DaySpeech,"TheKellyFile,December4,2013.Retrieved
fromhttp://video.foxnews.com/v/2893720031001/peggy-noonan-on-reagans-d-day-speech(accessedMay5,
2014).
49
KathleenHallJamieson,EloquenceintheElectronicAge(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1988),162163.
50
Forafullrecordofhowthecampaignvideoworkedwithinthesequenceofeventsthatfinaldayofthe
campaign,see"August23,1984,RepublicanNationalConvention,Day4,"C-SPAN.http://www.cspan.org/video/?124909-1/republican-national-convention-day-4(accessedOctober21,2015).Forananalysisof
thefilmitself,seeJoanneMorreale,ANewBeginning:ATextualFrameAnalysisofthePoliticalCampaignFilm
(Albany,NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress,1991).
51
WilliamJ.Clinton,"Remarksonthe50thAnniversaryofD-DayatPointeduHocinNormandy,France,"
June6,1994,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Wooley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=50297(accessedOctober22,2015).
52
GeorgeW.Bush,"Remarksonthe60thAnniversaryofD-DayinColleville-sur-Mer,France,"June6,
2004,onlinebyGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72648(accessedOctober22,2015).
53
BarackObama,"Remarksonthe65thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2009,online
byGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=86253(accessedOctober22,2015).
54
BarackObama,"Remarksonthe70thAnniversaryofD-DayinNormandy,France,"June6,2014,online
byGerhardPetersandJohnT.Woolley,TheAmericanPresidencyProject
http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=105250(accessedOctober22,2015).
55
th
Obama,"Remarksonthe70 AnniversaryofD-Day."
56
MaryE.Stuckey,ThePresidentasInterpreter-In-Chief(Chatham,NJ:ChathamHousePublishers,Inc.,
1991).SeealsoKarlynKohrsCampbellandKathleenHallJamieson,PresidentsCreatingthePresidency:DeedsDone
inWords(Chicago,IL:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008).
57
CorneliusRyan,TheLongestDay:June6,1944(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1959).