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Henry The Eighth
King of England
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Henry VIII of England
1
Henry VIII of England
Henry VIII
King of England (more...)
Reign
21 April 1509 – 28 January 1547 (37 years, 282 days)
Coronation
24 June 1509 (aged 17)
Predecessor Henry VII
Successor
Edward VI
Spouse
Catherine of Aragon
Anne Boleyn
Jane Seymour
Anne of Cleves
Catherine Howard
Catherine Parr
Among others
Issue
Mary I of England
Henry Fitzroy
Elizabeth I of England
Edward VI of England
House
House of Tudor
Father
Henry VII of England
Mother
Elizabeth of York
Born
28 June 1491
Greenwich Palace, Greenwich
Died
28 January 1547 (aged 55)
Palace of Whitehall, London
Burial
St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle
Signature
Religion
Christian (Anglican,
previously Roman Catholic)
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was also
Lord of Ireland (later King of Ireland) and claimant to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the
House of Tudor, succeeding his father, Henry VII.
Henry VIII of England
2
Besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the
Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal
authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of
England. He changed religious ceremonies and rituals and suppressed the monasteries, while remaining a believer in
core Catholic theological teachings, even after his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church.[1] Henry also
oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542.
Henry was an attractive and charismatic man in his prime, educated and accomplished[2] . He ruled with absolute
power. His desire to provide England with a male heir—which stemmed partly from personal vanity and partly
because he believed a daughter would be unable to consolidate the Tudor Dynasty and the fragile peace that existed
following the Wars of the Roses—led to the two things that Henry is remembered for today: his wives, and the
English Reformation that made England a Protestant nation. In later life he became morbidly obese and his health
suffered; his public image is frequently depicted as one of a lustful, egotistical, harsh and insecure king.[3]
Henry is famously remembered for having six wives—two of whom he had beheaded—which helped to make him a
cultural icon, with many books, films, plays, and television series based around him and his wives.
Early years: 1491–1509
Born at Greenwich Palace, Henry VIII was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York.[4] Of the young
Henry's six siblings, only three — Arthur, Prince of Wales; Margaret; and Mary — survived infancy. In 1493, at the
age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1494, he was
created Duke of York. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin, French, and Spanish.[5] As it
was expected that the throne would pass to Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother, Henry was prepared for a life in the
church.[6]
Death of Arthur
In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15. His death thrust all his duties
upon his younger brother, Henry, who then became Prince of Wales.
Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between
England and Spain, by offering his second son in marriage to Prince
Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon, the youngest surviving child of
King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile.[7]
Arthur around the time of his marriage c.1501
Henry VIII of England
3
For the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from
the Pope was normally required to overrule the impediment of affinity because,
as told in the book of Leviticus, "If a brother is to marry the wife of a brother
they will remain childless." Catherine swore that her marriage to Prince Arthur
had not been consummated. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed
that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all
doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage.
Catherine as a young widow, by
Henry VII's court painter, Michael
Sittow, in c.1502.
The impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella I, induced Pope Julius II to
grant dispensation in the form of a Papal bull. So, 14 months after her young
husband's death, Catherine was betrothed to his even younger brother, Henry.
Yet by 1505, Henry VII lost interest in a Spanish alliance and the younger Henry
declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his consent.
Continued diplomatic manoeuvring over the fate of the proposed marriage
lingered until the death of Henry VII in 1509. Only 17 years old, Henry married
Catherine on 11 June 1509 and, on 24 June 1509, the two were crowned at
Westminster Abbey.
Early reign: 1509–1525
Two days after his coronation he arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Sir Richard Empson and
Edmund Dudley. They were charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. This was to become Henry's
primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way.[4]
Henry cultivated the image of a Renaissance Man and his court was a centre of
scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess, epitomised by The Field
of Cloth of Gold. He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His best
known musical composition is "Pastime with Good Company" or "The Kynges
Ballade". He was also an avid gambler and dice player, and excelled at sports,
especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. He was also known for his strong
defence of conventional Christian piety.[5] Meeting Francis I on 7 June 1520 near
Calais, he entertained the French king with a fortnight of lavish entertainment to
establish a closer diplomatic relationship after the military conflicts of the
previous decade.
France and the Habsburgs
In 1511, Pope Julius II proclaimed a Holy League against France, this new
Eighteen year-old Henry after his
alliance rapidly grew to include not only Spain and the Holy Roman Empire but
coronation in 1509.
England as well. Henry decided to use the occasion to expand his holdings in
northern France. He concluded the Treaty of Westminster, a pledge of mutual aid with Spain against France, in
November 1511 and prepared for involvement in the War of the League of Cambrai.
In 1513, Henry invaded France and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs. His brother-in-law,
James IV of Scotland, invaded England at the behest of Louis XII of France,[8] but failed to draw Henry's attention
away from France. The Scots were defeated at the Battle of Flodden Field on 9 September 1513. Among the dead
was the Scottish King, which ended Scotland's brief involvement in the war.
On 18 February 1516, Queen Catherine bore Henry his first child to survive infancy, Princess Mary. (A son, Henry,
Duke of Cornwall, had been born in 1511 but lived only a few weeks.)
Henry VIII of England
Power and authority
Government and finances under Henry
Financially, the reign of Henry was a near-disaster. Although he inherited a prosperous economy (augmented by
seizures of church lands), Henry's heavy spending and high taxes damaged the economy.[9] [10] For example, Henry
expanded the Royal Navy from 5 to 53 ships. He loved palaces; he began with a dozen and died with fifty-five, in
which he hung 2,000 tapestries.[11] By comparison, his neighbour and nephew James V of Scotland had five palaces
and 200 tapestries.[12] He took pride in showing off his collection of weapons, which included exotic archery
equipment, 2,250 pieces of land ordinance and 6,500 handguns.[13]
Henry began his reign with heavy reliance on advisors and ended with complete control. From 1514 to 1529,
Thomas Wolsey (1473–1530), a Catholic cardinal, served as lord chancellor and practically controlled domestic and
foreign policy for the young king. He negotiated the truce with France that was signaled by the dramatic display of
amity on the Field of Cloth of Gold (1520). He switched England back and forth as an ally of France and the Holy
Roman Empire. Wolsey centralised the national government and extended the jurisdiction of the conciliar courts,
particularly the Star Chamber. His use of forced loans to pay for foreign wars angered the rich, who were annoyed as
well by his enormous wealth and ostentatious living. Wolsey disappointed the king when he failed to secure a quick
divorce from Queen Catherine. The treasury was empty after years of extravagance; the peers and people were
dissatisfied and Henry needed an entirely new approach; Wolsey had to be replaced. After 16 years at the top he lost
power in 1529 and in 1530 was arrested on false charges of treason and died in custody. Wolsey's fall was a warning
to the Pope and to the clergy of England of what might be expected for failure to comply with the king's wishes.
Henry then took full control of his government, although at court numerous complex factions continued to try to ruin
and destroy each other.
Elton (1962) argues there was a major Tudor revolution in government. While crediting Henry with intelligence and
shrewdness, Elton finds that much of the positive action, especially the break with Rome, was the work of Thomas
Cromwell and not the king. Elton sees Henry as competent, but too lazy to take direct control of affairs for any
extended period; that is, the king was an opportunist who relied on others for most of his ideas and to do most of the
work. Henry's marital adventures are part of Elton's chain of evidence; a man who marries six wives, Elton notes, is
not someone who fully controls his own fate. Elton shows that Thomas Cromwell had conceived of a commonwealth
of England that included popular participation through Parliament and that this was generally expressed in the
preambles to legislation. Parliamentary consent did not mean that the king had yielded any of his authority; Henry
VIII was a paternalistic ruler who did not hesitate to use his power. Popular "consent" was a means to augment rather
than limit royal power.[14]
Reformation
Henry never formally repudiated the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, but he declared himself supreme head
of the church in England in 1534. This, combined with subsequent actions, eventually resulted in a separated church,
the Church of England. The pope behaved more as an Italian prince involved in secular affairs, which often obscured
his religious role. The Church treated England as a minor stepchild, allowing it one cardinal out of fifty, and no
possibility of becoming pope. For reasons of state it was increasingly intolerable that major decisions in England
were settled by Italians. The divorce issue exemplified the problem but was not itself the cause of the problem. As
long as Cardinal Wolsey dominated the government the widespread sentiment for reform could go nowhere.[15]
Henry's reformation of the English church involved more complex motives and methods than his desire for a new
wife and an heir. Henry asserted that his first marriage had never been valid, but the divorce issue was only one
factor in Henry's desire to reform the church. In 1532–37, he instituted a number of statutes — the act of appeal
(Statute in Restraint of Appeals, 1533), the various Acts of Succession (1533, 1534, and 1536), the first Act of
Supremacy (1536), and others — that dealt with the relationship between the king and the pope and the structure of
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Henry VIII of England
the Church of England. During these years, Henry also suppressed monasteries and pilgrimage shrines in his attempt
to reform the church. The king was always the dominant force in the making of religious policy; his policy, which he
pursued skilfully and consistently, is best characterised as a search for the middle way.[16]
Questions over what was the true faith were resolved with the adoption of the orthodox "Act of Six Articles" (1539)
and a careful holding of the balance between extreme factions after 1540. Even so, the era saw movement away from
religious orthodoxy, the more so as the pillars of the old beliefs, especially Thomas More and John Fisher, had been
unable to accept the change and had been executed in 1535 for refusing to renounce papal authority. Critical for the
Henrician reformation was the new political theology of obedience to the prince that was enthusiastically adopted by
the Church of England in the 1530s. It reflected Martin Luther's new interpretation of the fourth commandment
("Honor thy father and mother") and was mediated to an English audience by William Tyndale. The founding of
royal authority on the Ten Commandments, and thus on the word of God, was a particularly attractive feature of this
doctrine, which became a defining feature of Henrician religion. Rival tendencies within the Church of England
sought to exploit it in the pursuit of their particular agendas. Reformers strove to preserve its connections with the
broader framework of Lutheran theology, with the emphasis on faith alone and the word of God, while conservatives
emphasised good works, ceremonies, and charity. The Reformers linked royal supremacy and the word of God to
persuade Henry to publish the Great Bible in 1539, an English translation that was a formidable prop for his
new-found dignity.[17]
Response to the reforms was mixed. The reforms, which closed down monasteries that were the only support of the
impoverished,[18] alienated most of the population outside of London and helped provoke the great northern rising of
1536–1537, known as the Pilgrimage of Grace.[19] It was the only real threat to Henry's security on the throne in all
his reign. Some 30,000 rebels in nine groups were led by the charismatic Robert Aske, together with most of the
northern nobility. Aske went to London to negotiate terms; once there he was arrested, charged with treason and
executed. About 200 rebels were executed and the disturbances ended.[20] Elsewhere the changes were accepted and
welcomed, and those who clung to Catholic rites kept quiet or moved in secrecy. They would reemerge in the reign
of Henry's daughter Mary (1553–1558).
Dissolving the monasteries
England possessed numerous religious houses that owned large tracts of land worked by tenants. Henry dissolved
them (1536–1541) and transferred a fifth of England's landed wealth to new hands. The program was designed
primarily to create a landed gentry beholden to the crown, which would use the lands much more efficiently.
Henry made radical changes in traditional religious practices. He ordered the clergy to preach against superstitious
images, relics, miracles, and pilgrimages, and to remove most candles. The catechism of 1545, called the King's
Primer, left out the saints. Latin rituals gave way to English. Shrines to saints were destroyed — including the
popular one of St. Thomas of Canterbury — and relics were ridiculed as worthless old bones.
Mistresses
In spite of his popular image, Henry may not have had very many affairs outside marriage. Apart from women he
later married, the identities of only two mistresses are completely undisputed: Elizabeth Blount and Mary Boleyn.
However, it is unlikely that they were the only two; Alison Weir has argued that, aside from the five affairs listed
below, there were also numerous other short-term and secret liaisons, most of them conducted in the king's river-side
mansion of Jordan House.[21]
Elizabeth "Bessie" Blount gave birth to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy. The young boy was made Duke of
Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to legitimatising him. In 1533, FitzRoy
married Mary Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin, but died three years later without any children. At the time of
FitzRoy's death in 1536, Parliament was enacting the Second Succession Act, which could have allowed Henry's
illegitimate son to become king.
5
Henry VIII of England
Mary Boleyn was Henry's mistress before her sister, Anne, became his second wife. She is thought to have been
Catherine's lady-in-waiting at some point between 1519 and 1526. There has been speculation that Mary's two
children, Catherine and Henry, were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proved and the King never
acknowledged them as he did Henry FitzRoy.
In 1510 it was reported that Henry was conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of
Buckingham, either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon.[22] Her brother, the Duke of Buckingham,
became enraged and Lord George Hastings, her husband, sent her to a convent. Eustace Chapuys wrote, "the
husband of that lady went away, carried her off and placed her in a convent sixty miles from here, that no one may
see her."[23]
Henry also seems to have had an affair with one of the Shelton sisters in 1535. Traditionally it has been believed that
this was Margaret ("Madge")[24] but recent research has led to the claim that this was actually Mary.[25]
There are also grounds for suspecting that he had an affair with an unknown woman in 1534.
The King's Great Matter: 1525–1533
Henry became impatient with Catherine's inability to produce the heir he desired. All of Catherine's children died in
infancy except their daughter Mary.[26] Henry wanted a male heir to consolidate the power of the Tudor dynasty.
In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient, he became enamoured of a charismatic young woman in the Queen's
entourage, Anne Boleyn.[27] Anne at first resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as
her sister Mary Boleyn had. She said "I beseech your highness most earnestly to desist, and to this my answer in
good part. I would rather lose my life than my honesty."[28] This refusal made Henry even more attracted, and he
pursued her relentlessly.
Eventually, Anne saw her opportunity in Henry's infatuation and determined she would only yield to his embraces as
his acknowledged queen.[29] It soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to Catherine.[30]
Henry appealed directly to the Holy See, independently from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey from whom he kept his plans
for Anne secret. Instead, Henry's secretary, William Knight, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment.
The grounds were that the bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences, because Catherine's brief marriage
to the sickly Arthur had been consummated. Henry also petitioned, in the event of annulment, a dispensation to
marry again to any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or
unlawful connection. This clearly had reference to Anne.[29]
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Henry VIII of England
However, as the pope was at that time imprisoned by Catherine's
nephew, Emperor Charles V, Knight had difficulty in getting access to
him, and so only managed to obtain the conditional dispensation for a
new marriage. Henry now had no choice but to put the matter into the
hands of Wolsey. Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in the
King's favour, going so far as to arrange an ecclesiastical court to meet
in England, with a representative from the Pope.[29] Shakespeare's
play, Henry VIII, accurately records Catherine of Aragon's astounding
coup in that remarkable courtroom in Act II, scene iv. She bows low to
Henry, put herself at his mercy, states her case with irrefutable
eloquence and then sweeps out of the courtroom, a woman both
formidable and clearly wronged. However much this moment swayed
those present and the rest of the world to her side, the Pope had never
had any intention of empowering his legate. Charles V resisted the
annulment of his aunt's marriage, but it is not clear how far this
Catherine of Aragon, first queen of Henry VIII.
influenced the pope. But it is clear that Henry saw that the Pope was
unlikely to give him an annulment from the Emperor's aunt.[31] The
pope forbade Henry to proceed to a new marriage before a decision was given in Rome, not in England. Wolsey bore
the blame. Convinced that he was treacherous, Anne Boleyn maintained pressure until Wolsey was dismissed from
public office in 1529. After being dismissed, the cardinal begged her to help him return to power, but she refused. He
then began a plot to have Anne forced into exile and began communication with Queen Catherine and the Pope to
that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and had it not been for his death from illness in
1530, he might have been executed for treason.[32] His replacement, Sir Thomas More, initially cooperated with the
king's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament and proclaiming the opinion of the theologians at Oxford and
Cambridge that the marriage of Henry to Catherine had been unlawful. As Henry began to deny the authority of the
Pope, More's qualms grew.
A year later, Queen Catherine was banished from court and her old rooms were given to Anne. With Wolsey gone,
Anne had considerable power over political matters. She was an unusually educated and intellectual woman for her
time, and was keenly absorbed and engaged with the ideas of the Protestant Reformers. When Archbishop of
Canterbury William Warham died, Anne had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed to the
vacant position. Through the intervention of the King of France, this was conceded by Rome, the pallium being
granted to him by Clement.[33]
Breaking the power of Rome in England proceeded slowly. In 1532, a lawyer who was a supporter of Anne, Thomas
Cromwell, brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the
Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church. Following these acts, Thomas More
resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister.[34]
Second marriage
In the winter of 1532 Henry attended a meeting with Francis I of France at Calais in which he enlisted the support of
the French king for his new marriage.[35] Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry and Anne went
through a secret wedding service.[36] She soon became pregnant and there was a second wedding service in London
on 25 January 1533. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory
to rule on the validity of the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine
null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be valid.[37]
Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, and Anne was crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The
queen gave birth to a daughter slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. The child was christened Elizabeth, in
7
Henry VIII of England
8
honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York.[38] Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the
marriage of Henry and Anne with the Act of Succession 1533. Catherine's daughter, Mary, was declared illegitimate,
and Anne's issue were declared next in the line of succession. Most notable in this declaration was a clause
repudiating "any foreign authority, prince or potentate". All adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the
Act's provisions by oath; those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life. Any publisher or printer of any
literature alleging that the marriage was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason and could be punished by
death.
Separation from Rome: 1533–1540
Meanwhile, Parliament had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted
the penalties of praemunire against all who introduced papal bulls into
England. Parliament also prohibited the Church from making any
regulations (canons) without the king's consent. It was only then that
Pope Clement at last took the step of launching sentences of
excommunication against Henry and Thomas Cranmer,[39] [40]
declaring at the same time the archbishop's decree of annulment to be
invalid and the marriage with Anne null and papal nuncio was
withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome were
broken off.[33] Several more laws were passed in England. The
Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect
bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The Act of Supremacy in 1534
declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the
Church of England" and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason,
punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. In
response to the excommunications, the Peter's Pence Act was passed in
and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only
your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by
"the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the
Pope.[41]
Portrait of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen,
likely derived from an original (1533-1536) since
lost
In defiance of the Pope the Church of England was now under Henry’s control, not Rome's. Protestant Reformers
still faced persecution, particularly over objections to Henry's annulment. Many fled abroad where they met further
difficulties, including the influential William Tyndale, who was eventually burned at King Henry's behest.
Theological and practical reforms would follow only under Henry's successors (see end of section).
Personal troubles
The king and queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but
Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. The vivacity and opinionated intellect that had made her so
attractive as an illicit lover made her too independent for the largely ceremonial role of a royal wife, given that
Henry expected absolute obedience from those who interacted with him in an official capacity at court. It also made
her many enemies. For his part, Henry disliked Anne’s constant irritability and violent temper. After a false
pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534,
Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to
Catherine.[42]
Henry VIII of England
9
Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in
England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed.
The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of
Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, Henry's former Lord Chancellor,
both of whom refused to take the oath to the King and were
subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tower Hill,
just outside the Tower of London.
These suppressions, including the Dissolution of the Lesser
Monasteries Act of 1536, in turn contributed to further resistance
among the English people, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a
large uprising in northern England in October, 1536. Henry VIII
The Tower of London, the site of many royal
executions.
promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for
raising the issues to his attention, then invited the rebel leader, Robert
Aske to a royal banquet. At the banquet, Henry asked Aske to write down what had happened so he could have a
better idea of the problems he would "change." Aske did what the King asked, although what he had written was
later used against him as a confession. The King's word could not be questioned (as he was held as God's chosen,
and second only to God himself) so Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go
home. However, because Henry saw the rebels as traitors, he did not feel obliged to keep his promises. The rebels
realised that the King was not keeping his promises and rebelled again later that year, but their strength was less in
the second attempt and the King ordered the rebellion crushed. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and
executed for treason.
Execution of Anne Boleyn
On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Upon hearing the news
of her death, Henry and Anne reportedly decked themselves in bright yellow clothing, yellow being the colour of
mourning in Spain at the time. Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine's death. The queen was
pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Her life could be in
danger, as with both wives dead, Henry would be free to remarry and no one could claim that the union was illegal.
Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured. It seemed for a time that the King's
life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the queen she was sent into shock and miscarried a male
child that was about 15 weeks old, on the day of Catherine’s funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this
personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage.[43]
Given the King's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author
Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the birth of the male
child she miscarried in 1536.[44] Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible
miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January
1536.[45] As Anne recovered from her final miscarriage, Henry declared that his marriage had been the product of
witchcraft. The King's new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into new quarters. This was followed by
Anne's brother, George Boleyn, being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, which was instead
given to Jane Seymour's brother.[46]
Five men, including Anne's own brother, were arrested on charges of incest and treason, accused of having sexual
relationships with the queen.[47] On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London. She was
accused of adultery, incest and high treason.[48] Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused
were found guilty and condemned to death by the peers. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on
17 May 1536. At 8 a.m. on 19 May 1536, the queen was executed on Tower Green. She knelt upright, in the French
style of executions. The execution was swift and consisted of a single stroke.[49]
Henry VIII of England
10
Birth of a prince
One day after Anne's execution in 1536 Henry became engaged to Jane Seymour,
one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting to whom the king had been showing favour
for some time. They were married 10 days later. At about the same time as this,
his third marriage, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535,
which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one unified
nation. This was followed by the Act of Succession 1536, which declared
Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared
both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them
from the throne. The king was granted the power to further determine the line of
succession in his will. In 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the
future Edward VI. The birth was difficult and the queen died at Hampton Court
Palace on 24 October 1537 from an infection. After Jane's death, the entire court
mourned with Henry for an extended period. Henry considered Jane to be his
"true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so
desperately sought. He was later to be buried next to her at his death.
Jane Seymour became Henry's third
wife.
Final years: 1540–1547
In 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to saints. At this
time, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure the succession.
Thomas Cromwell, created Earl of Essex, suggested Anne, the sister of
the Protestant Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in
case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the
Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the
king. Although it has been said that he painted her in a more flattering
light, it is unlikely that the portrait was highly inaccurate, since
Holbein remained in favour at court. After regarding Holbein's
portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given
by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in
England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately
calling her a "Flanders Mare".
Henry around 1539 or 1540
Henry VIII of England
11
Henry wished to annul the marriage so he could marry another. The Duke of
Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with
whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to
impede Henry's quest for an annulment. Upon the question of marital sex, she
testified that her marriage had never been consummated. Henry was said to have
come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead
before retiring. All impediments to an annulment were thus removed.
Portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans
Holbein the Younger, 1539.
The marriage was subsequently dissolved and Anne received the title of "The
King's Sister", and was granted Hever Castle, the former residence of the Boleyn
family. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the
marriage and was subsequently attainted and beheaded. The office of Vicegerent
in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled.
On 28 July 1540, (the same day Cromwell was executed) Henry married the
young Catherine Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin and a lady-in-waiting of
Anne's.[50] He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Soon after her
marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier Thomas
Culpeper. She also employed Francis Dereham, who was previously informally
engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary.
Thomas Cranmer, who was opposed to the powerful Roman Catholic Howard
family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the king's notice.
Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer
to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication.
When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry
Miniature Portrait of Catherine
Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but
Howard by Hans Holbein the
she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous
Younger, 1540.
relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with
Thomas Culpeper. As was the case with Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not technically have been guilty of
adultery, as the marriage was officially null and void from the beginning. Again, this point was ignored, and
Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. She was aged between 17 and 22 when she died (opinions differ as to
her year of birth). That same year, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred
to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops came to
comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The Lords Spiritual, as members of the clergy with seats in the
House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal.
Henry VIII of England
Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in 1543. She
argued with Henry over religion; she was a reformer, but Henry remained a
conservative. This behaviour nearly proved her undoing, but she saved herself by
a show of submissiveness. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two
daughters, the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament
put the daughters back in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales,
though they were still deemed illegitimate. The same act allowed Henry to
determine further succession to the throne in his will.
A wave of political executions that commenced with Edmund de la Pole, Duke of
Suffolk in 1513 ended with Henry Earl of Surrey in January, 1547. Although
some sources claim that, according to Holinshed, the number of executions in
Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth and
this reign amounted to 72,000, the figure referred to "great thieves, petty thieves,
final wife.
and rogues," and the source is not Holinshed but the English clergyman William
Harrison. This inflated figure came from Gerolamo Cardano who in turn got it from the Roman Catholic Bishop of
Lisieux.[51]
Death and succession
Late in life, Henry became obese (with a waist measurement of
54 inches/137 cm) and had to be moved about with the help of
mechanical inventions. He was covered with painful, puss-filled boils
and possibly suffered from gout. His obesity and other medical
problems can be traced from a jousting accident in 1536 in which he
suffered a leg wound. The accident actually re-opened and aggravated
a previous leg wound he had sustained years earlier, to the extent that
King Henry VIII died in the Palace of Whitehall
his doctors found it difficult (if not impossible) to treat it. The wound
in 1547.
festered for the remainder of his life and became ulcerated, thus
preventing him from maintaining the same level of physical activity
and daily exercise that he had previously enjoyed. The jousting accident is also believed to have caused in Henry
mood swings, which may have had a dramatic effect on his personality and temperament.[52] Concurrently, Henry
also developed a binge-eating habit, consisting of a diet of mainly fatty red meats and few vegetables. It is believed
that this habit was used as a coping mechanism for stress. Henry's obesity undoubtedly hastened his death at the age
of 55, which occurred on 28 January 1547 in the Palace of Whitehall, on what would have been his father's 90th
birthday. He expired soon after allegedly uttering these last words: "Monks! Monks! Monks!"[53]
The theory that Henry suffered from syphilis was first promoted approximately 100 years after his death, but has
been disregarded by most serious historians. Syphilis was a well-known disease in Henry's time, and although his
contemporary Francis I of France was treated for it, the notes left from Henry's physicians do not indicate that the
English king was. A more recent and credible theory suggests that Henry's medical symptoms, and those of his older
sister Margaret Tudor, are also characteristic of untreated Type II diabetes.
12
Henry VIII of England
13
Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle, next
to his wife Jane Seymour. Over a hundred years later Charles I was
buried in the same vault.
Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his royal
heirs sat on the English throne, and all three left no descendants. Under
the Act of Succession 1543, Henry's only surviving legitimate son,
Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming Edward VI. Since Edward was
only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power.
Meeting of Henry VIII and Maximilian
Henry's will designated 16 executors to serve on a council of regency
until Edward reached the age of 18. The executors chose Edward
Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be Lord Protector of the Realm. In default of heirs to
Edward, the throne was to pass to Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the Princess Mary, and her heirs. If
Mary's issue also failed, the crown was to go to Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, Princess Elizabeth, and her heirs.
Finally, if Elizabeth's line also became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's
deceased younger sister, Mary. The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret Tudor—the royal family of
Scotland—were therefore excluded from succession according to this act. This final provision failed when James VI
of Scotland subsequently became James I of England upon Elizabeth's death.
Public image and memory
Henry worked hard to present an image of unchallengeable authority and irresistible power. He executed at will,
beheading more English notables than any monarch before or since. The roll of heads included two wives, one
cardinal, twenty peers, four leading public servants, and six of the king's close attendants and friends, not to mention
various heads of monasteries. In addition Cardinal Wolsey died in prison.
A big, strong man (over six feet tall and broad in proportion), he excelled at jousting and hunting. More than
pastimes, they were political devices that served multiple goals, from enhancing his athletic royal image to
impressing foreign emissaries and rulers, to conveying Henry's ability to suppress any rebellion. Thus he arranged a
jousting tournament at Greenwich in 1517, where he wore gilded armour, gilded horse trappings, and outfits of
velvet, satin and cloth of gold dripping with pearls and jewels. It suitably impressed foreign ambassadors, one of
whom wrote home that, "The wealth and civilisation of the world are here, and those who call the English barbarians
appear to me to render themselves such." Henry finally retired from the lists in 1536 after a heavy fall from his horse
left him unconscious for two hours, but he continued to sponsor two lavish tournaments a year.[54] He then started
adding weight and lost that trim athletic look that had made him so handsome; Henry's courtiers began dressing in
heavily padded clothes to emulate—and flatter—their increasingly stout monarch.
Henry was an intellectual. The first well-educated English king, he was thoroughly at home in his well-stocked
library; he personally annotated many books and wrote and published his own book. He founded Christ Church
Cathedral School, Oxford, in 1546. To promote the public support for the reformation of the church, Henry had
numerous pamphlets and lectures prepared. For example, Richard Sampson's Oratio (1534) was a legalistic
argument for absolute obedience to the temporal power as vested in divine law and Christian love ("obey my
commandments"). Sampson cited historical precedents (now known to be spurious) to support his claim that the
English church had always been independent from Rome.[55] At the popular level theater and minstrel troupes
funded by the crown traveled around the land to promote the new religious practices and ridicule the old. In the
polemical plays they presented, the pope and Catholic priests and monks were mocked as foreign devils, while the
glorious king was hailed as a brave and heroic defender of the true faith.[56]
Henry VIII was an avid gambler and dice player. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and poet; his best
known piece of music is "Pastime with Good Company" ("The Kynges Ballade"). He is often reputed to have written
Henry VIII of England
14
"Greensleeves" but probably did not. The King was also involved in the original construction and improvement of
several significant buildings, including Nonsuch Palace, King's College Chapel, Cambridge and Westminster Abbey
in London. Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as Christ
Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, the Palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge.
The only surviving piece of clothing worn by Henry VIII is a cap of maintenance awarded to the Mayor of
Waterford, along with a bearing sword, in 1536. It currently resides in the Waterford Museum of Treasures. A suit of
Henry's armour is on display in the Tower of London. In the centuries since his death, Henry has inspired or been
mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works.
Royal finances
Henry inherited a vast fortune from his father Henry VII who had, in contrast to his son, been frugal and careful with
money. This fortune was estimated to £1,250,000 (£375 million by today's standards).[57] Much of this wealth was
spent by Henry on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal
palaces. Tudor monarchs had to fund all the expenses of government out of their own income. This income came
from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like tonnage and poundage, granted by
parliament to the king for life. During Henry's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant (around
£100,000),[58] but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war. Indeed it was war and Henry's
dynastic ambitions in Europe that meant that the surplus he had inherited from his father was exhausted by the
mid-1520s. Whereas Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, Henry VIII had to turn to
Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars. The Dissolution of the
Monasteries also provided a means to replenish the treasury and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic
lands worth £120,000 (£36 million) a year.[59] But Henry had to debase the coinage in 1526 and 1539 in order to
solve his financial problems, and despite his ministers efforts to reduce costs and waste at court, Henry died in debt.
Legacy
Though mainly motivated by dynastic and personal concerns, and despite never really abandoning the fundamentals
of the Roman Catholic Church, Henry ensured that the greatest act of his reign would be one of the most radical and
decisive of any English monarch. His break with Rome in 1533–34 was an act with enormous consequences for the
subsequent course of English history beyond the Tudor dynasty. Not only in making possible the transformation of
England into a powerful (albeit very distinctive) nation; but also in the seizing of economic and political power from
the Church by the aristocracy, chiefly through the acquisition of monastic lands and assets – a short-term strategy
with long-term social consequences. Henry's decision to entrust the regency of his son Edward's minor years to a
decidedly reform-oriented regency council, dominated by Edward Seymour, most likely for the simple tactical
reason that Seymour seemed likely to provide the strongest leadership for the kingdom, ensured that the English
Reformation would be consolidated and even furthered during his son's reign. Such ironies marked other aspects of
his legacy.
He fostered humanist learning and yet was responsible for the deaths of
several outstanding English humanists. Obsessed with securing the
succession to the throne, he left as his only heirs a young son (who
died before his 16th birthday) and two daughters adhering to different
religions. The power of the state was magnified. Henry worked with
some success to make England once again a major player on the
European scene but depleted his treasury in the course of doing so, a
legacy that has remained an issue for English monarchs ever since.
Silver groat of Henry VIII, minted c. 1540. The
reverse depicts the quartered arms of England and
France.
Henry VIII of England
Scarisbrick (1968) concludes that Henry was a formidable, captivating man who "wore regality with a splendid
conviction." But unpredictably his overpowering charm could turn into anger and shouting, for he was high-strung
and unstable; hypochondriac and possessed of a strong streak of cruelty. Smith (1971) considered him an egotistical
border-line neurotic given to great fits of temper and deep and dangerous suspicions, with a mechanical and
conventional, but deeply held piety, having at best "a mediocre intellect" to hold these contradictory forces in
harness.
English navy
Together with Alfred the Great and Charles II, Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy.
His reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a
few spectacular great ships such as Mary Rose), dockyards (such as HMNB Portsmouth) and naval innovations (such
as the use of cannon on board ship – although archers were still deployed on medieval-style forecastles and
bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannons were used). However, in
some ways this is a misconception since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a navy in the sense of a
formalised organisation with structures, ranks, and formalised munitioning structures but only in the sense of a set of
ships. Elizabeth I still had to cobble together a set of privately owned ships to fight off the Spanish Armada (which
consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships) and in the former, formal sense the modern British
navy, the Royal Navy, is largely a product of the Anglo-Dutch naval rivalry of the seventeenth century. Still, Henry's
reign marked the birth of English naval power and was a key factor in England's later victory over the Spanish
Armada.
Henry's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion. To guard against this he
strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses such as Dover Castle and, also at Dover, Moat Bulwark and
Archcliffe Fort, which he personally visited for a few months to supervise (as commemorated in the modern
exhibition in the keep of Dover Castle). He also built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned
gun batteries) along Britain's southern and eastern coasts from East Anglia to Cornwall, largely built of material
gained from the demolition of the monasteries. These were also known as Henry VIII's Device Forts.
Style and arms
Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by
the Grace of God, King of England, France and Lord of Ireland". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X
rewarding a book by Henry, the Defence of the Seven Sacraments, attacking Martin Luther, the royal style became
"Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland".
Following Henry's excommunication, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an
Act of Parliament declared that it remained valid; and it continues in royal usage to the present day.
In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of
God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth
Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the Church of England" changed to "of the Church of England and also of
Ireland".
15
Henry VIII of England
Henry's shield as the Duke of York.
16
In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title "Lord of
Ireland" to "King of Ireland" with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, after
being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true
head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative.
The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that
Ireland had originally been given to the King Henry II of England by
Pope Adrian IV in the twelfth century as a feudal territory under papal
overlordship. The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry
VIII as King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic
Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats. The style "Henry
the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland,
Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland
in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.
Henry's motto was "Coeur Loyal" ("true heart") and he had this
embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word "loyal". His emblem was the Tudor rose
and the Beaufort portcullis.
As Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father (i.e. those of the kingdom), differenced by a label of three points
ermine. As king, Henry's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure
three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England).
Coat of Arms as Prince of Wales Henry VIII of England
17
Coat of arms of King Henry VIII (early reign) Coat of arms of King Henry VIII (later reign) Current celebrations
An exhibition called Henry VIII: Man and Monarch, curated by David Starkey,[60] was held at the British Library in
2009. In 2009, Henry's 500th year anniversary of his coronation was celebrated in his few favorite palaces along the
Thames River.
Marriages and issue
Henry VIII of England
18
Name
Birth
Death
Notes
By Catherine of Aragon (married Greenwich Palace 11 June 1509; annulled 23 May 1533)
Unnamed Daughter
31 January 1510 2 February 1510
Henry, Duke of Cornwall
1 January 1511
22 February 1511
Henry, Duke of Cornwall
December 1514
died within one month of
birth
Queen Mary I
18 February
1516
17 November 1558
Unnamed Daughter
November 1518
died within one week of
birth
married 1554, Philip II of Spain; no issue
By Anne Boleyn (married Westminster Abbey 25 January 1533; annulled 17 May 1536) beheaded on 19 May 1536
Queen Elizabeth I
7 September
1533
24 March 1603
never married; no issue
By Jane Seymour (married York Place 30 May 1536; Jane Seymour died 24 October 1537)
King Edward VI
12 October 1537 6 July 1553
unmarried; no issue
By Anne of Cleves (married Greenwich Palace 6 January 1540; annulled 9 July 1540)
no issue
By Catherine Howard (married Oatlands Palace 28 July 1540; annulled 23 November 1541) beheaded on 13 February 1542
no issue
By Catherine Parr (married Hampton Court Palace 12 July 1543; Henry VIII died 28 January 1547)
no issue
By Elizabeth Blount
Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and
Somerset
15 June 1519
23 July 1536
illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard;
no issue
By Mary Boleyn
Paternity is debated by historians.
Catherine Carey, Lady Knollys
c. 1524
15 January 1569
married Sir Francis Knollys; had issue
Henry Carey, Baron Hunsdon
4 March 1526
23 July 1596
married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issue
List of Popes from Henry VIII Age 12 to Death
Arthur Tudor the older brother of Henry VIII died after 20 weeks of marriage when Henry was age 10. Elizabeth of
York, his mother, died when Henry was age 11.
Henry VIII of England
Pontificate
19
Portrait
Involvement with Henry VIII
Julius II
31 October 1503 – 21
February 1513
Henry VIII between
ages of 12 and 21.
Henry and the Pope
close allies.
Granted the dispensation for Henry to marry the widow of his brother. Julius was the warrior pope. In
1511 the Holy League was formed for the purpose of delivering Italy from French rule. England joined the
League on 17 November 1511.
Leo X
9 March 1513 – 1
December 1521
Henry VIII between
ages of 21 and 30.
Henry and the Pope
close allies.
Granted Henry VIII the title of Defender of the Faith in the last week of his life. Excommunicated Martin
Luther.
Adrian VI
9 January 1522 – 14
September 1523
Henry VIII between
ages of 30 and 32.
Short pontificate.
Only Dutch pope. Pontificate lasted only 613 days.
Clement VII
26 November 1523 –
25 September 1534
Henry VIII between
ages of 32 and 42.
Henry formed
Anglican Church
Granted Henry VIII his 1527 divorce.
Paul III
13 October 1534 – 10
November 1549
Henry VIII between
ages of 42 and death.
Final break from pope.
Catherine of Aragon died 15 months after his election. On 17-Dec-1538, four years into his pontificate,
Paul III excommunicated Henry VIII.
[61]
See also
• Cestui que
• The Rough Wooing
References
[1] J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII, p.361
[2] Robert M. Adams, The land and literature of England (1986) p. 111-12
[3] Eric Ives, "Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up?" History Today 2006 56(2): 28-36
[4] Crofton, p.128.
[5] Crofton, p.129
[6] Churchill, p.29
[7] Crofton, p.126.
[8] Guicciardini, History of Italy, 280.
[9] Elton (1977)
[10] MacCulloch (1995)
[11] Simon Thurley, "Palaces for a nouveau riche king." History Today, (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in Academic Search Premier
[12] Thomas, Andrea, Princelie Majestie, Birlinn (2005), 79-80 citing Simon Thurley, The Royal Palaces of Tudor England, 222-4.
Henry VIII of England
[13] Jonathan Davies, "'We Do Fynde in Our Countre Great Lack of Bowes and Arrows': Tudor Military Archery and the Inventory of King
Henry VIII," Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 2005 83(333): 11–29. Issn: 0037-9700
[14] G. R. Elton, The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII (1962) online edition (http:/ / www.
questia. com/ read/ 2993196?title=The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII); Elton, Reform
and Reformation: England, 1509–1558 (1977) is sharply hostile toward the king—an "ego-centric monstrosity," whose reign "owed its
successes and virtues to better and greater men about him; most of its horrors and failures sprang more directly from himself." p. 43
[15] A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII (1905) provides the classic statement of the Henrician position, esp. pp 230–38, noting that Spain and France
stayed loyal because they controlled the papacy.
[16] G. W. Bernard, The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church (2005)
[17] Richard Rex, "The Crisis of Obedience: God's Word and Henry's Reformation." Historical Journal 1996 39(4): 863–894. Issn: 0018-246x in
Jstor (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2639860)
[18] Meyer, G. J. The Tudors 2010, 254-56.
[19] Meyer, 269-72.
[20] M. L. Bush, "The Tudor Polity and the Pilgrimage of Grace." Historical Research 2007 80(207): 47–72. Issn: 0950-3471 Fulltext: Ebsco;
Geoffrey Moorhouse, The Pilgrimage of Grace: The Rebellion That Shook Henry VIII's Throne (2003) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www.
amazon. com/ Pilgrimage-Grace-Rebellion-Shook-Throne/ dp/ 1842126660/ ref=pd_ts_b_33?ie=UTF8& s=books)
[21] Weir, Alison (2002). Henry VIII: The King and His Court. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 9780345437082.
[22] Hart, Kelly (2009). The Mistresses of Henry VIII (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=r6HGPAAACAAJ) (First date=June 1, 2009 ed.). The
History Press. p. 27. ISBN 0752448358. .
[23] PRO, E36/215 f.449
[24] Fraser, Antonia (1994). The Wives of Henry VIII (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=24UKxUPB5goC). Vintage Books. p. Page 220.
ISBN 9780679730019. .
[25] Weir, Alison. The Lady in the Tower: The Fall of Anne Boleyn. Random House Publishing Group. pp. 13–14,375. ISBN 9780345453211.
[26] Lacey, p.70.
[27] Scarisbrick, p. 154.
[28] Weir, p. 160.
[29] "Henry VIII" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
[30] Brigden, p.114.
[31] Morris, p.166.
[32] Haigh p.92f
[33] "Clement VII" in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia.
[34] Williams p. 136.
[35] Williams, p.123.
[36] Starkey, pp. 462–464.
[37] Williams, p.124.
[38] Williams, pp.128–131.
[39] Historians disagree on the exact date of the excommunication; according to Winston Churchill's 'History of the English Speaking Peoples',
the bull of 1533 was a draft with penalties left blank and was not made official until 1535. Others say Henry was not officially
excommunicated until 1538, by Pope Paul III, brother of Cardinal Franklin de la Thomas.
[40] According to J. J. Scarisbrick, Henry VIII, p.361, Pope Paul promulgated the Bull of Excommunication on 17 December 1538
[41] Lehmberg.
[42] Williams, p.138.
[43] Williams, p.141.
[44] Ashley, p.240.
[45] Williams, chapter 4.
[46] Williams, p.142.
[47] Williams, pp.143–144.
[48] Hibbert, pp.54–55.
[49] Hibbert, p.60.
[50] Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.75. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259.
[51] Harrison, William; Georges Edelen The Description of England: Classic Contemporary Account of Tudor Social Life' Dover Publications
Inc.; New edition edition (Feb 1995) originally published 1557 ISBN 978-0486282756 p.193
"Bishop+of+Lisieux"+Henry+VIII+"William+Harrison"&ei=KY-ySsWdB5iwMoDIndcD#v=onepage&q=&f=false (http:/ / books. google.
co. uk/ books?id=4qwDICPz6OoC& pg=PA193& dq=)
[52] "The jousting accident that turned Henry VIII into a tyrant - This Britain, UK" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ uk/ this-britain/
the-jousting-accident-that-turned-henry-viii-into-a-tyrant-1670421. html). The Independent. 2009-04-18. . Retrieved 2010-08-25.
[53] Davies, p. 687.
[54] Steven Gunn, "Tournaments and early Tudor chivalry," History Today, (June 1991), Vol. 41, #6 in Academic Search Premier; James
Williams, "Hunting and the Royal Image of Henry VIII" Sport in History 2005 25(1): 41–59. Issn: 1746-0263
20
Henry VIII of England
[55] Andrew A. Chibi, "Richard Sampson, His Oratio, and Henry VIII's Royal Supremacy." Journal of Church and State 1997 39(3): 543–560.
Issn: 0021-969x Fulltext: Ebsco
[56] See Thomas Betteridge, "The Henrician Reformation and Mid-Tudor Culture." Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 2005 35(1):
91–109. Issn: 1082-9636 Fulltext: Ebsco. Original documents are collected by the Centre for Research in Early English Drama at Victoria
University, Toronto (http:/ / www. reed. utoronto. ca/ index. html)
[57] Weir, p.13
[58] Weir, p.64
[59] Weir, p. 393
[60] "Henry VIII: Man and Monarch" (http:/ / www. bl. uk/ henry). . Retrieved 2009-07-03.
[61] "Pope Clement VII Catholic Encyclopedia" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 04024a. htm). .
Sources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The New World by Winston Churchill (1966).
The Reformation Parliament, 1529–1536 by Stanford E. Lehmberg (1970).
Henry VIII and his Court by Neville Williams (1971).
The Life and Times of Henry VIII by Robert Lacey (1972).
The Six Wives of Henry VIII by Alison Weir (1991) ISBN 0802136834.
English Reformations by Christopher Haigh (1993).
Europe: A history by Norman Davies (1998) ISBN 978-0060974688.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century by T. A. Morris (1998).
New Worlds, Lost Worlds by Susan Brigden (2000).
Henry VIII: The King and His Court by Alison Weir (2001).
British Kings & Queens by Mike Ashley (2002) ISBN 0-7867-1104-3.
Henry VIII: The King and His Court by Alison Weir (2002) ISBN 034543708X.
Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII by David Starkey (2003) ISBN 0060005505.
The Kings and Queens of England by Ian Crofton (2006).
Bibliography
Biographical
• Bowle, John. Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action Little, Brown, 1964.
• Erickson, Carolly. Mistress Anne: The Exceptional Life of Anne Boleyn. (1984) 464 pp. popular biography
• Cressy, David. "Spectacle and Power: Apollo and Solomon at the Court of Henry VIII." History Today 1982
32(oct): 16–22. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: Ebsco Traces the transition of Henry from Renaissance monarch (the
youthful Apollo) to Reformation patriarch (the aging Solomon) using the graphics and visual images displayed in
his court, festivals, and kingdom.
• Gardner, James. "Henry VIII" in Cambridge Modern History vol 2 (1903), a brief political history online edition
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh213.html)
• Graves, Michael. Henry VIII (2003) 217pp, topical coverage
• Ives, E. W. "Henry VIII (1491–1547)", in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (2004), online at OUP, a
good starting point
• Pollard, A.F. Henry VIII (1905) 470 pp; the first modern biography, accurate and still valuable value online
edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=q0cDAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:henry+
intitle:viii+inauthor:pollard&lr=&as_brr=0)
• Rex, Richard. Henry VIII and the English Reformation. (1993). 205 pp.
• Ridley, Jasper. Henry VIII. (1985). 473 pp. popular biography
• Scarisbrick, J. J. Henry VIII (1968) 592pp, a favourable scholarly biography
21
Henry VIII of England
• Smith, Lacey Baldwin. Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty (1971), a leading scholar writes a psycho-biography
online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/85955084?title=Henry VIII: The Mask of Royalty)
• Starkey, David. Six Wives: the Queens of Henry VIII (2003) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
Six-Wives-Queens-Henry-VIII/dp/069401043X/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1211115162&sr=1-9)
• Starkey, David. The Reign of Henry VIII: Personalities and Politics (1986). 174pp
• Starkey, David, and Susan Doran. Henry VIII: Man and Monarch (2009) 288pp
• Tytler, Patrick Fraser (1836). Life of King Henry the Eighth (http://books.google.com/
?id=lWUDAAAAQAAJ). Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd (published 1837). Retrieved 2008-08-17
• Weir, Alison. Henry VIII, King and Court (2001). 640pp a flattering portrait excerpt and text search (http://
www.amazon.com/Henry-VIII-King-His-Court/dp/034543708X/)
• Weir, Alison. The Children of Henry VIII. (1996). 400 pp.
Scholarly studies
• Bernard, G. W. The King's Reformation: Henry VIII and the Remaking of the English Church. (2005). 712 pp.
excerpts and text search (http://books.google.com/books?id=p2MOt53sCCgC&printsec=frontcover&
dq=intitle:King's+intitle:Reformation+inauthor:bernard&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&
sig=WTvpwPbd8txXGzbj0RP3pA9Qut8)
• Bernard, G. W. "The Making of Religious Policy, 1533–1546: Henry VIII and the Search for the Middle Way."
Historical Journal 1998 41(2): 321–349. Issn: 0018-246x Fulltext: in Jstor (http://www.jstor.org/stable/
2640109)
• Bernard, G. W. War, Taxation, and Rebellion in Early Tudor England: Henry VIII, Wolsey, and the Amicable
Grant of 1525. (1986). 164 pp
• Elton, G. R. The Tudor Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII (1953;
revised 1962), major interpretation online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/2993196?title=The Tudor
Revolution in Government: Administrative Changes in the Reign of Henry VIII)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Coleman, Christoper, and David Starkey, eds. Revolution Reassessed: Revision in the History of Tudor
Government and Administration (1986), evaluates Elton thesis
Elton, G. R. Reform and Reformation: England, 1509–1558 (1977), hostile to Henry
Fielder, Martha Anne. "Iconographic Themes in Portraits of Henry VIII." PhD dissertation Texas Christian U.
1985. 232 pp. DAI 1985 46(6): 1424-A. DA8517256 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Fox, Alistair, and John Guy, eds. Reassessing the Henrician Age: Humanism, Politics and Reform 1500–1550
(1986), 242pp; advanced essays by scholars
Head, David M. "Henry VIII's Scottish Policy: a Reassessment." Scottish Historical Review 1982 61(1): 1–24.
Issn: 0036-9241 Argues that if Henry intended to take over Scotland then his 1542 victory at Solway Moss was
the opportune moment, for the French were unable to intervene, the Scottish nobility was in disarray, and the
infant Mary was in line for Scotland's throne. Instead, Henry adopted a policy similar to that in Ireland, since he
could not afford outright conquest or the luxury of diplomacy.
Lindsey, Karen. Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII (1995)
online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/6981860?title=Divorced, Beheaded, Survived: A Feminist
Reinterpretation of the Wives of Henry VIII)
Loades, David. Henry VIII: Court, Church and Conflict (2007) 248pp; by a leading scholar excerpt and text
search (http://www.amazon.com/Henry-VIII-Court-Church-Conflict/dp/1903365996/)
MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ed. The Reign of Henry VIII: Politics, Policy, and Piety. (1995). 313 pp. essays by
scholars
• Marshall, Peter. "(Re)defining the English Reformation," Journal of British Studies July 2009, Vol. 48 Issue 3, pp
564–85,
22
Henry VIII of England
• Mackie, J. D. The Earlier Tudors, 1485–1558 (1952), a political survey of the era online edition (http://www.
questia.com/read/8546253?title=The Earlier Tudors, 1485-1558)
• Moorhouse, Geoffrey. Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower (2007)
• Moorhouse, Geoffrey. The Last Divine Office: Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries (2009)
• Slavin, Arthur J., ed. Henry VIII and the English Reformation (1968), readings by historians. online edition (http:/
/www.questia.com/read/97615501?title=Henry VIII and the English Reformation)
• Smith, H. Maynard. Henry VIII and the Reformation (1948) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
8851653?title=Henry VIII and the Reformation)
• Wagner, John A. Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors (2003). ISBN
1-57356-540-7.
• Walker, Greg. Writing under Tyranny: English Literature and the Henrician Reformation. (2005). 556 pp.
Historiography and memory
• Head, David M. "'If a Lion Knew His Own Strength': the Image of Henry VIII and His Historians." International
Social Science Review 1997 72(3–4): 94–109. Issn: 0278-2308 Fulltext: Ebsco
• Hoak, Dale. "Politics, Religion and the English Reformation, 1533–1547: Some Problems and Issues." History
Compass 2005 3 (Britain and Ireland): 7 pp Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: Blackwell Synergy
• Ives, Eric. "Will the Real Henry VIII Please Stand Up?" History Today 2006 56(2): 28–36. Issn: 0018-2753
Fulltext: Ebsco
• Rankin, Mark. 'Imagining Henry VIII: Cultural Memory and the Tudor King, 1535–1625'. PhD Dissrertation,
Ohio State. U. Dissertation Abstracts International 2007 68(5): 1987-A. DA3264565, 403p.
Primary sources
• Williams, C. M. A. H. English Historical Documents, 1485–1558 (1996) online sources (http://www.questia.
com/read/104189416?title=English Historical Documents, 1485-1558)
External links
• Henry VIII (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Society_and_Culture/
History/Monarchy/Tudor/Henry_VIII/) at the Open Directory Project
• Tudor bio (http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudorbio.htm)
• Jokinen, A. (2004). Henry VIII (1491–1547). (http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm)
• Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII". (http://tudorhistory.org/wives/)
• Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII". (http://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/)
• Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems" (http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/vallieres.htm)
• Ask About Ireland: Waterford Museum of Treasures Collection: Cap of Maintenance (http://web.archive.org/
web/20080214103619/http://www.askaboutireland.ie/show_narrative_page.do?page_id=2863)
• Henry VIII of England (http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00008146&tree=LEO) at
Genealogics
• Luminarium: King Henry VIII (http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm) Life, works, essays, study
resources
• Henry VIII Podcast Show (http://historicalpodcasts.googlepages.com/henryviii)
• Henry VIII and his wives (http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/henry8.htm)
• Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor Portraits: Henry VIII". (http://web.archive.org/web/20070522020910/www.
tudor-portraits.com/Henry_VIII.htm)
• Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). "Henry VIII". (http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/aboutHenryVIII.htm)
23
Henry VIII of England
• Stevens, Garry. (2003). "Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court" (http://www.archsoc.com/games/Henry.
html)
• Perrott, Terry. (2004). "Sir John Perrott". (http://web.archive.org/web/20060917151400/http://members.
ozemail.com.au/~tperrott/sirjohn.htm)
• Illustrated history of Henry VIII. (http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/tudor_4.htm)
• Henry VIII at Find A Grave (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=473)
• Martin Luther to Henry VIII, 1 September 1525 (http://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&
vid=OCLC02338418&dq=" Luther's+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters"&jtp=333)
• Henry VIII to Martin Luther. August, 1526 (http://books.google.com/books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&
vid=OCLC02338418&dq=" Luther's+Correspondence+and+Other+Contemporary+Letters"&jtp=374)
• Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. January. 20, 1523 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=oEy_3aDT61sC&vid=OCLC02338418&dq=" Luther's+Correspondence+and+Other+
Contemporary+Letters"&jtp=160) re: Luther.
• "Henry VIII Revealed" (http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/exhibitions/henry/default.asp),
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 2003. – A discussion of the Holbein's 1536 portrait of Henry VIII and related
portraits
• Free scores (http://icking-music-archive.org/ByComposer/Henry_VIII.php) by Henry VIII of England in the
Werner Icking Music Archive (WIMA)
• Free scores by Henry VIII of England in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
• Henry VIII.: The Family Tree of the Tudors and the Stuarts in Pictures (http://www.kleio.org/en/history/
famtree/tudors_stuarts/abb2r.html)
24
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Henry VIII of England Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=389373433 Contributors: (jarbarf), 00ross, 09kjkl;, 123babyme, 142.150.48.xxx, 21655, 24816safe, 2ms, 5-HT8, 7,
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