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The Treaty of Versailles – War Guilt Clause
Article 231, often known as the War Guilt Clause, was the opening article of the reparations section of the Treaty of
Versailles, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers. The article
did not use the word "guilt" but it served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations.
Article 231 was one of the most controversial points of the treaty. It specified:
"The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her allies
for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been
subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies."
Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war.
German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while
German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty. The Allied leaders were
surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany.
The article, with the signatory's name changed, was also included in the treaties signed by Germany's allies who did not view
the clause with the same disdain as the Germans did. American diplomat John Foster Dulles—one of the two authors of the
article—later regretted the wording used, believing it further aggravated the German people.
At the conclusion of the war, Germany was demonized due to the destruction that WWI had caused. All people affected by
the war wanted Germany to be punished. It is erroneous to place the full burden of the war on Germany, "Belief in the unique
guilt of the Kaiser for the horrors of the World War was unanimous" (Birdsall, 4). The politicians wanted Germany to accept
moral responsibility for the war and all the consequences thereof, after realizing that Germany would not be able to pay
reparations as high as 33 million. The politicians arrogantly believed they could appease their states by forcing the Germans
to admit to a moral responsibility, since it became clear that Germany would not be able to pay high reparations. The accord
was reached on April 7, 1919 and adopted as article 231 of the Versailles Treaty.
The political consequence of Article 231 was far reaching. Article 231 was termed the ‘War Guilt Clause.’ "This clause, more
than any other in the entire Treaty of Versailles, was to cause lasting resentment in Germany…" (Henig, 19). The guilt clause
resulted in German humiliation and rage. Most sectors of German society did not understand why all the blame was placed
on the German state.
The historical consensus is that responsibility
or guilt for the war was not attached to the
article. Rather, the clause was a prerequisite to
allow a legal basis to be laid out for the
reparation payments that were to be made.
Historians have also highlighted the
unintended damage created by the clause,
which caused anger and resentment amongst
the German population.
Source: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/VersaillesTreatyCarlos.htm
The Treaty of Versailles – Military Restrictions
The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces
(the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage
international disarmament. Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more
than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organization of the
divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved. Military schools for officer training were limited to
three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers were to be
retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend
military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave
early was limited.
The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with
increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all
fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometers (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was
forbidden. Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed. Germany was
prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the
manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armored cars, tanks and military aircraft. The German navy was allowed
six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)),
twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and
was forbidden submarines. The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast
defenses, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers
and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men. Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, fortytwo destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty-two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to
merchant use. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to
hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related
material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.
The Allied forces were concerned with weakening Germany militarily. Numerous restrictions were placed on Germany’s
military. Germany was forbidden to possess submarines and naval aircraft. Under the treaty Germany was limited to:
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6 battleships
6 light cruisers
12 destroyers
12 torpedo boats
Navy could not have more than 1500 officers
When Germany realized that they would not be keeping their Navy, it was decided that it was better to "…sink the fleet on
June 22, 1919, when it became clear that, whatever was decided, the ships would not be allowed to return to Germany"
(Henig, 17).
Similarly the German Army was to be limited:
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Forbidden to use tanks, military aircraft or heavy artillery
The Army was to be a volunteer army no larger than 100, 000
The restrictions placed upon Germany were taken bitterly by the Germans. They argued that so many restrictions made them
vulnerable to attack. The great German army had been dismantled and that was another humiliating factor of the Versailles
Treaty. The Germans had venerated their military superiority since the German wars of unification.
Source: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/VersaillesTreatyCarlos.htm
The Treaty of Versailles – Economic Reparations
World War I reparations were compensation imposed during the Paris Peace Conference upon the Central
Powers following their defeat in the First World War by the Allied and Associate Powers. Each of the defeated powers was
required to make payments in either cash or kind. Because of the financial situation Austria, Hungary, and Turkey found
themselves in after the war, few to no reparations were paid and the requirements for reparations were cancelled. Bulgaria,
having paid only a fraction of what was required, saw her reparation figure reduced and then cancelled. Historians have
recognized the German requirement to pay reparations as the "chief battleground of the post-war era" and "the focus of the
power struggle between France and Germany over whether the Versailles Treaty was to be enforced or revised".
France and Britain, both wanted to receive reparations for the
damage caused by Germany during the war. At first it was not
agreed on the price that Germany should pay, financial
reparations as high as 30,000 million were argued during the
deliberation of the treaty. A question however lingered, how was
Germany to pay such sums if the war had crippled her economy?
To resolve this issue, it was agreed that Germany should only be
responsible for civilian damage. The sum was set at 6,000
million, which was still very high due to the depreciated German
economy.
France above all was the one who wanted to maintain Germany
weak. France wanted to repay war debts with German capital. In
1923, the French invaded the Ruhr. In December 1922, the
Reparations Commission declared that Germany had defaulted in
its deliveries of timber. The French military invasion of the Ruhr spurred German nationalistic sentiments of hostility towards
the French. Instead of giving the reparations, the German authorities encouraged the workers to strike. The result was a
period of hyperinflation. The German mark, which had been under pressure since 1919, began to depreciate and eventually
became worthless. Germans were desperate and were ready to support extremists such as Hitler and the Nazi Party:
"The invasion of the Ruhr in 1923 had been the most serious consequence. Within Germany…diminished the support
for the Weimar government. Extremist parties on the right and left were given a boost, because of the alarm at the
prospect of complete economic collapse and social disorder. Many historians argue that the invasion of the Ruhr
paved the way for Hitler’s subsequent rise to power" (Henig, 35).
Because of the lack of reparation payments by Germany, France occupied the Ruhr in 1923 to enforce payments, causing an
international crisis that resulted in the implementation of the Dawes Plan in 1924. This plan outlined a new payment method
and raised international loans to help Germany to meet her reparation commitments. Despite this, by 1928 Germany called
for a new payment plan, resulting in the Young Plan that established the German reparation requirements at 112 billion marks
(US$26.3 billion) and created a schedule of payments that would see Germany complete payments by 1988. With the
collapse of the German economy in 1931, reparations were suspended for a year and in 1932 during the Lausanne
Conference they were cancelled altogether. Between 1919 and 1932, Germany paid less than 21 billion marks in reparations.
Source: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/VersaillesTreatyCarlos.htm
The Treaty of Versailles – Territorial Losses
The loss of territory meant an effacement of the German empire that Otto von Bismarck had established under the Prussian
Monarchy. The reality of defeat and the fragmentation of the German empire were humiliating to the Germans. Germany lost
13.5 % of its territory under the terms of the treaty. Close to seven million German citizens were placed under the jurisdiction
of a foreign nation:
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France: France took Alsace and Lorraine and the German coal
mines in the Saar Region for fifteen years. The Saar region was a
highly industrialized region.
Poland: the state of Poland was recreated. Poland took most of
West Prussia and much of the Posen province. Upper Silesia was
ceded to Poland, but later returned to Germany under a
plebiscite. The Polish Corridor was made of land that belonged
to Germany before WWI.
Belgium: Small areas of Eupen, Malmèdy, Moresńet, St. Vith
Denmark: Northern Schelswig was ceded to Denmark under
article 27 of treaty.
Czechoslovakia: border area near Troppau (present day Opava)
The League of Nations took control of the free city of Danzig and the
allies took control of the Rhineland for fifteen years. The Rhineland was
demilitarized under article 180 of the Versailles Treaty. It was
considered the industrial heart of Germany and the source of its military
power. Germany also lost its colonies and large merchant vessels.
Map of Europe in 1920, from book
Source: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/classes/33d/projects/1920s/VersaillesTreatyCarlos.htm