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CHAPTER 1 MEANS OF ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER AT COASTAL AREAS AND SMALL ISLANDS DIRECTORATE OF COASTS AND OCEAN DIRECTORATE GENERAL MARINE, COASTAL AND SMALL ISLANDS MINISTRY OF MARINE AFFAIRS AND FISHERIES IN COOPERATED WITH JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY 1 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Pengarah : M. Syamsul Maarif (Direktur Jenderal Kelautan, Pesisir dan Pulau‐Pulau Kecil, DKP)
Penanggungjawab : Ida Kusuma W. (Direktur Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Tim Penyusun : Umi Windriani (Kasubdit Mi gasi Bencana dan Pencemaran Lingkungan, Dit. PL, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Subandono Diposaptono (Kasubdit Pengelolaan Pesisir dan Lautan Terpadu, Dit. PL, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Enggar Sadtopo (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Frista Yorhanita (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Fegi Nurhabni (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Erva Kurniawan (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Reni Indrawa (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Nelly Yulius (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Maikal Kisman (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Firman Ibnusina (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Sunaryo (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Giri Willisandy (Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Penyun ng : Umi Windriani (Kasubdit Mi gasi Bencana dan Pencemaran Lingkungan, Dit. PL, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Subandono Diposaptono (Kasubdit Pengelolaan Pesisir dan Lautan Terpadu, Dit. PL, Ditjen KP3K, DKP)
Isao Koya (JICA Expert)
Indriani (Sekretaris JICA Expert)
Cetakan : Pertama (Maret, 2009)
Diterbitkan Oleh : Direktorat Pesisir dan Lautan, Direktorat Jenderal Kelautan, Pesisir dan Pulau‐ Pulau Kecil Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan Gedung Mina Bahari II, Lt. 10, Jl. Medan Merdeka Timur No. 16, Jakarta Pusat 10110, Indonesia
Telp. +62‐21‐3519070 ext 1047; Fax. +62‐21‐3522059; Website: www.dkp.go.id
Bekerjasama Dengan
Japan Interna onal Coopera on Agency (JICA) JICA Project: Enhancement of Marine and Fisheries Administra on under the Centraliza on Office:
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
Mina Bahari II Building, 16th Floor, Jl. Medan Merdeka Timur No. 16, Jakarta Pusat 10110, Indonesia
Telp. +62‐21‐3519070 ext 1602; Fax. +62‐21‐3500065
Ucapan terima kasih disampaikan kepada Yth. 1.Widi A. Pra kto (Sekjen DKP);
2. Saifuddin (Kepala Biro Perencanaan DKP);
3. Sunggul Sinaga (Kapuskita DKP);
4. Sudirman Saad (Sesditjen KP3K);
5. Aris Kabul Pranoto (Kasubdit Jasa Kelautan dan Kemari man);
6. Eny Budi Sri Haryani (Kasubdit Rehabilitasi dan Pendayagunaan Pesisir dan Lautan);
7. Sri Atmini (Kabag Program Ditjen KP3K);
serta semua pihak yang telah membantu dalam penyusunan buku ini.
2 CHAPTER 1 Foreword B
eside of its richness of resources, Indonesia’s
coastal area is also vulnerable to natural
disaster. Climate change, tsunami, flood, erosion and
sedimentation are some of the examples. These disasters
need adaptation and mitigation measures so that the impact can be
minimized and the sustainability of the social economic activities in the
coastal and small can be kept.
The Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) c.q. Directorate
General of Marine, Coast and Small Islands Affairs has implemented
disaster adaptation and mitigation measures, one of them by publishing
Adaptation and Mitigation Measures in Coastal and Small Islands which
is in cooperation with Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). This
publishing aims to spread the information related to disaster adaptation
and mitigation that has been and will be conducted by MMAF.
Finally, I want to express my gratitude to all the people who has
contribute to the arrangement of this book. Hopefully this book can be
useful for stakeholders working in coastal and small islands disaster
management. Jakarta, March 2009
Director General of Marine, Coast, and Small Island Affairs Prof. Dr. M. Syamsul Maarif, M.Eng 3 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table of Content Foreword ______________________________________ 3 Table of Content ____________________________________ 4 Chapter 1. Opening _________________________________ 5 Chapter 2. Current Condition __________________________ 8 2.1. Impact of Climate Change in Coastal Areas
and Small Islands ________________________ 8
2.2. Natural Disaster ________________________ 43
2.3. Basis of Law Deals With Mitigation
of Disaster _____________________________ 53
Chapter 3. Policy, Strategy and Activity of MMAF in Effort of Mitigation Disaster Mitigation and Environmental Pollution ___________________ 55 3.1. Policy and Startegy ______________________ 55
3.2. MMAF Activity in Disaster Mitigation ________ 59
3.3. Disaster Mitigation Working Program and
Coastal Environment Pollution 2005‐2009 ____ 81
Chapter 4. Mid term Policy Strategy (2010 ‐ 2014)________ 88 4 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER I OPENING Coastal areas of Indonesia possesses quite a big potential for
development because of its ecosystem coupled with high biologi‐
cal productivity such like coral reef, mangrove forest, estuarine,
seagrass meadows, and etc. Currently coastal dan marine re‐
source is treated as one of promising fundamental asset for the
development of Indonesia aside from inland natural resource.
Besides that coastal areas also provide environmental service that
have quite siginificant economic
values. Coastal and marine re‐
sources have become more vital
in fulfilling human need in the
future as ground natural re‐
sources have become less due
to over exploitation.
In this last one decade, the progress of utilization of resource
at coastal areas has begun intensified in fulfilling the need of local
community and need of land for residential areas. One of poten‐
tial of coastal area that has been utilized by human since a long
time ago is utilization of coastal area as residential area, and for
various other reasons like transportation, high level of trading
activity and etc. Almost all of major cities in Indonesia are located
at coastal areas which function as residential area, trading, tran‐
portation, industrial and other sectors of development. It is esti‐
5 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS mated 60% of Indonesia residents and 80% of industry are located
in coastal area. The growth of various interests have therefore
resulted in too heavy a bur‐
den for coastal area to bur‐
den due to uncontrolled, un‐
managed utilization, and inc‐
onsideration for utilizating
environmental‐friendly tech‐
nology.
This has also been worsen by fact coastal area and small is‐
lands are more prone to be effected by climate change. The im‐
pacts include Sea Level Rise (SLR), temperature change of sea wa‐
ter level also change in weather pattern and local climate. These
conditions have triggerred other problems like increasing coastal
erotion, sea water intrusion, flooding productive ground and pub‐
lic facility, wet land ecosystem disappearance, rainfall pattern
change, increase of storm frequency and intensity. With that, the
climate change combined with various anthropogenic factors in
increasing damage of coastal ecosystem and small islands. Beside
climate change, coastal areas are also prone to environmental
change and natural disaster, whether inland or at sea, like flood,
tsunami and storm. Means of adaptation and mitigation against
such impacts must be performed to ensure sustainable social
economy activity of coastal and small islands.
Anticipation against climate change impact have also become
attention and agenda whether of regional and international. Insti‐
tutions and international cooperation like UNDP, UNEP, IPCC,
UNFCC, APEC have made this issue to be one of international is‐
6 CHAPTER 1 sue that has to be responded by all nations around the world. This
at once would also be effort to reduce the risk of disaster for all
the people in the world. .
To reduce negative impact of biophysical degradation against
coastal areas, mitigation effort must be made. Mitigation, which is
a proses of various preventive measurement effort for minimizing
negative impact of disaster that is anticipated from its occurance
in the future at certain areas, is a long term investmenr for the
welfare of layers of community. To deal with disaster issue, it will
require comprehensive mitigation effort which is a combination of
physical/structural effort (creation of infrastructure and control
facility) and non‐physical/non‐structural effort. There is tendency
that demands is directed more towards mitigation effort as com‐
pare to post‐disaster response.
In order that coastal areas problems can be dealt with a more
long lasting manner, without posing any damage to the ecosys‐
tem, a more comprehensive approach with a more holistic view
are needed. For that purpose, a more comprehensive approach of
development of coastal areas and balance of interest between the
need of inland areas development and coastal areas develop‐
ment, and strengthening cooperation and partnership ties be‐
tween stakeholder, are needed. To integrate various sectoral
planning and to provide direction of sustainable coastal areas utili‐
zation have therefore summoned for an integrated coastal man‐
agement concept.
7 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS CHAPTER II CURRENT CONDITION 2.1. IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN COASTAL AREAS AND SMALL ISLANDS Many statistical data are showing extreme climate phenom‐
ena, of which those have been happening lately, are related to
climate change. The number of extreme climate in these last few
years has been increasing. Increasing level of Glass House Gas in
the atmosphere is thought to have contributed to the extreme
climate, like extreme rainfall, long drought, extreme temperature
and storm. These extreme climate occurrences will further experi‐
ence change a long with occurrence of
climate change of the world.
In Indonesia, the air temperature in the
northern coastal areas of Java Island is
experiencing increase every year, of
which the increment is between 0.0004
to 0.4 °C/year and it is estimated the
increase until 100 years ahead may reach
between 0.5 to 4°C. The rise of air
temperature in the areas utilized for
industrial areas and also areas with high
density of residents will be felt more as
compared to other regions. Such rise in
air temperature will also affect the
8 CHAPTER 2 condition of waters temperature. Even though from data since the
year of 2000 until 2008 there has not been significant rise in
waters temperature, but such rise must closely be watched. Such
rise in waters temperature will pose impact against the ecosystem
of coral reef and also fisheries sector.
The pattern change of rainfall as a result of global warming has
also begun to be felt in the northern coastal areas of Java Island.
This may be seen from the result of analysis of rainfall pattern at 5
(five) observation stations owned by Institute of Meteorology
Climatology and Geophysics that has shown changes in the pat‐
tern of rainfall, particularly in the shift of time of rainfall season
and dry season. Besides that, there has also been quite high rise
of rainfall in the rainy season and prolonged drought in the dry
season seen at some of northern coastal areas of Java.
Global warming is not the only cause of rise in sea water level.
Change in sea water level as a result of global factor has been the
main factor that has invited serious concern because it can cause
submergence of low coastal ground. It has been estimated that in
the year of 2100 there will be sea level rise as big as +1 meter,
counting from the year of 1990.
If we were to view the total length of coastal line possess by
Indonesia is 95, 181 km and we may assume that the drawback of
coastal line on average due to the increasing sea water level is
about 50 m, then it will means coastal areas will be lost in 100
year will reach 475,905 hectares or annually 4,759 hectares. Other
impacts as result of sea level rise are the flooding of low coastal
areas, rise in frequency and intensity of flood because of im‐
pounding effect. Sea level rise also cause bigger sea water intru‐
9 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS sion, poses impact towards safety of coastal building, and poses
Impact towards biological environment.
Picture 2.1 Increase of sea‐water face face in some areas in Indonesia 10 CHAPTER 2 Beside global factor, local factor in northern coastal areas of Java
islands, like subsidence as a result of change in land mass and un‐
der‐ground fluid, also really affecting change towards the surface
of se water. Analytical data result of ebb tide in the waters of Se‐
marang Central Java Province shows an average sea level rise of
7.8 mm/year, where as in Jakarta waters an average sea level rise
of 8 mm/year. Regional factor that is generally caused by tectonic
activity within a region, will not very much affecting change in sea
water level.
Some of impacts resulted from climate change in coastal areas
and small islands at northern coastal areas of Java may be seen
from the following table:
Table 2.1 Impacts of climate change in coastal areas and small islands at north‐
ern coastal areas from Banten Province until Central Java Province 11 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS 2.1.1 Impact of Climate Change towards Coastal Ecosystem Impact of climate change towards coastal ecosystem (coral
reef, mangrove and sea grass) can be in the form of rise in sea
water level or rise of sea water surface temperature. The effect of
rise of sea water surface temperature against coral reef is that it
will cause coral bleaching and coral disease; whereas the effect of
rise of sea water surface temperature against mangrove is it will
alter formation of mangrove type along with benthic fauna eco‐
system. The effect of rise of sea water surface temperature on sea
grass is that it will destruct sea grass which in turn will result in
alteration of metabolism; growth and reproduction also boost up
growth of its competing algae.
A. Coral Reef Coral reef at this current moment is a result of long adaptation
from natural and man influence, but change of global climate has
made such ecosystem to be in difficulty of adapting. Influence of
climate change against coral reef is categorized by its physic‐
chemical phenomena like sea level rise, rise of sea water surface
temperature, drop of calcification progress, alteration of ocean
circulation pattern and increase in storm frequency.
a. Sea Level Rise Estimation of sea level rise is directed towards combination
effect from temperature expansion of open water and in‐
creasing of water volume due to melting of iceberg and
glacier between 0.1 and 0.9 at the end of this period. As
known that sea level is very stable at a couple thousand
12 CHAPTER 2 years ago where coral ecosystem has grown limited by sea
surface, with limited air circulation and no potential of
growth. Actually sea level rise may benefit coral ecosystem
from threat of being exposed to air. But threat from sea
level rise is sedimentation which may increase erosion
from coastal line and increase of depth which may reduce
ability of light getting in, progress of estimation and in‐
crease of sea level with more ability of many coral to main‐
tain its durability.
b. Rise of Sea water surface temperature Atmosphere and sea has become warmer since the end of
19th century and will continue become warmer as a result
of increasing concentration of glass house gas. Occurrence
of El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has increased in its
frequency and intensity for these past few decades.
Combination of warming and El Nino occurrence intensity
has resulted in increase of coral bleaching dramatically.
Bleaching, a condition when algae cellular which possess its
symbiosis
with
coral
or
other
nursemaids
have
disappeared, is a general response against pressure that
may happen in nature or in laboratory caused by change in
temperature, light intensity, change in salinity, or as result
of chemical or physical pressure.
There are three types of bleaching mechanism; caused by
high temperature and or light that is pressure against coral
habitat, pressure against algae‐symbiont, and physiological
pressure. Although all are important in understanding in‐
13 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS teraction of coral and temperature, two of them have be‐
come major focus; they are pressure against algae‐
symbiont, an acute response towards disruption of photo‐
synthesis due to high temperature and high lighting;
whereas physiological pressure, which is reflecting the lack
of biomass tissue, and lessen capacity of algae resulting
from increasing need of energy in above normal condition
continuously. Rising temperature of sea water surface at
warm season has impact on coral reef is due to physiologi‐
cal pressure at some bleaching occurrence (like for in‐
stance the occurrence in the year of 1987 at Caribbean and
in the year of 2001 at Great Barrier Reef). The pressure of
temperature change that is chronicle may also cause the
extinction of coral reel, for instance due to low sexual re‐
productive level.
c. Drop of Sea Water pH Influence of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) in carbonating chemi‐
cal waters could easily be understood, despite of it being
very complex. Combustion of fossil fuel increases concen‐
tration of CO2 in the atmosphere, which will result in more
gas on to sea surface. At layer of above 100 meter sea level
it absorbs more anthropogenic which will increase CO2,
where most of deep sea has mixed with water surface in
the scale of thousands of years, which reflects previous
condition. When CO2 is dissolved in water, it becomes acid
carbonic (H2CO3). Acid carbonic is a weak acid which can
lose hydrogen to become a bicarbonate formation (HCO3‐).
Then it will release hydrogen ion to become carbonate for‐
14 CHAPTER 2 mation (CO32‐). This carbon can appear simultaneously in
several formations of CO2 (Dissolved CO2 and acid car‐
bonic), HCO3‐, and CO32‐. Increase of CO2 in atmosphere
entering into sea will reduce pH (making solution become
more acid) and change the proportion of 3 formations of
such carbon. In tropical waters normal salinity with average
temperature of (25°C) at pre‐industrial level of CO2 (280
ppmv) approximately 85% of CO2 is dissolved in waters
forming bicarbonate and leaving remain of 15% as
carbonate ion. Doubling concentration of CO2 in waters
without
changing
other
conditions
can
increase
concentration of bicarbonate ion up to 90% and reduce
concentration of carbonate ion to 10%. Lime organism
combines calcium and carbonate ion to form their skeleton
(Ca2+ + CO32– ↔ CaCO3), reducing concentration of
carbonate ion that will slow down lime process.
The following picture is showing how increase of carbon
dioxide in atmosphere can change pH of sea and relative
abundance of inorganic carbon formations in waters. Shal‐
low waters pH approximately is around 8.15 in pre‐
industrial period, when CO2 in atmosphere is at 280 ppmv.
Current pH is around 8.05. Relatively small change in pH
may cause huge change in balance of bicarbonate ion and
carbonate.
15 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Picture 2.2 . Changes of carbonate ion in sea water territory d. Reducing progress of calcification Sea absorbs about a third of anthropogenic CO2 that enters
into atmosphere. Significant change brought about in wa‐
ters chemical influences coral organism for calcification.
Photosynthesis and respiration by sea organism also affect
concentration of CO2 at sea, however what affects the con‐
centration of CO2 at shallow waters more is the concentra‐
tion of CO2 that floats in the atmosphere. Change of CO2
concentration in waters is known as air replacement proc‐
ess at surface of sea (air sea gas) by changing pH (acidity
16 CHAPTER 2 level) and concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate ion.
Chemical at surface of sea will change concentration of CO2
in atmosphere at time scale of around 1 year. The increase
of CO2 in atmosphere will cause reduction of pH of sea to
become less than 1,000,000 per year.
Most of sea organism uses calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate
ion CO32‐) from sea to form frame of CaCO3. Reduction of
other ion will affect progress of skeleton deposition, but
carbonate ion is still less abundant as compared to calcium
and this becomes important role in coral calcification. Car‐
bonate ion concentration at surface will lower substantial
response of future increment of CO2 in atmosphere, reduc‐
ing calcification progress of several important producers of
CaCO3. This includes coral and calcareous algae at coral
reef and plankton organism like coccolithophores and
foraminifera in open waters.
e. Change of ocean circulation pattern Cycle, from local (wind that causes upwelling) until global
scale (thermohaline), has changed along with global
climate. In plain view all coral reef with high altitude
appear where current bring warm water from tropical
region (like in Bermuda near Gulf Stream, Lord Howe Island
of Australia and Ryukyu islands of Japan). Change in
pattern or strength of this flow will determine difference of
temperature of this coral. After observation, circulation of
ocean thermohaline will fall in the future to direct at
changing sea temperature and disintegration of fresh
17 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS water. Latest modeling predicts 0‐40% slowing down of
circulation at this period, but most models do not predict
the whole fallout. The slow circulation will cause significant
change to sea circulation and upwelling patter which
potentially will affect ecosystem of coral reef, however
how circulation can be affected by global climate change is
not yet known clearly.
f. Increasing frequency of storm occurrence Tropical precipitation has increased more than these few
centuries with 0.2‐0.3 % every decade at 10ºS‐10ºU and
with almost same intensity frequency (90‐99%) and
increase almost at all regions. Increase of precipitation can
decrease salinity and increase sediment release and
deposition nearby delta, sometimes become prime cause
of mass extinction when close to coral reef.
Tropical hurricane (including gale and cyclone) are facts
from several tropical regions, and they provide boundaries
for development of coral at several regions, healthy coral
reef which will be restored from minor damage caused by
cyclone. Comprehensive observation from hurricane activ‐
ity is limited to several 5 or 6 last decades. This has shown
few trends of hurricane frequency or its intensity. Gale
model and thermodynamic calculation indicates that maxi‐
mum potential intensity –MPI or theoretical boundary of
hurricane strength can increase 10‐20% and surface wind
can increase to be about 3‐10%. There is small evidence
that frequency of hurricane or its form may change.
18 CHAPTER 2 g. Social Economic Impact of coral bleaching disaster Estimation of economical value of coral reef from aspect of
fishery and tourism is easier compared to evaluation from
its function as guard of coast and biodiversity.
Occurrence of coral bleaching in the world from 1997‐1998
has affected social economy of several regions like at
Maladewa. The coral bleaching happened in this country
has affected tourist visit at value of 0.5‐3 million US dollars.
At Palau, with death of coral reaching 50% has reduced
tourist visit 5‐10 %.
B. Mangrove The greatest threat of climate change against mangrove eco‐
system is climate change and increase occurrence of climatic hap‐
penings. Important factor in supporting presence of mangrove is
salinity and sedimentation level. The change in rainfall pattern
poses impact on distribution and type composition because rain‐
fall controls salt concentration on ground and trees also producing
fresh water for mangrove. If sea water level is experiencing rise
then marginal community of mangrove on sea side and land side
will fall back towards inland direction. If no prevention effort is
made, then zoning of mangrove species will also migrate towards
inland direction as its effort to continue obtaining the required
environmental condition like period, depth and frequency of ebb
tide puddle. Even so mangrove community can only migrate to
places that possess sediment and substrate availability and if sea
19 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS level rise is not so fast, if not so mangrove community will really
be damaged.
Areas with decreasing rainfall will have input to ground water
that is less and lesser fresh water on surface that is available for
mangrove community. The result is increase of salinity. This in‐
crease of salinity will reduce primary productivity, development
progress and youngsters survivability. Reduction of rainfall and
increase of evapotranspiration will reduce areas of mangrove
along with change of mangrove zoning in becoming hyper saline
ground.
Increasing frequency of storm occurrence also has important
influence against mangrove community. Destruction of structure
and occurrence of death is because of storm wind. Despite that,
healthy mangrove because of increase of sea surface can still sur‐
vive along coast even when coasts have disappeared. Additional
sediment can cause death of Rhizophora mangle and Languncu‐
laria racemosa. The presence of mangrove ecosystem in coastal
disaster mitigation due to climate change is to reduce gas emis‐
sion, mangrove that has function of absorbing carbon from CO2 in
atmosphere.
Mangrove tree has the ability to adapt staying alive in the
worst condition. The most accurate adaptation is from various
form of breathing root mainly when substrate is stagnated. Root
in the air with no need for gas entering to inner part, only contain
small volume of gas, about less than 6% of its’ volume. In mud
that is anoxic, gas chamber of root may be more than half of total
volume. In between this extremity root with different level for
20 CHAPTER 2 taking oxygen which has mid proportion of gas chamber within
the root. Stagnated root posses higher proportion of gas chamber
except when laid open to the sun.
C. Sea Grass Sea grass is producer at shallow waters and also important
source of food for many organisms. Biomass of seagrass meadow
roughly sums up to 700 g of dry material/m2, while its productiv‐
ity is 700 g carbon/m2/day. For that reason seagrass meadow
becomes sea environment with high productivity. Ecologically sea
grass is thought to have self sustainable system character. This is
supported because of low flow of material from sea grass to other
system. A study of Flores Sea showed that flow of energy/
nutrition to other system does not exceed more than 10% of total
sea grass production. Seagrass meadow also possesses important
economical benefit. Fruit from Enhalus Acoroides kind and rhi‐
zome from Cymodocea may be utilized as food. Sea grass also
becomes place to catch fish, sea cucumber, and snail. At Banten
Bay, fisherman can utilize gill net and push net to catch fish, trasi
prawn (Genus Penaeus), and fingerling of groupers (ephinephelus
septemfa sciatus).
Sea grass community is very sensitive to light and quality of
water. Threat of rise in sea water level has potential of reducing
light intensity so it may affect its being. But then, main threat to
sea grass community is result of climate change pattern and in‐
crease of storm frequency. Change of climate pattern may in‐
crease rainfall at coastal areas and if ground planning is not suffi‐
21 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS ciently accurate, like deforestation then shallow waters may ob‐
tain run off fresh water. Increase of rainfall and run off fresh wa‐
ter may reduce salinity of waters and increase muddiness also
sedimentation, both have negative impact toward life of sea grass
at the bottom of shallow sea. Many occurrence of storm will pose
physical disturbance to waters and increase muddiness. Naturally
occurrence of storm may still provide opportunity to defend exis‐
tence of sea grass community and may possess ability to recover,
but increasing frequency of storm excessively may disrupt physic
of waters and within a short time many leaves would fall.
2.1.2 Analysis of Fallback of Coast and Sea level rise A. Analysis of Fallback of Coast In analysis of fallback of coast at northern coastal areas of Cen‐
tral Java Province until Banten, it uses Bruun Rule method. This
method is used to predict erosion condition for future occurrence
as result of sea level rise (SLR). Calculation of this fallback of coast
is conducted using coastal profile data as result of direct measure‐
ment on the field and also analysis of sea water level rise in future
(using assumption of sea water rise of 1 meter in the following
100 years ahead).
From calculation of fallback of coast for Central Java province,
the furthest fallback distance occurred at Bedono Coast, Regency
of Demak (as far as 175.60 m); for West Java province, the fur‐
thest fallback distance occurred at Balongan Coast, Regency of
Indramayu (as far as 79.76 m); for Jakarta province, the furthest
22 CHAPTER 2 fallback distance occurred at Marunda coast (as far as 32.05 m);
and for Banten province the furthest fallback distance occurred at
Karang Serang coast, Regency of Tangerang (as far as 124.56 m).
Coastal fallback distance for Bedono coast, sub‐district of Sa‐
yung, Regency of Demak has quite a high fallback, this is because
coast has low inclination, and its sediment material composed of
silt and has higher number of porosity as compared to other
coasts. Even when Karang Serang coast, Regency of Tangerang has
its sediment material dominated by gravel sand but coastal fall‐
back is still quite high, this is because inclination of Karang Serang
coast is lower as compared to other regions.
B. Analysis of Sea level rise With estimation of sea level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years ahead,
then tidal flood at Serang regency will reach distance between
2.36 – 3.78 km inland, where total areas of water puddle may
reach 10,870.97 hectares. Sector that is hit by impact of sea level
rise at the largest is fishery sector (fish pond) and agriculture. Be‐
sides that, residential areas hit by the impact may reach 241.0
hectares or 10,845 units of houses.
Sea level rise at regency/city of Tangerang
With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency/city of Tangerang will
reach distance approximately 1.98‐2.65 km inland, where total
areas of water puddle will reach 4,859.6 hectares. Sector that
will be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery
23 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table 22 Retrogression analysises of coastline along the beach north finite Provinsi Banten of Provinsi Jawa Tengah
24 CHAPTER 2 25 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential areas affected will
reach 56.7 hectares or 1,758 units of houses.
Picture 2.3 Pond areas rob in Kabupaten Serang by coming 100 years with
estimation increase of sea‐water face 0,8 m
Picture 2.4 Tidal Flood Areas at regency/city of Tangerang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
26 CHAPTER 2 Sea level rise at North Jakarta City With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at north Jakarta city will reach dis‐
tance approximately 3.21‐5.26 km inland, where total areas of
water puddle will reach 7,080.7 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is residential
Picture 2.5 Tidal Flood Areas at North Jakarta City 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
sector, where residential areas affected will reach 672.6 hec‐
tares or 453,165 units of houses.
Sea level rise at regency/city of Bekasi With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency/city of Bekasi will reach
distance approximately 3.21‐5.26 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 7,333.6 hectares. Sector that will be
27 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond). Besides that, residential areas affected will reach
100 hectares or 3,700 units of houses.
Picture 2.6 Tidal Flood Areas at regency/city of Bekasi 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency of Karawang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Karawang will reach
distance approximately 1.95‐2.03 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 8,635.9 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond) and agriculture sector. Besides that, residential
areas affected will reach 171.3 hectares or 6,338 units of
houses.
28 CHAPTER 2 Picture 2.7 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Karawang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency of Subang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Subang will reach dis‐
tance approximately 5.27‐ 11.82 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 25,454.0 hectares. Sector that will
be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricultural
sector and fishery sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential
areas affected will reach 237.8 hectares or 7,847 units of
houses.
Sea level rise at regency of Indramayu With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Indramayu will reach
distance approximately 6.6‐ 12.8 km inland, where total areas
29 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Picture 2.8 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Subang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Picture 2.9 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Indramayu 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
30 CHAPTER 2 of water puddle will reach 55,707.2 hectares. Sector that will
be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricultural
sector and fishery sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential
areas affected will reach 1,625.0 hectares or 65,000 units of
houses.
Sea level rise at regency of Cirebon With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Cirebon will reach dis‐
tance approximately 3.82‐ 9.64 km inland, where total areas of
water puddle will reach 19,110.6 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricultural
sector and fishery sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential
areas affected will reach 789.4 hectares or 31,576 units of
houses.
Picture 2.10 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Cirebon 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
31 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Sea level rise at city of Cirebon With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at city of Cirebon will reach distance
approximately 3.82‐ 9.64 km inland, where total areas of wa‐
ter puddle will reach 19,110.6 hectares. Sector that will be hit
worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricultural sec‐
tor and fishery sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential ar‐
eas affected will reach 789.4 hectares or 31,576 units of
houses.
Picture 2.11 Tidal Flood Areas at city of Cirebon 100 years ahead with esti‐
mated sea level rise of 0.8 m
32 CHAPTER 2 Sea level rise at regency of Brebes With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Brebes will reach dis‐
tance approximately 2.66 ‐ 3.24 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 5,329.8 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond). Besides that, residential areas affected will reach
3.1 hectares or 140 units of houses.
Picture 2.12 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Brebes 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency/city of Tegal With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency/city of Tegal will reach
distance approximately 2.66 ‐ 3.24 km inland, where total ar‐
eas of water puddle will reach 1,444.2 hectares. Sector that
33 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS will be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricul‐
tural sector and shrub. Besides that, residential areas affected
will reach 156.0 hectares or 8,892 units of houses.
Picture 2.13 Tidal Flood Areas at regency/city of Tegal 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency of Pemalang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Pemalang will reach
distance approximately 1.27 ‐ 2.25 km inland, where total ar‐
eas of water puddle will reach 2,370.7 hectares. Sector that
will be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery
sector (fish pond). Besides that, residential areas affected will
reach 26.9 hectares or 968 units of houses.
34 CHAPTER 2 Picture 2.14 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Pemalang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency of Pekalongan With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Pekalongan will reach
distance approximately 0.94 ‐ 1.02 km inland, where total ar‐
eas of water puddle will reach 473.7 hectares. Sector that will
be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sec‐
tor (fish pond) and cultivation field. Besides that, residential
areas affected will reach 5.2 hectares or 229 units of houses.
Sea level rise at city of Pekalongan With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at city of Pekalongan will reach dis‐
tance approximately 1.63 ‐ 2.01 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 913.8 hectares. Sector that will be
35 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Picture 2.15 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Pekalongan 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Picture 2.16 Tidal Flood Areas at city of Pekalongan 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
36 CHAPTER 2 hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond) and cultivation field. Besides that, residential areas
affected will reach 140.0 hectares or 6,860 units of houses.
Sea level rise at regency of Batang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Batang will reach dis‐
tance approximately 2.06 ‐ 3.30 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 4,351.1 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is irrigation culti‐
vation field sector. Besides that, residential areas affected will
reach 136.9 hectares or 6,297 units of houses.
Picture 2.17 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Batang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
37 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Sea level rise at regency of Kendal With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Kendal will reach dis‐
tance approximately 1.29 – 1.47 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 2,208.9 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond). Besides that, residential areas affected will reach
36.6 hectares or 1,501 units of houses.
Picture 2.18 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Kendal 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at city of Semarang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at city of Semarang will reach dis‐
tance approximately 1.70 – 3.20 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 8,537.9 hectares. Sector that will be
38 CHAPTER 2 hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond) and residential areas, where residential areas will
be affected reaches 176.7 hectares or 10,425 units of houses.
Picture 2.19 Tidal Flood Areas at city of Semarang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Sea level rise at regency of Demak With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Demak will reach dis‐
tance approximately 2.70 – 8.50 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 14,682.1 hectares. Sector that will
be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sec‐
tor (fish pond) and agriculture. Residential areas, where resi‐
dential areas will be affected reach 440.3 hectares or 13,209
units of houses.
39 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Picture 2.20 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Demak 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
Picture 2.21 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Jepara 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
40 CHAPTER 2 Sea level rise at regency of Jepara With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Jepara will reach dis‐
tance approximately 1.24 – 2.50 km inland, where total areas
of water puddle will reach 3,438.2 hectares. Sector that will be
hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
(fish pond). Residential areas, where residential areas will be
affected reach 239.0 hectares or 13,623 units of houses.
Sea level rise at regency of Pati With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Pati will reach distance
approximately ± 4.40 km inland, where total areas of water
puddle will reach 8,466.5 hectares. Sector that will be hit
worst by the impact of sea water level rise is fishery sector
Picture 2.22 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Pati 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
41 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS (fish pond). Residential areas, where residential areas will be
affected reach 133.1 hectares or 4,392 units of houses.
Sea level rise at regency of Rembang With estimated sea water level rise of 0.8 m for 100 years
ahead, tidal flood puddle at regency of Rembang will reach
distance approximately 1.39 – 2.50 km inland, where total
areas of water puddle will reach 3,473.0 hectares. Sector that
will be hit worst by the impact of sea water level rise is agricul‐
tural sector. Residential areas, where residential areas will be
affected reach 383.8 hectares or 28,401 units of houses.
Picture 2.23 Tidal Flood Areas at regency of Rembang 100 years ahead with estimated sea level rise of 0.8 m
42 CHAPTER 2 2.2 NATURAL DISASTER 2.2.1 TSUNAMI Geographically Indonesia is located in meeting areas of three
plates; they are Eurasian plate, Pacific plate and India‐Australia
plate, making Indonesia to become unstable tectonically. 90% of
tsunami that occurred in Indonesia is caused by tectonic quakes
along areas of subduction and other active seismic, 9% is caused
by eruption of volcanic mountain and 1 % is caused by submarine
landslide (Latief et al, 2000).
Groups of coast that have potential of tsunami disaster in In‐
donesia are western coastal Sumatra group, southern coast of
Java island, north and south coast of Nusa Tenggara islands, is‐
lands in Moluccas, northern coast of Irian Jaya, and almost all
coasts in Sulawesi. Moluccas Sea is the areas with most potential
of tsunami, where 31% of total tsunami in Indonesia occurred in
this region.
The largest tsunami in Indonesia ever recorded in history is
tsunami NAD on 26 December 2004. More than 300,000 lives
were lost with material lost of more than 50 quintillion rupiah.
Run‐up wave of tsunami has reached Lhok Nga Coast reaching up
to 35 meters. Another very famous tsunami in Indonesia
is
tsunami caused by eruption of Krakatau mountain (1883) where
run‐up wave of tsunami reached 41 meters. Several occurences of
tsunami which have also caused live casualties and material lost
that is not little are Flores tsunami in 1992 (life casualty of more
than 1,000 people), tsunami caused by earth quake on south of
East Java in 1994 (life casualty of more than 240 people), Irian
43 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Jaya tsunami in 1996 (life casualty of more than 100 people) and
Pangandaran tsunami in 2006 (life casualty of more than 600
people). Picture 2.24 Coasts with tsunami potential in Indonesia Highest run‐up tsunami in Indonesia ever recorded in history is
in the year of 1883. The tsunami was originated from eruption of
Krakatau Mountain in strait of Sunda, of which its run‐up height
reached 41 meters. About 36,000 lives were lost washed away by
tsunami wave. To commemorate the tragedy tsunami monument
was built in Bandar Lampung city. That has also reminded all of us
that eruption of Krakatau Mountain spewed forth its rocks as far
as tens of kilometers. Viewing from number of casualty, Aceh tsu‐
nami was the highest in Indonesia even the world. Statesmen who
have seen the disaster directly said it was for the first time they
see such severe damage caused by tsunami disaster.
Besides Krakatau and Aceh, great tsunami has also occurred in
44 CHAPTER 2 Babi Island of Flores in year of 1992. At that time about 1,952 peo‐
ple died and thousands of houses were destroyed washed away
by tsunami wave that has reached the height of 26.2 meters.
Southern coastal areas of Banyuwangi regency, East Java was also
not free from tsunami hit. On 3rd June 1994 tsunami wave that
has reached the height of 13.9 meter killed 38 people and de‐
stroyed thousands of people’s houses.
If inventoried based on mass media report and other re‐
sources, along period from 1961 until 2009, there has been about
23 tsunami occurred hitting coastal areas of Indonesia. Areas of
disaster along with impact of tsunami may be seen in the follow‐
ing table 2.3.
Bay areas and curvature areas of coast has higher potential
compared to other areas. Because, with that kind of topography
energy crashed is higher when reaching bay and curvature coast.
This is due to energy gathered from open sea when waves are
presence at narrower crevices.
This condition will not very much beneficial if coastal topogra‐
phy in gradient and without any protective plants like mangrove
forest, coconut, sea hibiscus, or any other coastal forests. This is
to mention nothing on big tsunami wave whether of its height or
its speed would freely infiltrate inland and destroying everything
that have existed there.
You can imagine if such gradient place is used for fisherman
village or industrial areas. Practically, when tsunami crash into the
areas then what will occur is serious damage. Meulaboh is actual
sample of it. All buildings located in lower ground were washed
45 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table 2.3 46 Tsunami occurrence and its impact in Indonesia since 1961 until 2009 CHAPTER 2 away empty by tsunami wave.
Fishery and transportation ports are often built in underarm of
a bay or nearby river delta. It may be tolerated because ports that
are directly facing open sea would pose more difficulty for ship
berth. On the contrary, ports located in bay would be easier for
ship captain to dock his ship.
Picture 2.25 Fishing port Location Potential of tsunami. (Source: Subandono et al (2008), modified) Despite of unbeneficial condition of nature, but behind it there
is also positive side. As already known, such kinds of bays are fer‐
tile fields, places where various kinds of fish gather. Even fisher‐
man would look for fish at such waters.
2.2.1 Flood Flood may occur due to natural factor, human factor, or com‐
bination of both. High rainfall, bad condition of ground closure of
river flowing areas, poor arrangement of drainage system, low
47 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS capacity of river flow due to sedimentation or garbage may cause
occurance of flood. Excessive use of ground water may cause land
subsidence that will enlarge potential of flood.
Flood disaster that happened in Jakarta approximately January
until early February 2002 has submerged 66% of Jakarta areas
which includes 174 groove, water was distributed evenly to five
regions within Jakarta, with water depth between 30 cm to 2 m,
causing casualty of goods and property that is not little and life
casualty.
Coastal areas that have potential of flood in Indonesia are
northern coast of Java, Lampung, Palembang, Aceh, West Su‐
matera, East coast of Sumatera, Kalimantan, Manado, Minahasa
and Sumbawa island.
2.2.2 Erossion and Sedimentation Coastal erossion depends on sediment transportation condi‐
tion on location, affected by wind, wave, current, ebb tide, and
other occurances, also discruptions caused by human possibly in
the form of building construction, and sand mining at coast. Be‐
sides that, because of interconnection of ecosystem, hydrological
and oceanographical change may also cause erossion at coastal
areas. There are more than 15 provinces and 100 locations of
coasts are experiencing erossion in Indonesia require attention
and immediate treatment.
Pictures of coastal areas that have potential of erossion are
48 CHAPTER 2 provided by picture 2.26 and table 2.4 as follow.
Picture 2.26. Coastal areas that have potential of erossion disaster Table 2.4 Coastal damage location in Indonesia 49 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS 50 CHAPTER 2 Source: Ministry of Public Works and Mass media.
Progress of sedimentation that enters into coastal waters is
increasing. Progress of sedimentation that is quite high is
happening in Sumatera, Kalimantan, and Java. Several mouth
rivers at Sumatera, Kalimantan, and Java are experiencing very
large silting up, due to high progress of sedimentation. As
example, sedimentation carried by flow of Citanduy river as big as
5 million m3 per year, and Cokonde river 770,000 m3 per year
settling to Segara Anakan, Barito river 733,000 m3 per year
51 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS settling at service channel of Banjarmasin port and Mahakam river
2.2 million m3 per year of middy deposit that has to be dredged at
navigation channel of Mahakam river.
Table 2.5 Sedimentation problem at several ports located at rivers in Indonesia Indonesia Source: JICA Communication of Sea
2.3. BASIS OF LAW THAT DEALS WITH MITIGATION OF DISASTER There are two laws that deal with issue of disaster mitigation.
First is law number 24 year of 2007 (UU No.24/2007) on handling
disaster and the second is law no 27 year of 2007 (UU
No.27/2007) on Management of Coastal areas and small islands.
2.3.1. Law No. 24/2007 In law No. 24/2007, mitigation effort or reducing disaster risk
is dealt in 15 articles. Those articles are article 8c, 31, 34, 35, 37,
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46 and 47.
52 CHAPTER 2 Article 8 in letter (c) says responsibility of regional government
in conducting disaster handling covers reduction of disaster risk
and guiding reduction of disaster risk through development pro‐
gram.
Then in article 31 it is said, in conducting disaster handling it is
based on 4 aspects covering: (a) social, economy, and culture of
community, (b) conservation of living environment, (c) utility and
affectivity, also (d) areas coverage.
Article 47 consists of two verses. Verse (1): Mitigation is con‐
ducted to reduce the risk of disaster for people who are presence
in areas with disaster potential. Verse (2): Mitigation activity as
mentioned in verse (1) is conducted through: (a) conducting lay‐
out, (b) management of development, construction of infrastruc‐
ture, building arrangement, and (c) conducting education, guid‐
ance, and training whether in conventional or modern way.
2.3.2 Law No. 27/2007 On the other hand, in law No.27/2007 disaster mitigation issue
is dealt in separate chapter (Chapter X) which consists of 4 arti‐
cles. Those articles are article 48, 49, 50, and 51.
In article 48 it is said that in constructing integrated manage‐
ment plan and utilization of coastal areas and small islands, gov‐
ernment and/or regional government is obligated to include and
perform portion that covers disaster mitigation at coastal areas
and small islands according to type, level and its region.
53 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Then in article 49 it is said that, disaster mitigation for coastal
areas and small islands is conducted by involving responsible gov‐
ernment, regional government, and/or community.
Further in article 50 it stated implementation of disaster miti‐
gation for coastal areas as mentioned in article 48 is to be con‐
ducted by paying attention to aspects:
a. Social, economy, and community culture;
b. Conservation of living environment;
c. Utility and affectivity, and
d. Areas coverage
While, article 51 consists of 4 verses, which are:
1. Every person at coastal areas and small islands is obligated
to conduct disaster mitigation on activities that may have
potential to cause damage to coastal areas and small is‐
lands.
2. Disaster mitigation as mentioned in verse (1) is conducted
through structural/physical activity and/or non‐structural/
non‐physical.
3. Selection of activity as mentioned in verse (1) is deter‐
mined by responsible institution.
4. Provision on disaster mitigation and damage on coastal
areas and small islands is to be further regulated by gov‐
ernment regulation.
54 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER III POLICY, STRATEGY AND ACTIVITY OF MINISTRY OF MARINE AFFAIRS AND FISHERIES IN EFFORT OF DISASTER MITIGATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 3.1 POLICY AND STRATEGY According to biogeophysi‐
cal condition and social
economy
of
Indonesia
coastal areas and based on
experienced so far, disas‐
ter mitigation and environ‐
mental pollution policies
stipulated are:
1. Reducing risk/impact/damage caused by disaster or pollu‐
tion in coastal areas whether in form of life casualty, social
economical losses, or even damage on natural resource,
human activity, and environment.
2. Increase knowledge of coastal community in facing also
55 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS reducing impact/risk (mitigation) of environmental damage
whether caused by disaster, human activity or environ‐
mental pollution.
3. Increase capability and role of government whether of cen‐
tral or regional, private and community in mitigation of
coastal environmental damage whether caused by disaster,
human activity or pollution.
4. Increase function of coastal ecosystem and infrastructure
facility of maritime and fisheries like fish port, jetty, pier,
water treatment facility, fishery facility in mitigation of
coastal environmental damage whether caused by disaster,
human activity or pollution.
The policy is stipulated to support accomplishment of prereq‐
uisite condition so community may feel safe, comfortable and
protected of his activity at coastal areas as mentioned above, in a
more detail manner may be described in the following four condi‐
tions:
1. Activities conducted in safe, comfortable, and clean areas
from damage whether caused by disaster, human activity
or pollution.
2. Community knows, understands, and aware of condition/
risk/potential of coastal areas of disaster, human activity
and pollution.
3. Government, regional government, and community are
being able to conduct mitigation of coastal areas damage
56 CHAPTER 3 whether caused by disaster, human activity or pollution.
4. Ecosystem and fishery and marine facility infrastructures
are functioning well as mitigation measures of damage
whether caused by disaster, human activity or pollution.
To realize those four conditions, strategy will be taken through
preparation and supplying tools in the form of:
a. Data and information, those include:
• Data on potential disaster for every coastal areas,
• Analysis of damage risk, also
• Fundamental data on coastal environmental damage
and mitigation conducted
b. Zoning planning which is based on mitigation
c. Dissemination, socialization, and mitigation training mate‐
rials of coastal environment
d. Policy, strategy, mitigation manual whether of national or
local‐specific
e. Mitigation planning document whether caused by disaster,
human activity or pollution
f. Partnership with related institution/organization whether
national or international.
g. Rehabilitation of coastal ecosystem and marine and fishery
facility infrastructure for the purpose of mitigation need of
57 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS damage which may be caused by disaster, human activity
or pollution.
Activity for each year budget is concentrated in preparation
and supply of goods or tools above also its implementation at lo‐
cal level whether in the form of facility, coordination, or physical
implementation through cooperation between MMAF and re‐
gional government. The form of cooperation is more stressed on:
(i) Speeding up of capability transfer process and organizational
capacity improvement and HRD, and (ii) increasing commitment
and role of regional government in disaster mitigation and pollu‐
tion of coastal areas, and (iii) ensuring sustainability of activity.
Besides referring to policy and strategy above, working pro‐
gram for a period of five years ahead also is based on achieve‐
ment so far made particularly in: (i) furnishing tools required for
achieving mitigation purpose, and (ii) implementation of activity
on the field.
Currently, among tools that have been resulted are:
1. Various manuals and coastal environmental mitigation
strategy whether those caused by natural disaster, human
activity and pollution.
2. Data and information on coastal environment damage also
maps of disaster and pollution potentials.
3. Pilot project for manual implementation at various loca‐
tions related to erosion mitigation and ecosystem of coral
reef as well as pollution.
58 CHAPTER 3 4. Partnership with institutions domestic and abroad includ‐
ing NGOs.
32
MINISTRY OF MARINE AFFAIRS AND FISHERY ACTIVITY IN DISASTER MITIGATION
One of activity conducted by Ministry of marine affairs and
fisheries is disaster and environmental pollution mitigation at
coastal areas and small islands. This activity is in the form of non‐
structural (non physical) and structural (physical) effort.
Old paradigm in handling disaster is by using disaster handling
approach through crisis management. Meaning, handling is more
stressed at the time or after occurrence of disaster which some
time may become catastrophic (terrifying).
To reduce life casualty and property then this old paradigm
must be added with before disaster measurement through risk
management approach by prevention efforts, mitigation and pre‐
paredness. In Indonesia, this prevention, mitigation and prepared‐
ness may sometimes just be called as mitigation. Such integrated
approach (risk management and crisis management) strictly
speaking, is handling of disaster since before, at, until after the
occurrence of disaster.
It is just like a cycle, that tsunami disaster management starts
from prevention, mitigation, preparedness, responsive to emer‐
gency, recovery (rehabilitation and reconstruction), also develop‐
ment just like what is shown in picture 3.1 one related to another.
59 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Picture 3.1 Disaster Management Cycle It is shown that prevention is an early stage in disaster man‐
agement because prevention is an effort to resist or to omit en‐
tirely various dangers that may cause damage to the life and liveli‐
hood of community.
Particularly for tsunami disaster, it is very hard to prevent it.
Moreover, when tsunami wave is extremely huge and high. So,
what can be done is reducing or minimizing impact which may be
caused by tsunami through mitigation. It is obvious that mitigation
is a long term investment for community welfare. How it is not,
because such effort is believed to be able to anticipate disaster
that will occur so negative impact may be reduced by far. The key
lays on how far we can make reliable mitigation whether physi‐
cally (structural) or non‐physical (non structural).
Physical effort may be in the form of technical effort which can
be artificial or natural. While non‐physical is related to adjustment
60 CHAPTER 3 and arrangement on human activity to be in line and matching
with mitigation effort whether physically or in the form of other
efforts. This physical effort includes creation of break water, sea wall, shelter, artificial hill, coastal vegetation, revetment, groin, jetty, retrofitting, flood retaining dam, floodway, waste processing
installation structure whether solid waste or liquid waste and oth‐
ers. While among non‐physical efforts are education, training,
community awareness, layout, zoning, ground utilization arrange‐
ment, relocation, law regulation, AMDAL, and implementation of
integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).
Both systems (physical and non‐physical) are mutually com‐
pleting each other depending on cases of the observed areas that
are of tsunami potential. For that reason when conducting effort
of mitigation there is a need to consider physical, environment,
and social cultural factors. The implementation must also involve
various related institutions.
How big those efforts are, would not resolve natural disaster
issue totally. With that in mind, key of success is located on
harmony of community and its natural environment. Community
which is located whether within or outside of area of disaster
potential has a very large role, so it is needed to increase its
awareness, care, and loving towards nature and living
environment also its discipline to regulations and norms that exist.
Beside the above mentioned matter, there is also a need to
consider implementation of integrated coastal management for
disaster mitigation. This approach is directed for allocating or
utilizing resource and environmental supportability of a coastal
61 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table 3.1 Disaster mitigation and overall pollution area which includes a whole set in planning, land utilization or
allotment, maintenance, control, evaluation, rehabilitation,
development and conservation of coastal environment.
There is a tendency that it has become a need for focusing
more on mitigation rather than response after disaster. Mitigation
is a process to strive for various preventive measurements in or‐
der to minimize negative impact of disaster anticipated to happen
in the future at a certain area which is a long time investment for
all level of people.
3.2.1 Non‐physical disaster mitigation effort A non‐physical effort in the form of construction of law regula‐
tion is the Law No.27/2007 on management of coastal areas and
small islands (PWP PPK). The presence of law regulation that regu‐
lates coastal areas and small islands has become answer on how a
nation may manage its coastal areas and its small islands. Man‐
62 CHAPTER 3 agement of coastal areas and small islands that is mandated by
Law PWP PPK includes steps of activities as such planning, utiliza‐
tion, supervision and control. This management stage is expected
to be able to guarantee conservation as well as increasing com‐
munity welfare and maintain the wholeness of the unity of Repub‐
lic Indonesia. One of mandates written on the law is management
of coastal area through disaster mitigation effort.
Besides that, it has also been compiled General Guideline on
coastal and small island disaster mitigation, General Guideline on
coastal line management, General Guideline on artificial ridge
rock management and coral transplant, General Guideline on
Mangrove Management, and General Guideline on Clean Coast
and Sea Movement.
Other non‐physical efforts that have, and still are being con‐
ducted are providing training, socialization, guidance and aware‐
ness of community about disaster mitigation and environmental
pollution. Training and guidance which have become current pri‐
ority are provision of guidance on several issues related to coastal
disaster like tsunami, starting from phenomena and indication of
tsunami, its impact, until evacuation and self‐rescue effort. This
has to be conducted remembering current tsunami disaster has
become terrifying matter for coastal community who live within
area with disaster potential. The need to create a prioritized area,
which is for area with bay shaped and slight sloppy river delta and
dense population that is really of disaster potential.
Ministry of marine affairs and fisheries since 2003 has already
conducted guidance and socialization about tsunami at several
63 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS places, but still limited to provincial and regency/city level so its
impact is less significant to community.
Since 2006 the extents of socializations conducted have
reached remote areas which have the shape of gulf and river delta
with dense population and disaster potential. The method also
must be performed in a more interesting way. One of alternatives
is to be performed in a truly familiar way/media to the people,
media like wayang (wooden puppet, human puppet, shadow pup‐
pet, or leather puppet play), traditional theater, dangdut or other
traditional regional arts. Through a mean of delivery that is more
rooted to their own culture, disaster may easily be understood by
them. Ministry of marine affairs and fisheries have already con‐
ducted this at several places by utilizing formal guidance media to
fisherman group, mass religious meeting and through art media
which rooted to local culture. Experience of MMAF in conducting
socialization of earthquake and tsunami at various regions is
through entertainment media of dangdut that has to be further
encouraged. The ability of this kind of entertainment in attracting
people may become magnet for thousands of people.
In the middle of that entertainment, we can convey our expla‐
nation in language that can easily be grasped by them on disaster.
By that, they can be acquainted with phenomena, characteristic,
indication and impact of disaster. From this they can obtain
knowledge on how to rescue themselves from that disaster.
In order for such kind of socialization to be more touching to
their conscience, the personnel who provides guidance can also
add on religious value that explains relation between human, na‐
64 CHAPTER 3 ture and its environment. In doing so, socialization can then be
conducted through three approaches, which are scientific, cultural
art, and religion. Experiences of MMAF have proved, means like
this can make community absorbs more easily on messages in
minimizing negative impact caused by disaster.
Those three approaches conducted in integrated manner are
expected to create awareness, concern, and loving toward envi‐
ronment. They would also have discipline attitude toward regula‐
tion and norms that exist. Without such effort, casualty/victims
will continually be falling.
Remembering the width of areas that are of disaster potential
in Indonesia in the year of 2007, effort of guidance and awareness
to community could have been performed by province with disas‐
ter potential through deconsecrated fund with guidance from
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries.
Effort of providing education may be started at early age. In
order to make socialization material interesting, Ministry of ma‐
rine Affairs and Fisheries have compiled comic books related to
tsunami and pollution, each titled TSUNAMI and PANTAIKU IMPI‐
ANKU (MY BEACH MY DREAM). Effort on tsunami mitigation is not
limited to tsunami only but also to coral reef destruction mitiga‐
tion (Serangan Bali), coastal erosion with soft structure
(mangrove) mitigation at Bedono village of Demak Regency and
pollution mitigation guidance at several regencies/cities.
Beside non‐physical effort, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fish‐
eries have and is conducting structural mitigation effort (physical)
by building disaster friendly house in the form of stage house,
65 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS planting coastal vegetation as tsunami shield (mangrove, Austra‐
lian pine; Casuarina equisetifolia L., sea hibiscus;Hibiscus tiliaceus,
and tropical almond; Terminalia catappa L.), disaster mitigation
by revitalization of coast, creation of artificial ridge rock and coral
transplant, and building MCK along with village scale solid waste
processing at coastal areas. All of those activities will certainly be
conducted through integrated coastal management approach.
From lesson learned from building such disaster friendly fisher‐
man house, MMAF is now drafting ministerial decree on building code for disaster friendly fisherman house.
Several programs in Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
which may be utilized for the purpose of efforts required in reduc‐
ing disaster risks, of which among them are:
Marine and Coastal Resource Management Project (MCRMP) Marine and Coastal Resource Management Project is con‐
ducted with background of increasing progress of coastal eco‐
system damage and weakening of organizational capacity in
the regional district for managing its coastal resource post
regional autonomy of coastal areas. Utilizations of coastal re‐
source have caused degradation of quality of coastal ecosys‐
tem broadly. The current conditions have mostly been caused
by lack of (i) integrated approach at planning and coastal zon‐
ing management, (ii) information and data which have become
basis of decision on resource management, (iii) openness in
resource allocation, and (vi) involvement of regional govern‐
ment and local community in resource management. Pressure
on coastal resource has been worsened by financial and eco‐
66 CHAPTER 3 nomical crisis. Diminishing coastal resource and degrading
quality of marine biodiversity have given bad influence to
coastal community, particularly to each fisherman.
This MCRMP is meant for increasing management of sus‐
tainable coastal resource aiming at conservation of marine
biodiversity and development of social economy based on re‐
gional autonomy frame at 15 provinces. This will be achieved
by: (i) strengthening regional capability in planning and man‐
agement of sustainable marine and coastal resource, (ii) in‐
crease supply and access to information and data on quality
spatial planning and biodiversity and data which are useful for
planning of resources, (iii) increase law and regulation in man‐
agement of resource and discipline, and (iv) small scale invest‐
ment for increasing social economical condition and quality of
ecosystem at certain coastal areas.
In constructing plan of integrated coastal management
they have been filled with natural disaster issues in strategic
plan in coastal management. Also in constructing zoning, it has
paid attention to zone with disaster potential.
The locations of activities are 15 provinces and 42 Cities
Regencies, covering (i) North Sumatra Province; (ii) West Su‐
matra Province; (iii) Riau Province; (iv) Jambi Province; (v)
Bengkulu Province; (vi) West Kalimantan Province; (vii) Central
Kalimantan Province; (viii) East Kalimantan Province; (ix) North
Sulawesi Province; (x) South Sulawesi Province; (xi) South East
Sulawesi Province; (xii) Central Sulawesi Province; (xiii) Goron‐
talo Province; (xiv) NTB Province; (xv) NTT Province.
67 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Mitra Bahari Program (Sea Partnership Program) Sea Partnership Program is a partnership development
between Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries with Univer‐
sity in pushing for acceleration of coastal areas and small is‐
lands development, deal with weakness of marine organiza‐
tion capacity at districts
transfer of knowledge or
transferring technical scien‐
tific knowledge and convey‐
ing them to coastal commu‐
nity groups toward blue
revolution as engine coastal economic growth. This blue
revolution is developed to
increase capability of regional institutions also to effectively
making use coastal community in utilizing coastal resource in a
sustainable manner with higher value add.
Activities of Sea Partnership include four parts, they are: (i)
Guidance, courses and training, (ii) assistance, avocatory and
outreach; (iii) research and marine technology application, and
(iv) Compilation of operational policy recommendation. Until
this moment, Sea Partnership Program has formed regional
centers almost everywhere in Indonesia. For that reason this
program may be utilized to support marine and coastal disas‐
ter mitigation through community guidance/awareness activ‐
ity, planting vegetation as disaster shield.
68 CHAPTER 3 3.2.2 Physical Disaster Mitigation Effort Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (MMAF) since 2003
until 2007 have conducted various physical mitigation efforts
(structural) whether natural or artificial.
A. Naturally Physical mitigation efforts conducted in natural manner in‐
clude creation of artificial coral reef, coral transplant, planting
coastal vegetation like Australian pine, sea hibiscus and coconut,
also waste processing model. The followings are various physical
mitigation efforts in natural manner along with benefits obtained
by community from such activity.
Artificial Coral Reef
Before engineering artificial coral reef, in the year of 2003
MMAF designed artificial coral reef through software as sup‐
porting tool in determining ideal shape and pattern of artificial
coral reef. At the same year also has been reviewed location of
artificial coral reef at various places. Among them is Tjemeluk
Amed Coast, Purwakerti Village, Sub‐district of Abang, Re‐
gency of Karang Asem, Bali. Observation result has shown
coral stuck to artificial cubical
shaped ridge rock forming shape
of pyramid could live and well
grown allowing lots of fish to
gather and stay at that artificial
coral location. Similar activity has
also been conducted in West
69 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Sumatera Province, which is at
Tengah Island waters and Angso
Duo Island, Padang Pariaman Re‐
gency, where the pyramid shaped
artificial coral reef was planted at a
depth of 12 meters.
This formation of coral reef is
placed
distributed
horizontally
remembering substrate basis in a
depth of more than 10 meters could no longer find a hard
enough basis for the growth of coral. Such locations are domi‐
nated by high sedimentation caused by river dredging and
forest cutting at upper stream area which also has a quite
strong flow of current. This has resulted in difficulty for coral
stuck to artificial coral to grow well.
Monitoring activity at artificial coral development location
at Panjang Island and Tunda Island, Banten Province is not
freed from MMAF supervision. For placement of artificial cor‐
als around Panjang Island, most of them have been damaged
or collapsed because they were hit by dragnet from mini trawl,
while pyramid shaped artificial corals placed around Tunda
Island have shown algae development around the sides of
artificial corals. Based on observation result of echo sounder
sensor, generally abundance of fish around artificial coral and
its surrounding is quite a lot.
In the year of 2004, MMAF has also made, planted, and
conducting transplant of coral reef at Serangan Island, Bali,
70 CHAPTER 3 and Thousand Islands of Special Province of Jakarta. The pur‐
pose is to increase community awareness about the impor‐
tance of coral reef management and handling damaged coral
reef. This activity is artificial coral model development effort
which has been modified with coral transplant technique. Be‐
sides that MMAF has also made artificial coral planning includ‐
ing selection of object, material, and ridge rock planning along
with conducting transplant and planting of artificial coral.
Creation of this artificial ridge rock is using material from
concrete. Cement concrete is made from mixture of sand,
portland cement and water at precise proportion. The propor‐
tion of this artificial ridge rock mixture is 1:2:2 for each of ce‐
ment, sand, and gravel. Also used as material is fly ash as an
additive material to mixture of concrete. In this activity two
units of artificial ridge rocks are created. The first ridge rock
uses fly ash, while the sec‐
ond does not use fly ash.
This fly ash is used as ce‐
ment substance material.
The construction of this
ridge rock consists of five
steps; they are preparing the
creation of ridge rock, molding of artificial ridge rock, main‐
taining and forming of artificial ridge rock.
71 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Planting Coastal Vegetation Activity of planting coastal vegeta‐
tion like mangrove, coconut, and
sea hibiscus is conducted at
coastal areas of potential disaster.
All activities are initiated by MMAF
involving community participation.
It is recorded that in the year of 2003, MMAF has already
planted about 50,000 of mangrove seeds. Then in the year of
2004 continued with planting of 20,000 mangrove seeds and
in the year of 2005, planted 25,000 mangrove seeds.
Related with adaptation strategy and mitigation towards
climate change, planting of coastal vegetation has benefits of:
a. Absorption of carbon dioxide (CO2) from atmosphere
b. Increase durability and coastal ecosystem functions for
adapting against change in sea water level heat, sea water
intrusion
and
extreme
happening (storm).
c. Conserving water resource
particularly fresh water
supply at coastal and small
island areas.
Just right with Sean and
Coastal
Clean
Movement
(GBPL; Gerakan Bersih Pantai
72 CHAPTER 3 dan Laut), MMAF along with 3,000 people from community
planted coastal vegetation at sanur beach, Bali on 22 April
2006. The purpose is to protect coastal area from abrasion and
preserving coastal esthetic. Types of vegetation planted were
coconut and hibiscus. The number of coastal vegetation
planted was 350 plants. The next 7 months, MMAF together
with thousands of resident planted 4,000 hibiscus trees at
Pangandaran, West Java, area of tsunami potential. The pro‐
gram was conducted together with GPBL at Pangandaran on
18 November 2006.
Greenbelt for tsunami mitigation Greenbelt creation activity for tsunami mitigation was con‐
ducted at the year of 2007. The activity was started by green‐
belt planning covering kind of coastal vegetation, configura‐
73 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS tion of planting, method of planting, and nursing method for
Pesisir Selatan Regency, Pacitan Regency, and Gorontalo.
Type of vegetation planted depends on type of the coast.
For type of coast with sand, the appropriate vegetations are
beach oak (Casuarina Equisetifolia L), tropical almond
(Terminalia Catappa L), sea hibiscus (Hibiscus Tiliaceus L), Sea
Putat (Baringtonia Asiatica Kurz.) and ballnut (Calophyllum Inophyllum). For muddy coast, appropriate types are man‐
grove like black mangrove (Avicennia Spp), Guianan mangrove
(Rhizopora Spp), Ceriops (Ceriops Spp), Bruguierra (Bruguierra
Spp) and mangrove apple (Sonneratia).
In the year of 2008 greenbelt model was conducted to an‐
ticipate tsunami at Pacitan Bay, Regency of Pacitan, with total
number of vegetation planted 20,000 plants, in an area of 8.5
hectares.
B. Artificially For the time being, physical mitigation activities in artificial/
man‐made way are covering building of disaster friendly house,
installation of wave damper Instrument (APO), reclamation, crea‐
tion of waste processing model also construction of Tsunami Miti‐
gation Information System.
Disaster‐Friendly House Development of disaster friendly houses have been con‐
ducted at several locations, as such at Tegal, Tangerang, Paci‐
74 CHAPTER 3 tan,
Lamongan,
Ciamis, Tulungagung,
Demak, Pamekasan,
Pesisir Selatan, Paria‐
man,
Bengkulu,
Jayapura,
Muko‐
Muko, and Kupang.
The activity included
socialization, discus‐
sion with regional government and community, supportive
data collection, planning, until the construction of house. This
activity was also aimed at providing aid of housing to fisher‐
man with hope that they will have decent house and safe from
potential disaster. This disaster friendly house is expected to
become model for development of housing at coastal areas
which are of disaster potential.
Wave damper Instrument (APO; Alat Peredam Ombak) One of means of preventive effort that could be conducted
by areas that have been affected with coastal abrasion is in‐
stallation of Wave Breaking Instrument. APO has double func‐
tions, which are as wave breaker at the same time as capturer
of sedimentation. Model like this has been implemented in
Sayung Village, regency of Demak in the year of 2003.
Installation of APO has been conducted after bathymetry
measurement and modeling of APO (wave breaking instru‐
ment) installation have been made. This is for knowing the
affect caused by installation of such instruments, allowing us
75 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS to obtain effective method and placement of APO instrument
that will not affect other regions from installation of APO in‐
strument. It has been recorded that in the year of 2003, 10
APO and 50,000 mangrove trees had been planted.
A year following, in 2004, effort was continued by creation
of APO at Bendono Village, Sub‐district of Sayung, Demak Re‐
gency. Just the same as previous year, mitigation effort con‐
ducted on areas that have been affected by coastal abrasion
by mean of installing APO. Number of APO placed was 10
pieces whereas mangrove planted were 20,000 seeds. In the
mean time, also at the same year, APO installation was con‐
ducted at sub‐district of Pedes, Karawang Regency which func‐
tioned as wave breaker at the same time as capturer of sedi‐
mentation.
Besides that, effort has been made also to plant mangrove
aimed for increasing durability also conservation of coastal
area against coastal erosion. Number of AOP placed was 10
while the number of mangrove planted was 20,000 seeds.
Then in the year of 2005 APO was also installed at Bedono
Village, Sub‐district of Sayung, Demak Regency. Based on data
gathered, layout was made and APO dimension was made
based on direction of wave, mangrove (nursing) and area to be
protected from erosion. The planted APO construction was a
semi‐permanent structure with minimum age of construction
of 3 years, and the number of planting was 10 APO and 25,000
mangroves.
76 CHAPTER 3 Revitalization of Losari Beach In the year of 2004 MMAF has coordinated preparation of
implementation and review of design of Losari Beach Revitali‐
zation, Makassar. As known, this beach that is located on the
west side of Makassar City, has a lot of potentials like marine
tourism, marine sports, port, abundant sea resources, trading
region and many more.
Even as tourist spot, the
function
has
been
threatened because of
issues that have oc‐
curred today. Among
the issues are degrada‐
tion of environmental
quality in the form of
pollution, destruction of
coral reef, change of
coastal morphology and
traffic
congestion
as
result of city develop‐
ment.
Whether realized or
not, changes of function
of city space at Losari
Beach area from residential to become commercial area has
contributed to water pollution. To deal with issue that occurs
in this Losari Area, Makassar City Government has planned an
overall measurement through coastal revitalization activity.
77 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Remembering the complexity of Losari Beach coastal sys‐
tem, revitalization as a mean of coastal resource utilization
would require an accurate management by utilizing integrated
Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). This coordination activity is
aimed for constructing direction of integrated Coastal Man‐
agement of Makassar City plan, conducting coordination and
public consultation of activity, and conducting design review
of the whole existing Losari Beach Revitalization Structure,
whether in the upper structure also underground structure.
This activity include integrated coastal management plan of
Makassar City, coordination and public consultation of activity,
also review of Losari Beach revitalization design.
Remembering Losari Beach revitalization must be con‐
ducted in a sustainable manner, environmentally sound and
based on integrated coastal area management principals,
therefore there is a need for a Review Team comprised of re‐
lated institutions whether or central or regional. The intended
team is stipulated by decree of coastal and small islands Direc‐
torate General No. SK‐75/P3K/XII/2004.
Besides that, public consultation was also conducted for
coastal management of Makassar City. There were three ob‐
jectives expected from this activity. First, was to socialize inte‐
grated coastal management implementation in reclamation
activity, whether in aspect of planning, engineering, ecosys‐
tem conservation, also social culture. Second, was to formu‐
late implementation activity plan, formulate planning docu‐
mentation, integrated management of Makassar coast. Third,
was to recapitulate issues in Losari Beach integrated coastal
78 CHAPTER 3 management also input for improvements in the future.
Such a meeting that was attended by various stakeholders
has produced two decisions, which are Document Formulation
on Integrated Coastal Management and Implementation of
Reclamation. Formulation of document includes planning
documents covering Losari Beach Area and overall areas of
Makassar Coast. Then there was also a need for review and
recommendation of institution that will manage Losari coastal
area whether in the form of ad hog body or utilizing the al‐
ready existing institution.
City Government of Makassar really appreciated and would
continue seeking support from MMAF in conducting Losari
Beach revitalization. Revitalization as means conducted to
bring back functions of Losari Beach as public space, economic
region, icon of Makassar City and reviving cultural values of
Makassar society.
Based on ecological review, reclamation of Losari beach
must give attention to the complexity of ecosystem at the lo‐
cation, supporting data, and information on biodiversity along
with migratory species and integrated utilization would be
conducted. In the mean while, in engineering, reclamation of
Losari Coast must give attention to negative impact of mitiga‐
tion effort, reclamation technology that suits characteristic of
location, anticipation of transport change and sediment supply
at location, and securing result of reclamation.
In social economical way, Losari Beach Reclamation imple‐
mentation must consider impact of high economical cost be‐
79 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS cause of increasing price of goods and services in reclamation
area, potential of social conflict because of economical gap
due to growth in reclamation area, and reclamation is also
expected to revitalize cultural wealth of Makassar people.
According to Losari beach condition, the reclamation must
then pay attention to the physical character of Losari waters,
sustainable supply of sediment from DAS and transport of
sediment, and the trend of change in coastal line so far,
whether they are caused by accretion or even erosion.
Waste Processing Model Formulation of waste processing model activity at Fishing
port area of Tegal Sari, Regency of Tegal, was conducted in the
year of 2004. The aim was to create accurate technology
model for PPI/TPI waste management and waste residential
surrounding to increase level of success of coastal community
in that area.
In this activity, data inventory on resource and type of
waste present at PPI/TPI area was also performed, creation of
waste water processing technical design and its disposal net‐
works, calculating the volume and RAB from such model, pro‐
visioning of garbage and liquid waste processing facility, and
conducting efforts to make community aware of pollution con‐
trol in PPI/TPI environment through training, distribution of
leaflet, also making information board on the importance of
maintaining clean environment.
This waste management model is a continuous activity that
80 CHAPTER 3 would not be finished within a period of one year, but as mul‐
tiyear activity. For the year of 2004, according to condition
and available funding, those could have been completed were
solid waste processing in the form of garbage and left over
fishes to make compost and livestock food. Also liquid waste
processing that includes septic tank liquid waste processing.
Tsunami Mitigation Information System Activity to construct information system of tsunami mitiga‐
tion started in 2007, in the form of tsunami disaster risk re‐
view, for regency of Pesisir Selatan, Cilacap, and Gorontalo. In
the year of 2008, installment of information board and tsu‐
nami evacuation sign at Painan City.
3.3 DISASTER MITIGATION WORKING PROGRAM AND COASTAL ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION 2005‐ 2009 Based on reflection of activity performed and results
obtained so far and target of achievement stipulated, program for
the following five years ahead has been stressed on two things
which are (i) to facilitate regional government in conducting
coastal environment mitigation, and (ii) to implement various
directives/policies into local level. Objectives to be achieved are
directed toward achievement of 4 (four) conditions which are (i)
community activity and development conducted in safe coastal
region, (ii) all stakeholders are aware of their own coastal areas’
sensitivity, (iii) all parties are able to conduct mitigation, and (iv)
coastal ecosystem and marine and fishery infrastructure facility
81 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS that works in mitigation.
The working program in achieving each objective is as follows:
Objective 1: Community activity and Development are con‐
ducted in coastal areas that are safe, comfortable and clean. Tools must be available: data
and information, risk analysis and
damage potential, and zoning of
sea and coastal area which is
based on mitigation.
Input of Activity: a. Implementation of technical guidance at region whether at
institutional level or at community/stakeholder,
b. Formulate mitigation measures that are specific at every
location covering:
• Land use planning,
• Creation of building codes,
•
Retrofitting or rehabilitation,
•
Relocation strategy of buildings from area with disas‐
ter potential,
• Structural/physical development,
•
82 Multi‐objective management and education towards
CHAPTER 3 community.
c. Compiling analysis of coastal environment damage due to
human activity and natural disaster.
d. Gathering data and spatial information on coastal environ‐
mental damage due to disaster and pollution.
e. Constructing zoning and micro‐zoning of disaster and pol‐
lution potential area
f. Updating basis of data on coastal environmental damage
Objective 2: Community knows, understands, and aware of condition, risk and sensitivity of its coastal area whether because of disaster, human activity and pollution Tools must be available: dissemination material, socialization,
community awareness, workshop forum, and training activity
Input of activity: a. Making dissemination material and socialization like leaf‐
let, booklet, and banner about condition, risk, and level of
sensitivity of coastal environment whether caused by dis‐
aster, human activity, even pollution.
b. Compiling serial books of marine knowledge particularly
about coastal environmental damage mitigation and mak‐
ing effort to sponsor for its printing.
83 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS c. Conducting workshop/seminar in central and regional
about disaster mitigation socialization and coastal area
pollution.
d. Simulation and training at community level for disaster
mitigation and environmental pollution
e. Conducting Sea and Coastal Clean Movement (GBPL) at
polluted coastal areas.
Objective 3: Government, Regional Government and Commu‐
nity are able to conduct Mitigation of Coastal Environmental Damage whether caused by disas‐
ter, human activity even pollution. Tools must be available: Policy, strategy, norm, standard and
mitigation manual, mitigation plan document at local level, tech‐
nical guidance, facilitation, and coordination, training, and part‐
nership between related institutions/organizations central, re‐
gional, national, international.
Input of activity: a. Facilitate and technical guidance for regional government
and stakeholders in implementing coastal environmental
mitigation whether caused by disaster, human activity
even pollution
b. To guide and facilitate region in constructing disaster man‐
agement plan/hazard management plan
84 CHAPTER 3 c. To push for regulation/
regional regulation related to
damage/disaster
at
coastal
area
d. Conducting various mitiga‐
tion trainings of coastal dam‐
age caused by disaster and pol‐
lution
e. Technical guidance and sup‐
port for implementation of
coastal area reclamation at
regional district
f. Sending staff to participate in various related technical
trainings
g. Conducting coordination and socialization cooperation and
education about mitigation with Depdiknas, BMG, LIPI,
BPPT and others
h. Establishing cooperation with research institutions domes‐
tic and abroad, university, UNDP, UNESCO, UNEP, and
other international institutions.
Objective 4: Ecosystem and Infrastructure Facility of Marine Fishery can function well in Coastal Environ‐
mental Damage Mitigation. 85 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Tools must be available: Data and information on condition,
function, and ecosystem damage and infrastructure facility of
marine fishery, ecosystem improvement.
Input of activity: a. Increase monitoring and evaluation towards condition,
function and damage on ecosystem and infrastructure fa‐
cility of marine fishery and mitigation efforts conducted by
all related parties.
b. Rehabilitation and preservation so that coastal natural con‐
servation system like coral reef, mangrove, coastal forest,
sand dune, and others may still function well.
c. Improvement of coastal environmental condition from
pollution through Bina Desa Pesisir Bersih (Guiding Village
Making Coastal Clean) and pilot project on pollution con‐
trol.
86 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER IV MID TERM POLICY STRATEGY (2010‐2014) Mid term policy strategy in facing climate change and disaster
mitigation at coastal areas and small islands following early con‐
cept of Disaster Risk Reduction in National Mid Term Develop‐
ment Plan of 2010‐2014 which has been directed to efforts of:
1. Prioritized direction on minimizing disaster risk in develop‐
ment plan;
2. Realization integration of disaster risk by adapting and
mitigation to global climate change
3. Increase area spatial planning quality which is disaster ba‐
sis;
4. Realization reduction of disaster risk through provision of
disaster early detection system infrastructure and facility;
5. Support participation of all parties who have interest in
handling disaster
6. Pushing the creation of safe culture within community
through community based disaster risk reduction;
7. Strengthening organizational capability in handling disaster
in central and regional and community.
87 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS For the complete description, may be seen in the table 4.1.
The Activity Proposal 2010‐2014 of Adaptation Effort and Miti‐
gation of Climate Change is the program activity plan to cope with
climate change and to reduce negative impact of biophysical deg‐
radation against coastal areas, which may help province /district
government to harmonize their activity with central government
activity. Provincial and local level will be used and developed
more detail the proposal activity as an iterative planning tool to
address the issues in their region. In the other word, that activity
must take place within an integrated framework of national and
regional activity to reduce negative impact of coastal area as well
as decrease the detrimental effect of global warming.
The Activity proposal divided in some of program. One of
those programs is Technical Program. Mitigation Program and
Adaptation to Climate Change, it’s become part of technical pro‐
gram for the prioritized activity. Moreover, the prioritized activity
of that program is divided into two parts:
1. Mitigation of coastal and small island environment
2. Adaptation to Climate Change in coastal area and small
islands
The proposed program of prioritized activity will be assessing
by the outcome indicators as a result detail activity evaluation
each year. For example, the detail activity year 2010 is compila‐
tion of map of hazard, sensitivity and risk at coastal and small is‐
lands. Provincial and local level will be used and developed more
detail the activity. Meanwhile, The Ministry through Directorate
88 CHAPTER 4 General of Marine, Coastal, and Small Islands Affairs (DG of MCSI)
will provide support for its implementation, coordination in
national level, assisting local governments in the implementing
and optimizing the activity, coordinate the availability of sharing
fund both national and local governments. Hence, DG of MCSI will
responsible for, among others, overall planning and coordinating
the activities, consolidating implementation of the activity in
province/district, coordinating the activities, liaison with other
concerned government agencies, project monitoring and
evaluation and preparing progress report. In parallel, Participating
province or local level will manage the activities within its
jurisdiction. Local government responsibilities will be (i) preparing
and monitoring the activities program for province, (ii) obtaining
the support of provincial sector agencies concerned, (iii)
coordinating with the DG of MCSI, (iv) preparing local strategy
plans and establishes a consulting meeting for local communities.
All those activity above will give a result compilation of hazard
map, sensitivity and risk at coastal and small islands evaluation,
which can be an outcome indicator of disaster risk analysis to as‐
sess mitigation of coastal and small island environment in the
year 2010. If the results is not complete yet, it’s may continue to
be done in the next year activity combining with the next strategy
of compilation of hazard map, sensitivity and risk at coastal and
small islands in the year 2011. In order to avoid the deviation of
the activity, central government, province and local level should
do evaluation to each activity and keep in line with framework.
89 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table 4.1 Activity Proposals 2010 ‐ 2014 (Part 1) 90 CHAPTER 4 91 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Table 4.1. Activity Proposals 2010 ‐ 2014 (Part 2) 92 CHAPTER 4 93 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS Outcome Indicator Mitigation of coastal and small island envi‐
ronment 1. Disaster risk analysis compilation
2. Increasing survivability of community in facing disaster
3. Compilation of data and information of disaster potential
area
4. Increasing capacity planning of disaster mitigation and en‐
vironmental pollution
5. Pilot project of disaster mitigation and control of water
pollution inland, coastal and sea at 5 locations
6. Compilation of standard, norm, procedure and mitigation
manual of coastal area and small islands
Activity 1. Compilation of map of hazard, sensitivity and risk at
coastal and small islands
2. Community awareness towards disaster mitigation and
coastal disaster potential and pollution
3. Socialization, technical guidance, and technical planning of
disaster and environmental pollution mitigation
4. Waste pollution mitigation at fisherman residential and
fisherman boat
5. Building fisherman disaster‐friendly house at coastal area
94 CHAPTER 4 6. Creation of greenbelt for tsunami disaster mitigation
7. Development of artificial wetland and silvo‐fishery for dis‐
aster and pollution mitigation
8. Coastal environmental mitigation manual formulation
Outcome Indicator Adaptation to climate change in coastal area and small islands 1. Compilation of climate change adaptation analysis at
coastal area and small islands 3 packages
2. Strengthening capability in planning of adaptation to cli‐
mate change in coastal area and small islands at 4 locations
3. National and regional cooperation development 5 pack‐
ages
4. Pilot project of climate change adaptation at coastal area
and small islands at 5 locations
5. Compilation of standard, norm, procedure and manual of
adaptation to climate change at coastal area and small
islands
Activity 1. Map compilation of disaster risk and climate change
2. Socialization, technical guidance, and training of climate
change adaptation plan at coastal area
3. International and regional cooperation support
95 ADAPTATION EFFORT AND MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER IN COASTAL AREA REGION AND SMALL ISLANDS 4. Adaptation basis environmental friendly coastal environ‐
ment structuring model
5. Compilation of manual of climate change adaptation at
coastal area
96