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CHAPTER IV
THE PREMODIFIED NOUN PHRASES FOUND IN “LALITAVISTARA” AND
THEIR TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
4.1
“Lalitavistara” and Its Indonesian Translation
The word “Lalitavistara” literally means “the unfolding of the play”. The book tells
the legendary life story of Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, in His effort to pursue
enlightenment. The story is part of Buddha sutra and has been told for generations through
various media to allow common people to understand the Buddha’s journey and Buddhist
wisdom easily.
In Indonesia, the life story of Buddha was also crafted on the stone wall of
Borobudur, the Buddhist greatest sanctuary in the world, which was built in the golden era of
Syailendra Dynasty. This giant building is located in Central Java and was built at the time
when Buddhist and Hindu influences dominated the island. Scientists have long argued about
the existence of this huge ancient architecture which was built in form of stupa, the reason
and the way it was built. One thing for sure, the Buddha’s story was carved there to spread
Buddha’s wisdom for common people during the rule of Syailendra Dynasty in Java. Even
today, when people have devotional visit to the temple, they can at the same time read the
story along the way while taking every step.
Leber (2011), an American born writer, retells the story of Buddha’s life based on the
bas-reliefs panels attached on the wall of the Borobudur. He called the book simply
“Lalitavistara” which is translated into Indonesian “Lalitawistara”. Both “Lalitavistara” and
“Lalitawistara” are written in one book, creating a bilingual guideline of understanding the 20
bas-reliefs on the first gallery of the Borobudur. The bas-reliefs included in the book are: the
situation in India while anticipating the birth of Prince Siddhartha (panel 1-27), the birth and
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the childhood life of Siddhartha Gautama (panel 18-55), Siddharta’s great renunciation (panel
56-67), the Buddha’s enlightenment (panel 68-95), and Buddha’s first sermon (panel 96-120).
4.2 Premodified English NPs modified by Adjectives
After doing a thorough reading and note taking, the premodified NPs were found in
the bilingual book “Lalitavistara”, including 149 premodified NPs modified with adjectives.
Being modified by adjective does not mean restricting the premodified NPs which are
modified using the basic form of adjective only. In the data found for this study, for example,
NPs can be premodified by using adjective, adjective phrase, -ing participle construction, or
–ed participle construction. These four premodifier structures act as adjective premodifiers in
the NPs. It is also important to note that NP premodifiers placed before noun head can be
more than one. This fact allows an NP to have combined modifiers which are also analyzed
in this study.
4.2.1 Premodified English NPs with 1 Premodifier
The English NPs premodified by 1 premodifier of adjective cover several structures.
Those structures include: NP premodified by adjective, NP premodified by adjective phrase,
and NP premodified by –ed participle construction. There is no NP premodified with –ing
construction found in the text. The complete analysis of the premodified English NP modified
by 1 modifier is described as follows.
a. Premodified NPs with Adjective
An example of English NP premodified by adjective was found on page 18 of the
book “Lalitavistara”. The analysis of the NP and its Indonesian equivalent is described
below.
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Example 1
English SL
: Only two hundred years after its construction the temple sank into oblivion.
Again, the reasons for this remain clouded in the shrouds of mystery.
Volcanic eruption? (page 18)
Indonesian TL : Hanya dua ratus tahun sejak pendiriannya, candi ini tenggelam terlupakan.
Lagi-lagi, alasan mengapa bisa terjadi demikian tetap terselubung dalam
awan misteri. Apakah karena letusan gunung berapi? (page 18)
The structure of the two phrases can be described as follows:
volcanic
modifier
volcanic
eruption
head
eruption
letusan
head
gunung berapi
modifier
letusan
gunung
berapi
Fig. 4.1. The structures of NPs “volcanic eruption” and “letusan gunung berapi”
Observing its grammatical structure, there is an obvious difference in the structure of
the NPs. The English NP has modifier-head construction, while the Indonesian NP has headmodifier construction (called DM structure in Indonesian). In the English structure, a
denominal adjective “volcanic” is attached before head, marking its function as post central
modification. “Volcanic” has more nominal form rather than adjective but functions entirely
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as adjective. In its Indonesian modifier equivalent “gunung berapi”, it is made up of two
different word classes, forming one phrase.
The difference of these two NPs can be seen from the modifier used to modify each
noun head. In the phrase “volcanic eruption”, the modifier precedes its noun head with
adjective feature. The suffix –ic in the word “volcanic” marks its adjective class as this
adjective is derived from the noun “volcano”. However, in the phrase “letusan gunung
berapi”, the modifier follows the noun head with a noun feature, “gunung berapi”. The
phrase “gunung berapi” is originated from two words “gunung” and “berapi” in which
“berapi” includes verbal function “to have flame or lava”. Both noun heads of the SL and the
TL NPs refer to the same characteristic of the volcano; it is when the volcano throws out lava
to the ground. Also, it can be noted that both “eruption” and “letusan” are included in the
noun word class. “Eruption” has suffix –ion while “letusan” has suffix –an, marking the
noun form.
The phrases “volcanic eruption” and “letusan gunung berapi” obviously have several
similar features. The Indonesian NP “letusan gunung berapi” has equal meaning with its
English NP, “volcanic eruption”. Based on the syntactical and semantic explanation above,
the technique of translation used in this NP is amplification. It is because the adjective
“volcanic” is translated into clause with noun + verb, “gunung berapi” in Indonesian,
changing the word class of the adjective into a clause. The translators choose to describe the
term “volcanic” into “gunung berapi” instead of keeping the adjective by adapting the term
“volcanic” into “vulkanik/vulkanis”, which is also known in Indonesian. The adapted term
“vulkanik/vulkanis” as adjective is commonly used in phrase: “abu vulkanik” – volcanic ash,
“material vulkanis” – volcanic materials, etc.
Another example of NP premodified by adjective was found on page 25 of the book.
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Example 2
English SL
: And still the Lion of Men, seated on his throne, engages in marvelous play.
(page 18)
Indonesian TL : Singa di antara Manusia, duduk di atas takhtanya, beraksi dalam
pertunjukan mencengangkan. (page 18)
The tree diagram of these two NP structures can be described as follows.
marvelous
modifier
marvelous
pertunjukan
head
pertunjukan
play
head
play
mencengangkan
modifier
mencengangkan
Fig. 4.2. The structures of NPs “marvelous play” and “pertunjukan mencengangkan”
From its grammatical structure, the English NP “marvelous play” consists of noun
head “play” and premodifier “marvelous”. According to the Seventh Edition of Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary, adjective “marvelous” refers to a condition which is extremely good,
beyond ordinary condition. This adjective takes central modification zone, which is usually
occupied by gradable adjectives. The Indonesian equivalence of this NP is in the form of
postmodified NP “pertunjukan mencengangkan”, with the noun “pertunjukan” as the head
of the phrase and verb “mencengangkan” as its postmodifier.
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The translation technique used to translate this NP is transposition, because there is a
word class change from adjective “marvelous” into Indonesian verb “mencengangkan”. This
is unavoidable since the adjective “marvelous” can only be translated into verb
“mencengangkan” or “mengagumkan”. If it is insisted to translate this adjective into
adjective too, the available equivalent is only “bagus sekali” which doesn’t meet the sense of
“spectacular” of the source language word. Moreover, in Indonesian, there are some verbs
which act like adjective, such as: “mengagumkan”, “menyenangkan”, “mengecewakan”, etc.
Some Indonesian scholars even group them into adjective instead of verbs. Though, Chaer
(2009) argued that those words are verbs. It is because these words are marked by the prefix
me- which is used to form active verbs in Indonesian. Moreover, there is historical
documentation that this kind of verbs was formerly used in active transitive sentence. Take an
example: “menyenangkan” in the sentence below:
Indonesian
: Permainan itu menyenangkan saya.
Permainan itu menyenangkan.
English
(active transitive sentence)
(active intransitive sentence)
: The game is fun.
From this explanation, it is clear that the adjective “marvelous” is equivalent with
verb “mencengangkan” and the translation technique used is transposition; due to the change
of word class occur in the translation result.
b. Premodified NPs with Adjective Phrase
An example of English NP premodified by adjective phrase was also found in the
book. The complete sentences in the bilingual book are detailed as follows:
English SL
: On the search for the ultimate truth Sakyamuni submits himself over the
next six years to extreme austerities and self-mortification exercises, trying
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to subdue his mind with his mind and ending up by eating but one grain of
sesame a day. (page 254)
Indonesian TL : Dalam rangka mencari kebenaran sejati, selama enam tahun berikutnya
Sakyamuni menenggelamkan dirinya dalam praktik petapaan dan
penyiksaan diri ekstrem, berupaya menaklukkan batin dengan batin dan
hanya memakan satu butir wijen setiap sehari. (Page 17)
The structures of the two NPs can be described in the tree diagrams as follows:
self-mortification
modifier
self-mortification
penyiksaan
head
penyiksaan
exercises
head
exercises
diri
modifier
diri
ekstrem
modifier
ekstrem
Fig. 4.4. The structures of NPs “self-mortification exercises” and “penyiksaan diri ekstrem”
Based on its grammatical structure, the English NP of “self-mortification exercises”
consists of plural noun head “exercises” and the adjective phrase “self-mortification”. This
adjective phrase takes prehead modification. This adjective phrase is closely correlated with
the noun “mortification”. This phrase is translated into the Indonesian NP “penyiksaan diri
ekstrem”, with “penyiksaan diri” as the head of NP and “ekstrem” as the postmodifier. The
word “mortification” refers to the action of subduing one’s bodily desires. This “action”
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sense of meaning is kept in its Indonesian equivalent as “pe-an” affixes, found in the word
“penyiksaan” referring to the “action” or “process” as well. However, the difference is
obvious if it is seen from the heads of the two NP. In the English NP, the noun head is
“exercises” which refers to the physical or mental activities conducted in order to become
stronger. And it is notable that this noun head is plural with suffix “-s” attached to the end of
the word. In this translation, the meaning has been transferred completely, though those
meanings are brought by different elements of the NP.
The translation technique used in this NP translation is compensation, because the
translator adds the sense of “ekstrem” with noun “penyiksaan” to replace the word
“mortification”. It is conducted to deal with the “extremeness” sense of exercise in
“mortification” which is considered as insufficient in its equivalent “penyiksaan”.
c. Premodified NPs with –ed participle
To modify a noun head in an NP, it is also possible to use –ed participle construction.
An example of this –ed construction which modifies noun head as an adjective can be found
on page 86. The complete sentences are as follows:
Example 1
English SL
: Queen Mayadevi reveals her dream to her husband, telling him about the
white elephant which entered her side. She asks him to summon learned
brahmins to interpret the dream. (page 86)
Indonesian TL : Ratu Mayadewi menceritakan mimpinya kepada suaminya, berkisah
tentang gajah putih yang masuk dari sisi tubuuhnya. Ia memohon suaminya
untuk meminta brahmana terpelajar untuk menafsirkan mimpi tersebut.
(page 86)
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The structure of the two phrases can be described in the tree diagram below:
learned
modifier
brahmins
head
learned
brahmins
terpelajar
modifier
brahmana
head
brahmana
terpelajar
Fig. 4.5. The structures of NPs “learned brahmins” and “brahmana terpelajar”
The phrase “Learned brahmins” consists of the participle verb “learned” as the
premodifier and “brahmin” as the noun head. This –ed construction takes post central
premodification zone. The head “brahmins” itself comes up from the root word “brahmin”
which is pluralized using suffix –s as the plural marker. Its Indonesian equivalent,
“brahmana terpelajar” consists of two words: “brahmana” and “terpelajar”. “Brahmana”
is the noun head, while “terpelajar” which takes ter- construction is the postmodifier.
The English NP “learned Brahmins” consists of –ed construction referring to a
specific condition in which a person gained knowledge through study and experience.
Meanwhile, its equivalent “terpelajar” is considered a passive verb which functions as a
postmodifier. There is a slight difference in the use of “brahmins” and its Indonesian
equivalent “brahmana”. The word “brahmins” can be used to refer to culturally a superior
person in US. However, in Indonesian language, the word “brahmana” always has religious
sense. Therefore, “brahmana” can only be used to refer to a holy person in Buddhist and
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Hindu. Also, the NP “learned brahmins” has plural meaning shown by the suffix –s at the end
of the verb. This plural marker has been removed in its equivalent as Indonesian does not
have the concept of plurality. The Indonesian word “brahmana” may mean either plural or
singular. However, there is indeed a concept of emphasizing explicitly the situation that
something is more than 1 by repeating the word, such as: brahmana-brahmana. Another way
to emphasize the plural nouns in Indonesian is by adding qualifier “para”, “banyak”, etc.
The translation of the phrase “learned brahmins” into “brahmana terpelajar” can be
considered literal translation. All elements are translated equivalently word to word from SL
to TL, including the morphemic element such as the –ed construction “learned” which is
translated into passive intransitive ter- construction in Indonesian.
Example 2
English SL
: Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this
carving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust,
seeking delight here and there; that is craving for sensual pleasures, craving
for existence, craving for extermination. (page 370)
Indonesian TL : Inilah, para Bhikkhu, Kebenaran Mulia tentang sumber penderitaan: nafsu
keinginanlah yang menimbulkan kelahiran kembali, yang disertai hawa
nafsu dan kesenangan, selalu berusaha mencari objek di sana-sini; yaitu
nafsu keinginan untuk mendapatkan kesenangan indrawi, nafsu keinginan
untuk selalu menjadi, nafsu keinginan untuk pemusnahan . (page 372)
The structure break of the two phrases can be described in the tree diagram below:
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renewed
modifier
renewed
kelahiran
head
existence
head
existence
kembali
modifier
kelahiran
kembali
Fig. 4.6. The structures of NPs “renewed existence” and “kelahiran kembali”
The phrase “renewed existence” consists of the participle verb “renewed” as the
premodifier and “existence” as the noun head. This –ed construction takes post central
premodification zone. Its Indonesian equivalent, “kelahiran kembali” consists of two words:
“kelahiran” and “kembali”. “Kelahiran” is the noun head, while “kembali” is the
postmodifier.
The English NP “renewed existence” consists of –ed construction referring to a
specific condition in which a soul was born over and over to redeem its sins by living as
either human or non-human. There are some differences in the use of “existence” and its
Indonesian equivalent “kelahiran”. The word “existence”, according to Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary by Hornby (2010), can be used to refer to a state or fact of being real or
living or being present. However, in Indonesian language, the word “kelahiran”, as
mentioned by Alwi (2008) in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia refers to the state of being born,
not only exist.
The translation of the phrase “renewed existence” into “kelahiran kembali” can be
considered as literal translation. “Renewed” can literally be translated into “diperbaharui” in
Indonesian which more or less can be equal with “kembali”, depending on the context. The
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elements in the SL noun phrase are translated word for word, resulting in literal translation
technique applied in the translation result.
4.2.2 Premodified English NPs with 2 Premodifiers
NPs are not only premodified by one modifier only. It is possible that an English NP
is constructed from two or more premodifiers from various word classes. Some of them are
found in the text, covering several types of modification construction. The English NPs
premodified by
two premodifiers of adjective can be found in several structures. The
complete analysis can be described as follows.
a. Premodified NPs with Determiner + adjective
One example of the English NP premodified by determiner + adjective structure was
found on page 18 as quoted below.
Example 1
English SL
: The beauty of Borobudur is that all three mainstream schools of
Buddhism… find themselves united in the symbiotic expression of this
monument, as if it was built as one sole credo in stone, praising the divine
within ourselves. It is, however, worthwhile to note, that this major
sanctuary was built during the same period which entered history books as
“the Age of Faith”, bestowing the world with some of its finest architectural
expression of religious faith from medieval Europe. (page 17-18)
Indonesian TL : Keindahan Borobudur terletak pada gabungan ketiga aliran Buddhisme…
dalam ekspresi simbiotis bangunan ini, seolah-olah ia dibangun sebagai
satu paham tunggal dalam media batu, memuja nirwana dalam diri kita
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sendiri. Namun layaklah untuk dicatat bahwa tempat suci raksasa itu
dibangun pada periode yang sama dengan apa yang disebut oleh buku-buku
sejarah sebagai “Zaman Keyakinan”, yang menganugerahi dunia dengan
ekspresi-ekspresi terindah keyakinan spiritual zaman pertengahan Eropa.
(page 17-18)
The structures of these two NPs are broken down in detail as follows:
this
det.
major
modifier
major
this
tempat
head
suci
modifier
tempat suci
raksasa
sanctuary
head
sanctuary
raksasa
modifier
itu
det.
itu
Fig. 4.7. The structures of NPs “this major sanctuary” and “tempat suci raksasa itu”
The English NP “this major sanctuary”, grammatically consists of three elements
including the determiner “this”, the adjective “major” and the noun head “sanctuary”. This
phrase is translated into NP “tempat suci raksasa itu” in Indonesian which is postmodified.
The noun“tempat” is the noun head with the adjective “suci”, the adjective “raksasa” and
the determiner “itu”. From this structure, it is obvious that the two NPs are modified by a
definite article having certain noun as its reference. The article “this” in the English NP is a
determiner, while “major” is categorized as the central premodifier. Eventually, the word
“major” has two senses. The “Major” in the sense of “most of” is precentral premodifier. In
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this phrase, the word “major” has the sense of adjective “giant” which belongs to the central
premodification zone.
The determiner “this” is translated into determiner “itu” in Indonesian. Both are
intended to give specific reference or to restrict the NPs. Though both are determiners, “this”
is endophoric while “itu” is exophoric. The adjective “sanctuary” is not translated into one
word, but rather, it is translated into an NP “tempat suci”. The NP “tempat suci” is a phrase
which consists of the noun head “tempat” and the postmodifier “suci”. Both “sanctuary” and
“tempat suci” has similar meaning related to religious activity. However, “sanctuary” has
another sense of meaning referring to the specific place for nature or animal reservation. On
the other hand, “tempat suci” only expresses the sense of “sacred place for people making
prayers and other religious ceremonies”. The word “sanctuary” and “tempat suci” both
promise mental safety for those who are in it, though “sanctuary” may have additional sense
of “providing physical safety” as well.
The two phrases “this major sanctuary” and “tempat suci raksasa itu” emphasize the
size of the building which they refer to. Thus, each presents the words “major” and
“raksasa”. However, in the English NP, the adjective “major” besides expressing the
meaning of “big”, also brings the sense of “importance”. By choosing the NP “this major
sanctuary”, the writer seems to describe that the site he referred to in this sentence is truly
great in terms of size and also “great” in terms of its significant role in the world’s history.
This is the sense which is not included in its equivalent using the adjective “raksasa” to
represent similar meaning.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation, since all elements in the SL
NP is translated word for word, including the determiner. Though, the translation of the word
“sanctuary” into “tempat suci” can be considered an established equivalent.
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Example 2
English SL
: Escorted by a huge retinue of gods and men Queen Mayadevi travels in a
sumptuous carriage to the pleasure garden of Lumbini where she intends to
give birth to the Great Being. (page 114)
Indonesian TL : Dengan diiringi oleh serombongan besar dewa dan manusia, Ratu
Mayadewi berangkat dengan rombongan kereta yang megah menuju
Taman Lumbini, lokasi yang hendak dijadikan tempat melahirkan Sang
Makhluk Agung. (page 17-18)
The structures of these two NPs are broken down in detail as follows:
a
modifier
a
sumptuous
modifier
sumptuous
rombongan
head
kereta
modifier
rombongan
kereta
carriage
head
carriage
yang megah
modifier
yang
megah
Fig. 4.8. The structures of NPs “a sumptuous carriage” and “rombongan kereta yang megah”
Grammatically, the English NP “a sumptuous carriage” consists of noun head
“carriage”, article “a”, and adjective “sumptuous” as the premodifier. The adjective
“sumptuous”, according to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, refers to the condition
of something that looks very impressive. This impressiveness has been transferred into its
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Indonesian equivalent with the presence of the word “megah”. In Indonesian, the word
“megah” is usually used to refer to a condition that something looks impressive and
astounding, especially for building or an inanimate object.
It is important to note that the English NP has singular noun “carriage” as its head. On
the other hand, this single noun is translated into an NP “rombongan kereta” which explicitly
informs that the number of the carriage is more than one. The word “rombongan” brings this
sense of meaning. According to Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, “rombongan” refers to a
group of people who walks the same road together. There is also a shift of focus in the
translation equivalent of this NP, from “carriage” into “rombongan kereta” – the group of
carriages. In the English NP, the focus is on the carriage itself, while in its translation result,
the focus is on the group of carriages that is sumptuous. In the Indonesian equivalent
“rombongan kereta yang megah”, the noun head is “rombongan kereta” with “yang”
construction “yang megah” as the postmodifier.
The translation technique applied to translate this NP is literal translation, since the
translation is conducted word for word. However, it is important to question the equivalency
of the translation of this NP, since both the SL and TL phrase refer to different “thing” or
“reference”. The phrase “a sumptuous carriage” implies that Queen Mayadewi is travelling in
carriage which is sumptuous/luxury carriage. It is only one carriage which is discussed in this
phrase, that is the carriage of Queen Mayadewi. Meanwhile, in its Indonesian NP, the phrase
become “rombongan kereta yang megah”, which means that there are not only one carriage
that is luxury. The focus is different. Fortunately, this focus difference does not harm the
“truth’ of the given information. According to the Buddhist holly book, it is told that Queen
Mayadewi indeed traveled in a sumptuous carriage, yet, she was accompanied by a number of
other carriages, horses, and servants. It is suggested to change the Indonesian NP translation
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into “Ratu Mayadewi berangkat dengan kereta yang megah”, to keep the faithfulness of the
focus given in the SL text.
b. Premodified NPs with Determiner + -ing participle
There is also premodified NP taking the structure determiner + -ing participle
construction. One of the examples was found on page 38 as follows:
Example 1
English SL
: After the place, family and circumstances for the Bodhisattva’s birth have
been determined, deities descend in the area of Varanasi (Benares), India,
and the exhort hundreds of Pratyeka buddhas who dwell there to make way
for the coming Buddha. (page 38)
Indonesian TL : Setelah tempat, keluarga, dan kondisi bagi kelahiran Boddhisattwa sudah
ditentukan, para dewa turun ke wilayah Waranasi (Benares, India), India,
dan memberitahukan kepada ratusan Pratyekabuddha yang menetap di sana
untuk memberi tempat bagi kedatangan Buddha. (page 38)
The structure of the two NPs in those sentences can be described as follows.
the
det.
the
coming
modifier
coming
Buddha
head
Buddha
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kedatangan
head
Buddha
modifier
kedatangan
Buddha
Fig. 4.9. The structures of NPs “the coming Buddha” and “kedatangan Buddha”
The English NP “the coming Buddha” consists of determiner “the”, premodifier
“coming” and noun head “Buddha”. The word “coming” is an adjective derived from the
verb “come” with –ing construction. Thus, “coming” is categorized in the poscentral
premodifier zone. Meanwhile, its Indonesian NP equivalent, “kedatangan Buddha” consists
of the noun head “kedatangan” and the noun postmodifier “Buddha”. “Kedatangan” is
categorized as noun, referring to the process of the “coming”. It can be seen from its structure
which has “ke-an” affix. “Ke-an” affix, in Indonesian marks the word as a noun construction,
passive verb, or adjective.
In the English NP “the coming Buddha”, there is the determiner “the” restricting the
NP reference to certain “coming Buddha”. In this case, “the” refers to the Boddhisattva who
will be born to the earth as Siddharta Gautama as what has been mentioned in the previous
text. The phrase “the coming Buddha” refers to either the “Buddha” who is on His way to be
born, or the future Buddha. Whichever the meaning, this phrase emphasizes on the “Buddha”
as the primary element. On the other hand, this kind of restriction does not exist in
Indonesian. Its Indonesian NP construction “kedatangan Buddha” does not have any
determiner to restrict the phrase.
The translation of this English NP into Indonesian uses literal translation. Every
element included in the English NP is translated into Indonesian NP. However, the same case
with the previous phrase, there is focus difference occur between the SL NP and the TL NP.
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The phrase “kedatangan Buddha” emphasizes “kedatangan”, the event, as the primary
element of the phrase. If back translation is applied to this NP into English, the translation
will be “the coming of Buddha” which is surely not equivalent with its SL NP “the coming
Buddha”. “Buddha yang akan datang” should be better translation equivalent.
Example 2
Another premodified NP structure found in the data is the structure of NP with
modification by determiner + -ing participle. One of the examples was found on page 194.
The full expressions are as described in the sentences below:
English SL
: Following a foreboding dream in which he sees his son flee the palace and
become a wandering monk, King Suddhodana comes up with every
imaginable measure to distract his son and to prevent him from leaving.
(page 194)
Indonesian TL : Menindak-lanjuti mimpi firasat di mana ia melihat putranya melarikan diri
dari istana dan menjadi seorang biksu pengembara, Raja Suddhodana
membuat rencana terukur untuk mengalihkan perhatian putranya dan untuk
mencegahnya meninggalkan istana. (page194)
The breakdowns of these NP structures can be described in these tree diagrams.
a
det.
a
wandering
modifier
wandering
monk
head
monk
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seorang
det.
biksu
biksu
head
pengembara
modifier
pengembara
seorang
Fig. 4.10. The structures of NPs “a wandering monk” and “seorang biksu pengembara”
Grammatically, the premodified English NP structure “a wandering monk” consists of
the indefinite article “a” as the central determiner, the adjective “wandering”, and the noun
head “monk”. It means that this NP does not have any specific reference pointing out to any
special monk. It may refer to just any monk who is wandering. The adjective “wandering”
occupies the postcentral modification zone. Its Indonesian NP equivalent “seorang biksu
pengembara” consists of the determiner “seorang”, the noun head “biksu” and the noun
modifier “pengembara”.
There is a slight difference between the two phrases. The English NP takes the
adjective “wandering” as the premodifier while its Indonesian NP has the noun
“pengembara” to modify the noun head. It means that this Indonesian NP refers to a monk
whose his daily activity is wandering looking for alms from other people in order to make a
living. Meanwhile, the English NP may refer to the same as the above explanation or, a monk
who is wandering when the writing was written.
The translation of this English NP uses transposition since the translation result
change the word class adjective of “wandering” into noun when it is translated into
“pengembara”. The prefix pe- in Indonesian marks the noun, including the doer of an action
or tools used to accomplish a work. There is another translation alternative if the translators
do not want to change the word class into noun. The NP “a wandering monk” can be
translated into “biksu yang mengembara” instead of using “biksu pengembara”. However, the
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“sense” of meaning between the two phrases is definitely different. While “biksu yang
mengembara” refers to the monk that is wandering at the moment, “biksu pengembara”
refers more to the habitual action.
c. Premodified NPs with Adjective + Adjective
The English NP with adjective + adjective structure was found in the book as well.
An example is available on page 28.
Example 1
English SL
: Countless divine beings remind him that after aeons of self-perfection the
time for his last incarnation has arrived. (page 28)
Indonesian TL : Makhluk-makhluk surgawi yang tak terhingga jumlahnya mengingatkan
beliau bahwa setelah berkalpa-kalpa penyempurnaan diri, waktu bagi
kelahiran terakhirnya telah tiba. (page 28)
The different tree diagrams clearly show the differences.
countless
modifier
countless
divine
modifier
divine
makhluk-makhluk
head
makhluk-makhluk
beings
head
beings
surgawi
modifier
surgawi
yang tak terhingga jumlahnya
modifier
yang
tak terhingga
jumlahnya
Fig. 4.11. The structures of NPs “countless divine beings” and “makhluk-makhluk surgawi
yang tak terhingga jumlahnya”
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From the two grammatical structures above, it can be seen that the premodified
English NPs are translated into Indonesian NP postmodified by “yang” phrase construction to
explain the numbers of the referred subject. The English NP consists of the numeral
premodifier “countless”, adjective “divine”, and the plural noun head “being” with suffix –s
marking its plurality. The word “countless” takes the determinative position, while “divine”
occupies the central premodifier zone. On the other hand, its Indonesian NP consists of the
plural noun head “makhluk-makhluk”, the adjective “surgawi” and the “yang” construction.
The “yang” construction consists of the noun head “jumlah”, the suffix “-nya”, and the
postmodifier “tak terhingga”.
The noun head of the English NP “countless divine beings” has plural features with
the suffix –s placed at the end of the word. This feature is equal with the repetitive noun head
“makhluk-makhluk” which also has plural feature in Indonesian. The same explanation is
valid for the adjective “divine” and its Indonesian equivalent “surgawi”. The only difference
was found in the word “countless” and its equivalent phrase “yang tak terhitung jumlahnya”.
“Countless” refers to a condition when things are impossible to be counted because they are
too many. It is similar to the Indonesian phrase “tak terhitung”. However, in the phrase “tak
terhitung jumlahnya”, there is meaning redundancy occurs. “Tak terhitung” is actually
already obvious that it occurs in mathematic or counting. In other words, it talks about
amount. Therefore, the addition of the word “jumlahnya” to complete the phrase is not
necessarily significant.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because every element
consisted in the SL NP is translated into Indonesian, including its morphological element
such as suffix –s to mark plurality. Though, there is unnecessary addition done by the
translator by adding the word “jumlahnya”.
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Example 2
English SL
: On his “Great Descent” to earth the Bodhisattva is gloriously accompanied
by innumerable divine beings. (page 66)
Indonesian TL : Pada saat “Keberangkatan Agung” ke bumi, Sang Bodhisattwa dengan
gemilang ditemani oleh makhluk surgawi yang tak terhingga jumlahnya.
(page 66)
The breakdown of both English and Indonesian NPs structures taken from these two
sentences can be described as follows. The different tree diagrams clearly show the
differences.
innumerable divine
modifier
modifier
innumerable divine
makhluk
head
makhluk
beings
head
beings
surgawi
modifier
surgawi
yang tak terhingga jumlahnya
modifier
yang
tak terhingga
jumlahnya
Fig. 4.12. The structures of NPs “countless divine beings” and “makhluk-makhluk surgawi
yang tak terhingga jumlahnya”
Based on its grammatical structure, the English NP “innumerable divine beings” are
constructed from the plural noun head “beings”, referring to the unspecified creatures, and
the modifiers “countless” and “divine”. The words “innumerable” and “divine” are both
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adjectives. The word “innumerable” takes the determinative position, while “divine” occupies
the central premodifier zone. On the other hand, its Indonesian NP consists of the plural noun
head “makhluk-makhluk”, the adjective “surgawi” and the “yang” construction. The “yang”
construction consists of the noun head “jumlah”, the suffix “-nya”, and the postmodifier
“tak terhingga”. Uniquely, the NP “countless divine beings” and “innumerable divine
beings” are translated into the same phrase “makhluk surgawi yang tak terhingga
jumlahnya”. This is possible, since the word “countless” and “innumerable” are synonymous.
Thus, their use is interchangeable.
The translation technique used is literal translation, because the translators translated
all elements available in the SL NP into its Indonesian NP. This NP translation is almost
similar with the previous example, the translation of “countless divine beings”. The
difference is, in the translation of NP “innumerable divine beings”, plurality marker is
removed in Indonesian as it is not really significant. In Indonesian, plural nouns are not
always explicitly implied in the sentence.
d. Premodified NPs with Numeral + Adjective
Another type of premodified NP structure is noun + adjective. One of the examples
can be found on page 194 as described below:
Example 1
English SL
: Among other things he offers him three lavish palaces, one for each
season, filled with the most tempting and voluptuous women. (Page 194)
Indonesian TL : Di antara banyak hal, sang Raja menawarkan tiga istana megah, masingmasing untuk satu musim berbeda, yang dipenuhi oleh wanita-wanita yang
paling menggoda dan menggairahkan. (Page 194)
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The structures of the two phrases can be described in the tree diagrams shown below:
three
lavish
modifier modifier
lavish
three
tiga
modifier
istana
head
palaces
head
palaces
megah
modifier
megah
istana
tiga
Fig. 4.13. The structures of NPs “three lavish palaces” and “tiga istana megah”
Grammatically, the English NP “three lavish palaces” consists of the numeral “three”,
the adjective “lavish” and the plural noun head “palaces”. The suffix –s at the end of noun
head “palaces” marks plurality. The numeral “three” occupies the precentral premodification
zone, while the adjective “lavish” takes the central premodification zone in this NP
construction. Its Indonesian NP “tiga istana megah” is constructed from three elements
including: the numeral “tiga”, the noun head “istana” and the adjective “megah”. Numeral
“three” is translated into “tiga”, noun “palace” is translated into “istana”, and adjective
“lavish” is translated into adjective “megah” which is usually used to refer to a condition of a
building which is luxurious and cost large amount of money to create it in such way.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation since all the elements in the
English NP has been translated into Indonesian NP. Word for word translation is applied in
the translation result, although the plurality marker of suffix –s in English NP is not
translated. In Indonesian, the numeral already marks the plurality so that repeating the noun
head is not necessary.
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Example 2
English SL
: Together with five ascetic companions, he then undergoes six years of the
harshest austerities and exercises of self-mortification, but discovers
ultimately the “Middle Path”, indicating a moderate way between extremes.
(Page 229)
Indonesian TL : Bersama lima rekan petapa, ia pun menjalani enam tahun praktik petapaan
dan penyiksaan diri yang paling sukar, tapi akhirnya menyadari “Jalan
Tengah”, yang mengajarkan titik temu antara dua ekstrem. (Page 231)
The structures of the two phrases can be described in the tree diagrams below:
five
modifier
five
lima
modifier
lima
ascetic
modifier
companions
head
ascetic
companions
rekan
head
petapa
modifier
rekan
petapa
Fig. 4.14. The structures of NPs “five ascetic companions” and “lima rekan petapa”
Grammatically, the English NP “five ascetic companions” is constructed from the
plural noun head “companions”, with the suffix –s marking its plurality, the numeral noun
“five”, and the adjective “ascetic”. The numeral “five” occupies the precentral
premodification zone, while the adjective “ascetic” takes the central premodification zone in
this NP construction. Its Indonesian equivalent “lima rekan petapa” premodified by the
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numeral “lima” is obviously shown by the above tree diagram. The noun head of the
Indonesian NP is a noun “rekan” with the premodifier “lima” and the noun “petapa”.
The translation technique used to translate this NP is transposition because there is a
change in terms of word class occurring from the adjective “ascetic” into noun “petapa” in
the translation result. The word “petapa” is derived from root word “tapa” with prefix pe-,
marking the noun form which is usually used to refer to the doer of an action or an instrument
used to do certain work.
e. Premodified NPs with Determiner + -ed participle
Another type of NP structure is the combination of determiner + -ed participle. An
example of this construction is shown on page 370 as described below:
Example 1
English SL
: This is what the Blessed One said. (page 370)
Indonesian TL : Inilah yang dikatakan Bhagava. (page 372)
The structure of these two NPs can be described in three diagrams as follows.
the
det.
the
Blessed
modifier
blessed
One
head
one
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Bhagava
Bhagava
head
Ø
modifier
Fig. 4.15. The structures of NPs “the blessed one” and “Bhagava”
From the tree diagram above, it is obvious that grammatically the English NP “the
Blessed One” consists of the determiner “the”, the -ed participle “blessed” and the noun head
“one”. The article “the” occupies the determiner position, while “blessed” occupies the
postcentral modification zone. Uniquely, the phrase is translated into a single word
“Bhagava” in Indonesian as the TL with zero modifiers. Though the phrase was translated
into a single word, its translation result is equivalent. How is it possible?
The word “one” in this NP construction is used to refer to a specific person or thing. It
is premodified by –ed participle “blessed” and the determiner “the”. “The Blessed One” is
not particularly a kind of religious term in Buddhism as it can be used to refer to any blessed
holy person in all religions. It is different from its Indonesian noun “Bhagava” which is
definitely considered a Buddhist religious term. Also, the English NP uses the article “the”
referring to what was mentioned previously. In this case, “the” in NP “the Blessed One”
refers to the person who is discussed previously, that is, Buddha. Literally, the phrase “the
Blessed One” means “the one who has been blessed” or “someone who possesses all blesses
and fortune”.
The translation of this English NP uses established equivalence. The English NP “the
blessed One” is translated into “Bhagava” which is a specific religious term in Buddhism
instead of using its literal equivalent “Dia yang diberkati” or “Dia yang Memberkati”.
“Bhagava” is derived from the Sanskrit “Bhagavan” which means “possessing fortune,
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blessed, and prosperous”. That is the reason why the three-word phrase “the Blessed One” is
simply translated into a single word “Bhagava” which certainly covers all the features
possessed by the English NP.
Example 2
English SL
: Each one of the gods, including Brahma, decorates a different Boddhi Tree,
hoping the Enlightened One would choose it to become the very tree of
knowledge under which he will attain final enlightenment. (page 298)
Indonesian TL : Masing-masing dewa, termasuk Brahma, menghiasi Pohon Bodhi berbeda,
berharap Sang Tercerahkan akan memilihnya untuk menjadi pohon
kebijaksanaan yang di bawahnya akan tercapai Pencerahan sempurna. (page
298)
The structure of these two NPs can be described in three diagrams below.
the
Enlightened
One
det.
modifier
head
Enlightened
the
Sang
det.
One
Tercerahkan
head
Sang
Tercerahkan
Fig. 4.16. The structures of NPs “the Enlightened One” and “Sang Tercerahkan”
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The English NP “the Enlightened One” consists of the determiner “the”, the -ed
participle “blessed”, and the noun head “one”. The article “the” takes the determiner position,
while “blessed” occupies the postcentral modification zone. This NP is translated into an NP
“sang tercerahkan”, with “kata sandang” or the article “sang”. Though it is considered an
article, the use of “sang” is not similar to the known articles in English or Dutch. The article
“sang” functions to add a superior feature of specific character in a story, or placed before
the specific position that is highly honored.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation technique because the
English NP “the Enlightened One” is translated into “Sang Tercerahkan”. It is considered as
literal translation, although the word “one” is not translated in its Indonesian NP, since the
meaning contained in that word has been included in the article “sang”. The word “one” in
this NP construction is used to refer to a specific person or thing. It is premodified by the –ed
participle “blessed” and the determiner “the”. “The Enlightened One” is a religious term in
Buddhism. Moreover, the English NP uses the article “the” referring to what was mentioned
previously. In this case, “the” in NP “the Enlightened One” refers to the person who is
discussed previously, that is, Buddha. Literally, the phrase “the Blessed One” means “the one
who has been blessed” or “someone who possesses all blesses and fortune”.
f. Premodified NPs with Genitive + Adjective
Another NP structure found in the book of “Lalitavistara” is genitive + adjective. One
of the examples is shown in the title of a chapter as follows:
Example 1
English SL
: The “Four Encounters” and “Siddharta’s Great Renunciation” (panels 5667). (page 23)
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Indonesian TL : “Empat Pertemuan” dan “Pelepasan agung Siddharta” (panel 56-67).
(page 23-24)
The two phrases on page 23 and page 24 can be described in a tree diagram below:
Siddharta’s
modifier
great
modifier
Siddharta’s
great
pelepasan
head
agung
modifier
pelepasan
agung
renunciation
head
renunciation
Siddharta
modifier
Siddharta
Fig. 4.17. The structures of NPs “Siddharta’s Great Renunciation” and “pelepasan agung
Siddharta”
Observing its grammatical structure, the English NP “Siddharta’s great renunciation”
is constructed from three elements such as: the genitive “Siddharta’s”, the adjective “great”
and the noun head “renunciation”. In the premodifier zone, genitive “Siddharta’s” occupies
the determinative zone, while the adjective “great” takes the central position. This phrase is
translated respectively into Indonesian NP “pelepasan agung Siddharta”.
In the English NP “Siddharta’s great renunciation”, the adjective “great” adds the
sense of impressive size and the noun head “renunciation” emphasizes the religious meaning.
Literally, “renunciation” means the formal rejection of something, typically a belief, claim, or
course of action. This type of rejection action is derived from religious belief allowing its
80
believers to avoid the temptation of the material world. This sense of meaning is absent in its
Indonesian equivalent “pelepasan” as the word “pelepasan” can be used to describe any
releasing process. Though there is no specific religious sense included.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because every element in the
Indonesian NP is translated into Indonesian. The translation of the adjective “great”, that is
the Indonesian NP “agung”, adds the religious meaning after it collocates with the word
“pelepasan”. In English, “great” refers to a condition in which something has impressive size
or ability which is considered above the average. On the other hand, its equivalent “agung”
refers to something majestic, not just an ordinary impressive sense in terms of size or ability.
The word “agung” mostly refers to a condition which is prominent, being praised by many
people as it brings both physical and mental effect to the person who hears the word.
Example 2
English SL
: On the day of the contest, Siddharta’s jealous cousin, Devadatta, sees a
beautiful white elephant destined for the Bodhisattva being led into the city.
(page 168)
Indonesian TL : Pada hari pertandingan, sepupu Siddharta yang cemburu, Dewadatta,
melihat seekor gajah putih yang cantik yang dimaksudkan untuk
ditunggangi oleh Bodhisattwa menuju ke kota. (page 23-24)
The two phrases in those sentences can be described in the tree diagrams below:
Siddharta’s
modifier
jealous
modifier
Siddharta’s
jealous
cousin
head
cousin
81
sepupu
head
Siddharta
modifier
sepupu
yang cemburu
modifier
Siddharta
yang
cemburu
Fig. 4.18. The structures of NPs “Siddharta’s jealous cousin” and “sepupu Siddharta yang
cemburu”
Based on its grammatical structure, the NP “Siddharta’s jealous cousin” is constructed
from the noun head “cousin”, the modifier in genitive construction “Siddharta’s”, and the
adjective “jealous”. The adjective “jealous” in this structure occupies the central
premodification zone. “Jealous”, according to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, refers
to the condition in which a person is unhappy because he or she wishes to have something
that somebody else has. This word is equivalent with the word “cemburu” in Indonesian.
However, the word “cemburu” is most commonly used in romantic sense. Its Indonesian
equivalent consists of the noun head “sepupu”, the modifier “Siddharta” and the “yang”
construction “yang cemburu”.
The translation technique used in to translate this NP is literal translation as all the
words contained in the SL NP are translated into Indonesian, word for word. However, the
structure is different. The premodified English NP is translated into post modified NP with
“yang” construction.
g. Premodified NPs with Determiner +Adjective phrase with -ing participle
A structure constructed using three premodifiers consisting of an arrangement of
determiner + adjective phrase with -ing participle construction was also found in the book
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“Lalitavistara”. One of the examples of this construction can be found on page 16 as
described below.
Example 1
English SL
: Illumination that translates into a play with the divine light which Java’s
sun casts at an ever-changing rhythm over the some 15.000 sculptured
characters which populate the 1460 bas-reliefs of this largest Buddhist
sanctuary of the world! (page 16)
Indonesian TL : Penerangan yang diterjemahkan menjadi pertunjukan cahaya surgawi yang
dipancarkan oleh matahari Jawa, menyinari alunan nada yang senantiasa
berubah di antara 15.000 pahatan tokoh yang tampil di 1.460 relief timbul
pada arsitektur Buddhis terbesar di dunia! (page 16)
For clearer information, the breakdown of the structures of the two quoted NPs can be
seen in the tree diagrams below.
an
det.
an
alunan
head
alunan
ever-changing
modifier
rhythm
head
ever-changing rhythm
nada
yang senantiasa berubah
modifier
modifier
nada
yang
senantiasa
berubah
Fig. 4.19. The structures of NPs “an ever-changing rhythm” and “alunan nada yang
senantiasa berubah”
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From the tree diagram above, it is obvious that grammatically, the English NP “an
ever-changing rhythm” is constructed from several elements including: the article “an”, the ing participle phrase “ever-changing”, and the noun head “rhythm”. The article “an” takes the
determinative position, while the adjective phrase “ever-changing” occupies the precentral
zone. The adjective phrase “ever-changing” is constructed from the adverb “ever” and the –
ing construction “changing” which is then connected using a hyphen to create such adjective
phrase. The NP “an ever-changing rhythm” is translated into Indonesian NP “alunan nada
yang senantiasa berubah” with the noun head “alunan”, the noun “nada” and the “yang”
construction “yang senantiasa berubah”.
Sharing almost similar features in terms of semantics, the NP “an ever-changing
rhythm” and “alunan nada yang senantiasa berubah” can be considered equal translation,
translated by using literal translation technique. The article “an”, in which in Indonesian
actually can be translated into “sebuah”, is not translated in the TL text. However, in
Indonesian, such a kind of quantifier does not change the meaning of a phrase too much. The
presence of “sebuah” will be important if the number of the modified noun head is
emphasized by the writer. It will be definitely used if the discussed noun head is just one (in
terms of quantity), instead of two, three or any other number. Moreover, in Indonesian
grammatical concept, there is no “countable and uncountable” concept taken into account.
Therefore it cannot be compared.
Example 2
English SL
: Sujata, daughter of the head of the village had been secretly praying for the
Boddhisattva to stop his self-destructive fasting. (page 276)
Indonesian TL : Sujata, putri kepala desa, diam-diam berdoa agar Boddhisattwa berhenti
mempraktikkan puasa yang menyiksa diri. (page 276)
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The structures from the two quoted NPs can be seen in the tree diagrams below.
his
det.
self-destructive
modifier
his
self-destructive
puasa
head
fasting
head
fasting
yang menyiksa diri
modifier
yang
puasa
menyiksa diri
Fig. 4.20. The structures of NPs “his self-destructive fasting” and “puasa yang menyiksa
diri”
The English NP “his self-destructive fasting” consists of a noun head “fasting”, a
determiner “his”, and an adjective phrase “self-destructive”. The phrase “self-destructive”
itself is constructed from two words “self” and “destructive”. “Destructive” is an adjective,
referring to a characteristic of specific item which causes destruction or damage. In addition,
the word “self” gives additional sense of meaning, that the destructive characteristic brings
significant effect to the doer itself. In Indonesian, this NP is translated into “puasa yang
menyiksa diri”, with “puasa” as the noun head, and the “yang” construction “yang menyiksa
diri” as the postmodifier.
The translation of this NP uses transposition as all elements loaded in the NP is
translated into Indonesian with change in terms of word class. The noun head “fasting” is
translated into “puasa”, while adjective phrase “self-destructive” is translated into verb
phrase “menyiksa diri” with “yang” construction to meet the grammatical postmodification.
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Determiner “his” in its Indonesian translation result is removed. Adjective “destructive” is
represented by the verb “menyiksa” in its Indonesian TL. Again, there is a change in terms of
word class occur which lead into transposition practice. However, in broader circumstance,
the words are combined into one phrase to modify a noun head in further NP construction.
h. Premodified NPs with Determiner +Adjective phrase
An example of premodified English NP was found on page 17 as follow:
English SL
: Erected by the Buddhist Sailendra rulers of the late 8th and early 9th century
A.D…., the opinions of scholars about this largest Buddhist monument of
the world largely diverge: is it a representation of Mount Meru, the cosmic
mountain at the centre of the Buddhist universe? Does its mandala-like
layout reflect a profound influence of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism? (page
17)
Indonesian TL : Didirikan oleh para penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra, yang memerintah pada
awal abad kedelapan dan awal abad kesembilan Tarikh Masehi…, pendapat
para ahli mengenai monumen Buddhis terbesar di dunia ini sangat beragam:
Apakah ia sebuah representasi Gunung Mahameru, gunung kosmis yang
terletak di tengah-tengah semesta Buddhis? Apakah penampangnya yang
mirip mandala mencerminkan pengaruh mendalam Buddhisme Wajrayana
Tibet? (Page 17)
The structure of the above two NPs can be described as follows:
its
det.
its
mandala-like layout
modifier
head
mandala-like
layout
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penampangnya
head
penampangnya
yang mirip mandala
modifier
yang
mirip
mandala
Fig. 4.3. Structures of NPs “mandala-like layout” and “penampangnya yang mirip mandala”
Based on its grammatical structure, the phrase “mandala-like layout” consists of two
elements with the word “layout” as the head of the phrase and the phrase “mandala-like” as
an adjective phrase. This adjective phrase takes prehead modification as it is considered
demoninal adjective as its form is closely correlated with the noun “mandala”. On the other
hand, the phrase “penampangnya yang mirip mandala” is postmodified by conjunction
“yang” and followed with the adjective phrase “mirip mandala”. The English phrase
“mandala-like layout” is premodified using an adverb phrase while the Indonesian equivalent
“penampangnya yang mirip mandala”is postmodified by
conjunction “yang”and the
adjective phrase“mirip mandala”.
The technique of translation used to translate this NP is obviously literal translation.
The word “mandala-like” is formed from two different words “mandala” and “like”. These
two words are then bond together to form an adjective phrase “mandala-like” with an hyphen
to relate them. “Mandala” refers to a specific shape which is closely related to religious
activities of Buddhists and Hindus. It is a shape resembling the shape of a holy lotus flower.
In terms of meaning, both “layout” and “penampang” has similar reference to point out
design of artificial construction such as building observed from the air and page design of a
media. In general, “layout” and “penampang” are both used to describe the way something is
arranged. However, there is a slight difference in the use of these two lexical items.
87
“Penampang” may be used for something which is sliced or cut in the middle, such as: the
slice of onion, stem, etc, while “layout” cannot.
4.2.3 Premodified English NPs with Three Premodifiers
Apart from premodified English NPs premodified by one and two premodifiers, there
are also some English NPs premodified by three premodifiers. There are some NPs in the
book entitled “Lalitavistara” using three premodifiers in combination with various patterns.
a. Premodified NPs with Determiner + Adverb + Adjective
Combining three types of premodifiers, the construction of determiner + adverb +
adjective was found in the book. The structure contains several types of adverbs and
adjectives which can be presented more clearly by taking some examples.
Example 1
English SL
: There is not one instant in time during which these figures look alike to the
previous moment and this is what brings volcanic stone blocks to this
uniquely vibrant life, which animates the divine smile of its stone-carved
population! (page 16)
Indonesian TL : Tak ada satu momen pun dimana terdapat figur-figur yang terlihat serupa
dengan momen sebelumnya, dan itulah yang menyebabkan mengapa
sesuatu yang terlihat seperti bongkahan gunung yang kaku dari sejuta lebih
keping batu vulkanik menjadi seolah-olah hidup, yang menghidupkan
senyum surgawi para tokoh di atas batu-batu berukir! (page 16)
Take a look at the NP structures as described in the tree diagrams below.
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this
det.
this
uniquely
modifier
uniquely
vibrant
modifier
vibrant
life
head
life
Fig. 4.21. Structure of NP “this uniquely vibrant life”
In terms of grammatical equivalence, the English NP “this uniquely vibrant life”
consists of the article “this”, the adverb “uniquely”, adjective “vibrant”, and the noun head
“life”. The article “the” takes the determinative role, while the adjective “vibrant” occupies
the central premodifier zone. It seems like not all NPs will always be translated into NP. For
example, the phrase “seolah-olah hidup” as the translation of the English NP “this uniquely
vibrant life” is not an NP. Therefore, it is not possible to create its structural NP breakdown
like what has been carried out on its English NP “this uniquely vibrant life”. This is a unique
case, in which an NP from an SL is reconstructed into a non-NP in the TL. Instead, the NP
“this uniquely vibrant life” is translated into adjective phrase “seolah-olah hidup”.
However, both phrases cover features of movement which is brought by the adjective
“vibrant” in the English SL and the adjective “hidup” in the Indonesian TL. In the English
SL, the writer wants to emphasize of the uniqueness of the reliefs by presenting the adverb
“uniquely”. This “one-of-a-kind” sense of meaning is absent in its Indonesian equivalent. The
English NP “this uniquely vibrant life” is translated into “seolah-olah hidup”.
The translation of this English NP uses discursive creation because the translation
equivalent in the TL is unpredictable and far from the structure of the SL. Actually, there is
also a change in terms of word class in this translation result, in which the noun head “life” is
translated into verb “hidup”. In Indonesian, the word “hidup” may be used either as noun or
verb. Although there is significant change in the structure, this translation is acceptable. It is
89
possible to translate it literally to be as follow. However, the result will be unacceptable for
Indonesian readers.
There is not one instant in time during which these figures look alike to the previous moment
and this is what brings volcanic stone blocks to this uniquely vibrant life, which animates
the divine smile of its stone-carved population! (page 16)
Tak ada satu momen pun dimana terdapat figur-figur yang terlihat serupa dengan momen
sebelumnya, dan itulah yang membawa keping batu vulkanik ke dalam kehidupan yang
unik ini, yang menghidupkan senyum surgawi para tokoh di atas batu-batu berukir! (page 16)
In terms of grammatical rules, there is nothing wrong with this alternative translation.
However, the acceptability of this utterance in Indonesian native speakers is doubted.
Example 2
English SL
: At age seven, Siddharta experiences his first deep meditation, and this is
enough to alarm members of his clans to take precautions to prevent him
from leaving his home and to renounce to the succession of the throne.
(page 119)
Indonesian TL : Pada usia tujuh tahun, Pengeran Siddharta mendapatkan pengalaman
meditasi yang mendalam untuk pertama kalinya, dan oengalaman ini
cukup untuk dijadikan peringatan bagi seluruh anggota sukunya untuk
mengambil langkah-langkah pencegahan agar Ia tidak meninggalkan istana
dan melepaskan hak waris sebagai penerus takhta. (page 121)
90
The structures from these two NPs can be described using tree diagrams below.
his
det.
first
modifier
deep
modifier
his
first
deep
meditasi
yang mendalam
head
modifier
meditasi
yang
meditation
head
meditation
untuk pertama kalinya
modifier
mendalam
untuk
pertama kalinya
Fig. 4.22. The structures of NPs “his first deep meditation” and “meditasi yang mendalam
untuk pertama kalinya”
The English NP “his first deep meditation” consists of the possessive pronoun “his”,
the adverb “first”, the adjective “deep” and the noun head “meditation”. In the premodifier
zone, the possessive pronoun “his” occupies the determinative zone, while the adjective
“deep” occupies the central premodifier zone. On the other hand, its Indonesian NP “meditasi
yang mendalam untuk pertama kalinya” consists of the noun head “meditasi”, the “yang”
construction “yang mendalam”, and the prepositional phrase “untuk pertama kalinya”.
Based on its semantic features, the English NP “his first deep meditation” and its
Indonesian equivalent “pengalaman meditasi yang mendalam untuk pertama kalinya” share
similar semantic features. Though in Indonesian NP, there is a presence of the word
“pengalaman” which implies certain stage in life with impressive memory while it is not
explicitly written in the English. However, the translation is still equivalent.
91
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because every element of the
English NP is translated into Indonesian in form of an NP too. The only difference is in terms
of structure, in which the Indonesian NP is postmodified by using “yang” construction and
prepositional phrase with “untuk”.
b. Premodified NPs with Determiner+ Adjective +Adjective
Another structure of NP with three premodifiers is determiner + adjective + noun
construction with various forms of adjective premodifier. To make it clearer, three examples
of sentences containing premodified NP with determiner + adjective + adjective + noun head
structure are quoted from the book “Lalitavistara”.
Example 1
English SL
: Erected by the Buddhist Sailendra rulers of the late 8th and early 9th
century A.D. (some 1230 years after the historical Buddha’s entrance into
Parinirvana and some 150 years after the Phropet’s journey to Medina
according to the Muslim calendar), the opinions of scholars about this
largest Buddhist monument of the world largely diverge. (page 17)
Indonesian TL : Didirikan oleh para penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra, yang memerintah pada
awal abad kedelapan dan awal abad kesembilan Tarikh Masehi (sekitar
1230 tahun seteah Buddha historis memasuki Maha Parinirvana dan sekitar
150 tahun setelah perjalanan Nabi Muhammad menuju Madinah menurut
penanggalan Muslim), pendapat para ahli mengenai monumen Buddhis
terbesar di dunia ini sangat beragam. (page 17)
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The structure of the two NPs can be described using three tree diagrams as shown in
the description below.
the
det.
the
para
det.
Buddhist
modifier
Sailendra
modifier
Buddhist Sailendra
penguasa
head
penguasa
Buddhis
rulers
head
rulers
Buddhis
modifier
,
para
Sailendra
modifier
Sailendra
Ø
Fig. 4.23. Structures of NPs “the Buddhist Sailendra rulers” and “para penguasa Buddhist,
Sailendra”
It is possible that an NP takes apposition structure allowing the NP in equal relation
instead of in head-modifier relation. A good example is presented by the described phrases
above. The English NP “the Buddhist Sailendra rulers”, in this book is translated into “para
penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra”. The NP “the Buddhist Sailendra rulers” is constructed from
the definite article “the”, the adjective “Buddhist”, the noun “Sailendra” and the plural noun
head “rulers”. The suffix “–s” in the end of the noun head “ruler” marks its plurality and is
transferred into quantifier “para” in its Indonesian equivalent. The article “the” takes the
determinative position, while “Buddhist” and “Sailendra” occupy the postcentral premodifier
zone. In its Indonesian equivalence, leveled modification occurs. The NP “para penguasa
Buddhis” is postmodified by using a word “Sailendra” which is positioned in equal relation.
93
For this reason, the tree diagrams of the noun phrase “para penguasa Buddhis” and
“Sailendra” are separated in equal position.
Though having different constructions, the meaning features brought by the English
SL are not too much different from its Indonesian TL NP. All features have been transferred
into its Indonesian NP “para penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra”. However, there is a slight
ambiguity in this phrase in terms of meaning. The phrase “para penguasa Buddhis,
Sailendra” may have the same meaning as “the Buddhist Sailendra rulers”: the powerful
dynasty named Sailendra who believe in Buddha. On the other hand, the phrase
construction“para penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra”, may also refer to: the powerful dynasty
named Sailendra who rule the Buddhist people. Determining the meaning that fits the
translation of the English NP, it entirely depends on the context.
The translation of this English NP uses amplification technique. The translation result
introduces the detail that is not mentioned in the SL text by explicating the structure into:
“penguasa Buddhis, Sailendra” instead of translating it literarily into: “penguasa Sailendra
Buddhis” because it will raise ambiguity.
Example 2
English SL
: In this context, it is interesting to note, that the text itself refers to a form of
contemplation practiced by the future Buddha, called the “Lalitavyuha” or
“the Great Playful Arrangement”, describing the Buddha’s capacity to
create illusionary impressions or “miracles” such as his own selfmultiplication, as performed when he appeared simultaneously multiple
times under various Bodhi Trees. (page 23)
Indonesian TL : Dalam konteks ini, menarik untuk dicatat, bahwa teks itu sendiri merujuk
pada sebentuk perenungan yang dipraktikkan oleh Buddha akan datang,
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yang berjudul “Lalitavyuha” atau “Pengaturan Agung yang Memukau”,
yang menggambarkan kapasitas Buddha untuk menciptakan kesan-kesan
ilusif atau “keajaiban-keajaiban”, seperti misalnya memperbanyak diri
sendiri, seperti yang dipertunjukkannya ketika secara serentak muncul
dalam banyak wujud di bawah Pohon Bodhi. (page 23)
The tree diagrams showing the detailed breakdown from the structures of the two NPs
can be described as follows. Every tree diagram shows the structure of each NP. The English
NP is usually constructed in left-sided peak while the Indonesian is usually right-sided peak.
the
det.
the
great
modifier
great
pengaturan
head
pengaturan
playful
modifier
arrangement
playful
agung
modifier
agung
arrangement
head
yang memukau
modifier
yang
memukau
Fig. 4.24. The structures of NPs “the great playful arrangement” and “pengaturan agung
yang memukau”
In terms of grammatical equivalence, it is obvious that the English NP “the great
playful arrangement” consists of the article “the”, the adjective “great”, the adjective
“playful” and the noun head “arrangement”. The article “the” occupies the determinative
zone, while the adjective “great” occupies the central modification zone. On the other hand,
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the adjective “playful” takes the post central premodification zone. Its Indonesian NP
“pengaturan agung yang memukau” consists of the noun head “pengaturan”, the adjective
“agung” and the “yang”construction “yang memukau” which acts like an adjective. In terms
of semantics, the two phrases “the great playful arrangement” and “pengaturan agung yang
memukau” share similar semantic features. All elements work together in an NP to create
such equivalent translation.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because every element in the
English NP is translated into Indonesian. Only the definite article “the” is not translated into
Indonesian and the Indonesian NP construction is postmodified by using “yang” construction
with verb “memukau”.
c. Premodified NPs with Numeral + Adjective + -ing participle
Another three-premodifier construction is the construction of noun + adjective + ing
participle as shown in the example below.
English SL
: Was it intended as one gigantic teaching tool to bring those pigrims who
were supposed to circumambulate its ascending terraces ten times to
contemplate ever more refined states of consciousness? (page 17)
Indonesian TL : Apakah ia dimaksudkan sebagai alat didik raksasa untuk mengajari para
peziarah yang semestinya berpradaksina mengelilingi pelataran-pelataran
yang semakin memuncak sebanyak sepuluh kali untuk merenungkan
tingkat kesadaran tertinggi? (page 17)
The complete analysis of these two phrases can be described using tree diagrams as
follows. One tree diagram presents the head and modifier elements contained in each NP.
96
one
modifier
gigantic
modifier
one
gigantic
alat
head
didik
modifier
alat
teaching
modifier
tool
head
tool
teaching
raksasa
modifier
didik
raksasa
Fig. 4.25. The structures of NPs “one gigantic teaching tool” and “alat didik raksasa”
The English NP “one gigantic teaching tool” consists of the numeral “one”, the
adjective “gigantic”, the -ing participle construction “teaching” and the singular noun head
“tool”. Its Indonesian equivalent is constructed from the noun head “alat”, the adjective
“didik” and the adjective “raksasa”. There is no singularity marker available in the
Indonesian NP. However, this fact does not change the meaning, as in Indonesian, the
absence of plurality marker may automatically indicate that the noun head is singular.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation since every part of the SL
NP is translated into Indonesian. The structure of the NP changes from premodified NP into
postmodified NP. The adjective “gigantic” is translated into “raksasa”, in which in
Indonesian may be used as adjective or noun. “Raksasa” as adjective means “gigantic” or
“enormous”, while as noun means “giant”. This word is similar with the word “giant” in
English which can be used either as adjective or noun. No other data with this structure were
found in “Lalitavistara”.
97
d. Premodified NPs with Adjective + -ing participle + Adjective
Several premodified English NPs premodified by adjective + -ing participle +
adjective structure were found in this book. One of the examples is described below:
English SL
: During the second and the fourth weeks after his Enlightenment the
Tathagata undertakes far reaching mental journeys through the “three
thousand great thousands of worlds”, and from the Eastern Sea to the
Western Sea, but each time he then returns to take his seat under different
trees in the vicinity of the Great Bodhi Tree. (page 322)
Indonesian TL : Selama minggu kedua dan keempat setelah Pencerahan, Tathagata
menempuh perjalanan mental yang jauh melalui “tiga ribu besar dunia”,
dan dari Lautan Timur ke Lautan Barat, namun ia selalu kembali
mengambil posisi duduknya pada pohon-pohon yang berbeda di sekitar
Pohon Bodhi Agung. (page 322)
The structures of those two NPs can be described by tree diagrams as shown below.
far
modifier
reaching
modifier
far reaching
perjalanan
head
perjalanan
mental
modifier
journey
mental
mental
modifier
mental
journeys
head
yang jauh
modifier
yang
jauh
Fig. 4.26. The structures of NPs “far reaching mental journey” and “perjalanan mental yang
jauh”
98
The English NP “far reaching mental journeys” consists of several components
including: the adjective “far”, the -ing participle construction “reaching”, the adjective
“mental”, and the plural noun head “journeys”. The adjective “far” occupies the central
premodifier position, while the -ing participle “reaching” takes the postcentral
premodification zone, and the adjective “mental” occupies the prehead premodification zone.
This phrase is translated into “perjalanan mental yang jauh” in its Indonesian TL, consisting
of the noun head “perjalanan”, the adjective “mental”, and the “yang” construction “yang
jauh”.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation. Both phrases refer to the
mental journey which is far away though in the English NP, the mental journey emphasizes
the reached distance while its Indonesian NP focuses on the characteristic of the journey
which is far. No other data with this structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
e. Premodified NPs with Adjective + Adjective + -ing participle
The other premodified English NP structure is formed by combining adjective +
adjective + -ing participle. One of the examples of this NP structure was found on page 100
as quoted below.
English SL
: Her pregnancy with the Great Being endowing the queen with certain
spiritual healing powers, she is able to dispense relief to those afflicted by
disease and those possessed by spirits. (page 100)
Indonesian TL : Dengan mengandung seorang Makhluk Agung, sang ratu memiliki
kekuatan spiritual untuk menyembuhkan, ia mampu menyembuhkan
orang sakit dan orang yang kerasukan. (page 100)
99
The tree diagrams for the two phrases structure are described as follows.
certain
modifier
spiritual
modifier
certain spiritual
kekuatan
head
kekuatan
Fig. 4.27.
healing
modifier
healing
spiritual
modifier
spiritual
powers
head
powers
untuk menyembuhkan
modifier
untuk
menyembuhkan
The structures of NPs “certain spiritual healing powers” and “kekuatan spiritual
untuk menyembuhkan”
The English NP “certain spiritual healing powers” consists of the adjective “certain”,
the adjective “spiritual”, the -ing participle “healing” and the plural noun head “powers”. The
adjective “certain” occupies the precentral premodifier zone, the adjective “spiritual”
occupies the prehead premidifier zone, while the -ing participle “healing” takes the
postcentral premodifier zone. This English NP is translated into “kekuatan spiritual untuk
menyembuhkan” in its Indonesian TL which consists of the noun “kekuatan”, the adjective
“spiritual”, and the prepositional phrase “untuk menyembuhkan”.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because parts of the NP are
translated word for word into its Indonesian NP equivalence. No other data with this structure
were found in “Lalitavistara”.
100
f. Premodified NPs with Numeral + Adjective + Adjective
An example of premodified English NP with noun + adjective + adjective + noun
head structure can be found on page 108 as quoted below.
English SL
: 500 young white elephants prostrate themselves before the king, and the
lion cubs are seen circling the city without harming anyone. (page 108)
Indonesian TL : 500 gajah putih bersujud di hadapan sang raja, dan anak-anak singa
bergerak mengelilingi kota tanpa menyakiti siapa pun. (page 108)
The structures of the English NP “500 young white elephants” and Indonesian NP
“500 gajah putih” can be described by using the tree diagrams below.
500
modifier
500
young
500
modifier
gajah
young
modifier
white
white
modifier
elephants
head
elephants
gajah
putih
head modifier
putih
500
Fig. 4.28. The structures of NPs “500 young white elephants” and “500 gajah putih”
Grammatically, the English NP “500 young white elephants” consists of the numeral
“500”, the adjective “young”, the adjective “white” and the plural NP “elephants”. The
numeral “500” takes the determinative zone, the adjective “young” is included in the central
premodifier zone, while the adjective “white” occupies the postcentral premodifier zone. Its
101
Indonesian NP equivalent “500 gajah putih” consists of the numeral “500”, the noun head
“gajah”, and the adjective “putih”.
The English NP “500 young white elephant” is translated into an NP too in
Indonesian. However, there is a difference with regard to the semantic features of “short term
living” or “teenager”. This meaning component is removed in its Indonesian NP while it
presents in the original English SL. Thus, in NP “500 young white elephants” the reference is
more specific, that is a number of elephants which are white in color and young. However, in
its Indonesian TL, the reference can be any elephants, young or old, with white color.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation, although there is missing
information in the translation result. The result omits the sense of “young” in the original
phrase “500 young white elephant”. No other data with this structure were found in
“Lalitavistara”.
g. Premodified NPs with Determiner + Adjective + Noun
An example of English NP with determiner + adjective + noun + noun head structure
can be found on page 122 as quoted below.
Example 1
English SL
: As she takes a stroll through the blossoming pleasure garden of Lumbini a
magnificent Plaksa-tree bows before Queen Mayadevi in reverence to the
Great Being about to be born. (page 122)
Indonesian TL : Sambil berjalan melewati Taman Lumbini yang permai, sebatang Pohon
Plaksa raksasa membungkuk di hadapan Ratu Mayadewi untuk
menghormati Sang Makhluk Agung yang segera akan dilahirkan. (page
122)
102
For clearer description about their grammatical structure, the two NPs can be
described using the tree diagrams below.
a
det.
magnificent
modifier
Plaksa
modifier
tree
a magnificent Plaksa
sebatang
modifier
pohon
head
pohon
tree
head
Plaksa
modifier
Plaksa
raksasa
modifier
raksasa
sebatang
Fig. 4.29. The structures of NPs “a magnificent Plaksa Tree” and “sebatang pohon Plaksa
raksasa”
NP “a magnificent plaksa tree” is constructed from the indefinite article “a”, the
adjective “magnificent”, the noun “Plaksa”, and the noun head “tree”. The determiner “a”
occupies the determinative zone, the adjective “magnificent” takes the central premofidier
zone. This English NP is translated into “sebatang pohon Plaksa raksasa” in the Indonesian
TL which consists of the quantifier “sebatang”, the noun head “pohon”, the noun “Plaksa”
and the adjective “raksasa”. The determinative function of the article “a” is replaced by the
qualifier “sebatang” in its Indonesian NP construction. In the English NP, the qualifier uses
the determiner “a” which is general and indefinite. On the other hand, its Indonesian
103
equivalent uses the qualifier “sebatang” which is specifically used to collocate with
cylindrical items such as “tree”, “cigarette”, “pen”, “pensil”, etc.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because every part of the
premodified English NP is translated into Indonesian, including the indefinite determiner “a”,
which is translated into quantifier “sebatang”. The premodified English NP is translated into
Indonesian both to the right and to the left (premodified and postmodified).
Example 2
English SL
: His sole companions are his faithful servant Chandaka and his horse
Kanthaka. (page 199)
Indonesian TL : Satu-satunya pendamping adalah pelayannya yang setia, Chandaka, dan
kudanya, Kanthaka. (page 201)
For clearer description about their grammatical structure, the two NPs can be
described using the tree diagrams below.
his
det.
faithful
modifier
servant
modifier
servant
his faithful
pelayannya yang setia,
head
modifier
pelayannya
yang
Chandaka
head
Chandaka
Chandaka
head
setia
Chandaka
Ø
Fig. 4.30. The structures of NPs “his faithful servant Chandaka” and “pelayannya yang
setia, Chandaka”
104
The NP “his faithful servant Chandaka” is constructed from the noun head
“Chandaka”, the premodifier “his”, the adjective “faithful”, and the noun “servant”. In this
structure, “his” occupies the determiner position, while the adjective “faithful” takes the
prehead modification zone. The adjective “faithful” is considered a denominal adjective
which is derived from the noun “faith”. This structure is translated into “pelayannya yang
setia, Chandaka” in the Indonesian TL, separated with comma which lead them to two
different NP constructions. In the phrase “pelayannya yang setia”, the noun head is
“pelayan”, modified by the particle –nya marking the possessiveness, and the adjective
“setia” as the equivalent of “faithful”. Meanwhile, in the phrase “Chandaka”, there is no
modifier attached.
The translation technique used is literal translation. Although the structure of the
sentence is different from its SL text, there is no addition, reduction, or alteration of
information occurs in the translation result. Moreover, all parts of the English premodified
NP are translated into Indonesian.
h. Premodified NPs with Determiner + Determiner + Adjective
An example of premodified English NP with determiner + determiner + adjective +
noun head structure can be found on page 148 as follows.
English SL
: The teacher praises the modesty of such an erudite being to come and
attend his class. (page 148)
Indonesian TL : Sang guru memuji kerendahan hati perilaku seorang makhluk agung yang
begitu fasih yang masih sudi datang dan mengikuti kelasnya. (page 148)
The structures of the two NPs can be described in the tree diagrams below.
105
such
an
erudite
being
det.
det.
modifier
head
an
such
seorang
modifier
makhluk
erudite
makhluk
head
agung
being
agung
modifier
yang begitu fasih
yang begitu fasih
modifier
seorang
Fig. 4.31. The structures of NPs “such an erudite being” and “makhluk agung yang begitu
fasih”
The English NP “such an erudite being” is grammatically constructed from the
determiner “such”, the article “an”, the adjective “erudite”, and the noun head “being”. The
word “such” and “an” occupy the determinative zone, while the adjective “erudite” takes post
central premodification zone. This English NP is translated into “seorang makhluk agung
yang begitu fasih” in the book “Lalitavistara” which consists of the quantifier “seorang”, the
NP “makhluk agung”, and the “yang” construction “yang begitu fasih”.
The semantic features of the two phrases have shown the fact that the two NPs “such
an erudite being” and “seorang makhluk agung yang begitu fasih” share similar meaning
components. On the other hand, the noun head “being” can be used either to refer to just any
creature or the creature which is superior and most holy among other creatures. “Being” will
commonly be translated into “makhluk” in Indonesian. However, it lacks the sense of
meaning “superiority” and “holiness”. Thus, it was such a right choice for the translator to
106
translate it into NP “makhluk agung” which refers to such a creature who is superior and
most holy among others and this makes the meaning of “superiority” and “holiness” to be
more explicit.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation. Every part of the SL NP has
been translated into Indonesian, including the determiner “such” which is translated into
“begitu” in Indonesian. The word “begitu” actually has two meanings in Indonesian. It may
means “like that” or it can also be a kind of level of quality marker replacing the word “so” in
English. No other data with this structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
i. Premodified NPs with Numeral + Adjective + Noun
Another type of NP structure is noun + adjective + noun + noun head. One example
was found on page 182 as quoted below.
English SL
: When it comes to show his prowess in physical disciples such as wrestling,
fencing or boxing Siddharta easily wins each time, and when it comes to
the art of archery excels particularly, managing to shoot an arrow through
seven distant metal drums and the seven tree trunks shown on the left side
of the relief. (page 182)
Indonesian TL : Ketika tiba giliran mempertunjukkan kemampuannya dalam kekuatan fisik
seperti gulat, anggar, atau bertinju, Siddharta selalu menang dengan mudah,
dan ketika tiba giliran seni memanah, ia menunjukkan keungguran secara
mencolok, karena berhasil menembakkan anak panah melewati tujuh tong
besi yang jauh letaknya dan tujuh batang pohon yang ditunjukkan pada sisi
kiri relief. (page 182)
The structures of the two NPs can be described using the tree diagrams below.
107
seven distant
det.
modifier
distant
seven
tujuh
modifier
tujuh
metal
modifier
drum
metal
tong
head
tong
drum
head
besi
modifier
besi
yang
yang jauh letaknya
modifier
jauh letaknya
Fig. 4.32.
The structures of NPs “seven distant metal drum” and “tujuh tong besi yang
jauh letaknya”
The phrase “seven distant metal drum” consists of the numeral “seven”, the adjective
“distant”, the adjective “metal” and the noun head “drum”. The numeral “seven” takes the
determinative zone, while the adjective “distant” occupies the precentral premodifier zone.
This phrase is translated into Indonesian NP “tujuh tong besi yang jauh letaknya”. The
Indonesian NP is constructed from the numeral “tujuh”, the noun head “tong”, the noun
“besi”, and the “yang” construction “yang jauh letaknnya”. The Indonesian NP takes both
premodification and postmodification in modifying the noun head “tong”.
The translation of this English NP uses paricularization technique of translation
because one part of the premodified English NP, that is the word “metal”, is translated into
“besi” as the hyponym of metal in Indonesian. The English NP “seven distant metal drums”
and its Indonesian equivalent share almost similar meaning components. An exception is the
meaning component “iron material” found in Indonesian NP but in the English NP, the word
“metal” may cover not only iron material but also any the other types of metal. Thus, the
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English NP is hypernym while its Indonesian NP is hyponym. No other data with this
structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
j. Premodified NPs with Determiner + -ed participle + Adjective
The English NP with determiner + -ed participle + adjective + noun head structure
can be found on page 370 as follows.
English SL
: So long, monks, as my knowledge and vision of these Four Noble Truths as
they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was not thoroughly
purified in this way, I did not claim to have awakened to the unsurpassed
perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Mara, and Brahma.
(page 370)
Indonesian TL : Para Bikkhu, selama pengetahuan langsung Saya tentang Empat Kebenaran
Mulia sebagaimana adanya ini dalam ketiga tingkatan serta kedua-belas
sisinya belum murni sepenuhnya, Saya tidak menyatakan telah mencapai
Pencerahan Sempurna yang tiada bandingnya di dunia ini beserta alam
para dewa, mara, dan brahma-nya. (page 372)
The structures of the two NPs can be described using the tree diagrams below.
the
det.
unsurpassed
modifier
the unsurpassed
perfect
modifier
perfect
enlightenment
head
enlightenment
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pencerahan
head
sempurna
modifier
yang tiada bandingnya
modifier
pencerahan sempurna yang
tiada bandingnya
Fig. 4.33. The structures of NPs “the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment” and “pencerahan
sempurna yang tiada bandingannya”
Grammatically, the English NP “the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment” consists of
the definite article “the”, the -ed participle “unsurpassed”, the adjective “perfect” and the
noun head “enlightenment”. The article “the” occupies the determinative zone in the
premodified NP, the -ed participle “unsurpassed” occupies the postcentral zone, while the
adjective “perfect” occupies the central premodification zone. It is translated into Indonesian
NP “pencerahan sempurna yang tiada bandingnya” which consists of the noun head
“pencerahan”, the adjective “sempurna” and the “yang” construction “yang tiada
bandingnya”.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation technique in which all parts
of the English premodified NP has been translated into Indonesian. In terms of meaning, it is
obvious that both phrases share similar features. The phrase “unsurpassed perfect
enlightenment” refers to a condition when Buddha experienced His enlightenment. At that
time, He walked over the material world and left all the material things behind. This is
translated into Indonesian NP “pencerahan sempurna yang tiada bandingnya”. No other data
with this structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
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4.2.4
Premodified English NPs with Four Premodifiers
Three types of structures using four premodifiers were found in the bilingual book
“Lalitavistara”. Here are some examples of each category of NP structures with complete
steps of analysis including grammatical term, meaning analysis and translation techniques.
a. Premodified NPs with Determiner + Numeral + Adverb + Adjective
An example of NP with this structure is shown in the sentences quoted from page 324.
English SL
: The Buddha sets off for the “Deer Park” near Varanasi where he intends to
“set in motion the wheel of Law”, i.e. start to preach the Dharma, at first to
his five former ascetic companions. (page 342)
Indonesian TL : Buddha berangkat menuju “Taman Rusa” dekat Waranasi tempat ia berniat
“memutar Roda Dharma”, yakni memulai pembabaran Dharma, pertamatama kepada lima mantan rekan petapanya. (page 342)
The structures of the two NPs can clearly be defined in the tree diagrams below.
his
det.
five
modifier
his
five
lima
modifier
lima
former
modifier
former
mantan
modifier
mantan
ascetic
rekan
head
rekan
ascetic
modifier
companions
head
companions
petapanya
modifier
petapanya
Fig. 4.34. The structures of NPs “his five former ascetic companions” and “lima mantan
rekan petapanya”
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The English NP “his five former ascetic companions”, grammatically consists of
several components including the determiner “his”, the numeral “five”, the adjective
“former”, the adjective “ascetic”, and the plural noun head “companions”. In this NP
structure, the pronoun “his” occupies the determinative position, the former occupies the
precentral zone, while the adjective “ascetic” also occupies the precentral zone. Its
Indonesian NP equivalent “lima mantan rekan petapanya” consists of the numeral “lima”,
the adjective “mantan”, the noun head “rekan” and the noun “petapa” completed with the
possessive pronoun “-nya” as the translation of the word “his”. The suffix “–nya” is attached
to the end of NP instead of the noun head to show that the suffix is intended to modify the
whole phrase, not just the noun head “rekan”. Translated into “lima rekan petapanya” in
Indonesian, the meaning brought by the English NP “his five former ascetic companions” has
been transferred accordingly. The two phrases share similar features which mean that all
semantic elements contained in the SL NP have been represented in the closest way using
Indonesian as the TL.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation since every part of the
English NP is translated into Indonesian, although the plural marker –s is not translated into
plural. The plurality in Indonesian has been represented by the numeral “lima” which implies
the number of the given NP. No other data with this structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
b. Premodified NPs with Determiner + Noun + Adjective + Noun
Another NP construction by combining the presence of adjective in its structure also
includes the examples below.
English SL
: Today the Borobudur has been declared by UNESCO a World Cultural
Heritage Site. (page 19)
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Indonesian TL : Sekarang Borobudur telah dideklarasikan oleh UNESCO sebagai Situs
Warisan Budaya Dunia. (page 19)
The tree diagram of the two NP constructions can be described below.
a
det.
world
modifier
a
world
situs
head
cultural
modifier
heritage
modifier
cultural
heritage
warisan
modifier
situs
warisan
budaya
modifier
budaya
site
head
site
dunia
modifier
dunia
Fig. 4.35. The structure of NPs “a world cultural heritage site” and “situs warisan budaya
dunia”
The English NP “a world cultural heritage site” is constructed from several elements
including the article “a”, the noun “world”, the derived adjective “cultural”, the noun
“heritage” and the noun head “site”. The article “a” occupies the determinative zone.
Meanwhile, the adjective “cultural” takes its role in the prehead premodifier zone. The
adjectives occupying the prehead zone are usually in the form of derived adjectives, that is,
the adjectives which are derived from nouns. That is the reason why Quirk (1985) called the
adjectives occupying this zone the nominal adjective, an adjective which acts “least adjectival
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and most nominal”. The English NP “a world cultural heritage site” is translated into “situs
warisan budaya dunia” in Indonesian, covering the noun head “situs” with several nouns
such as: noun “warisan”, the noun “budaya” and the noun “dunia” as the postmodifiers.
The two NPs cover similar component features. Both are used to refer to a kind of
place which is ancient and historical, the place which was built by the ancient humans as the
evident of their former civilization. This site is globally acclaimed by certain foundation and
has been honored as one of the prominent ancient buildings. The difference between the two
NPs is in terms of word classes used to modify the noun head. The English NP takes the
determiner + noun + adjective +noun + noun head construction in its NP structure, while the
Indonesian NP prefers to use the noun head + noun + noun + Adjective in its NP structure.
The translation of this English NP uses literal translation because all parts of the
English premodified NP are translated into Indonesian, except for the indefinite article “a”
which acts as determiner in the NP construction. The other parts of the NP are translated into
its Indonesian equivalence through word for word translation. No other data with this
structure were found in “Lalitavistara”.
4.3 The Overall Result of Translation Techniques Used to Translate the NPs from
English into Indonesian
From the 149 analyzed English NPs premodified by adjective, the result shows that
the most common technique applied by the translator is literal translation. Literal translation
dominates the translation technique which is used to translate the English NPs found in
“Latitavistara” into Indonesian equivalent. The English NPs premodified by adjective do not
only involve premodification with the adjective word class but also with the –ed construction,
-ing construction, adverb phrase and genitive construction.
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The very basic reason why this fact occurs is that some religious terms involved in the
NPs are fixed terms which have been known by most Indonesian Buddhists. In addition, it
seems that the translator tends to translate the phrases literally first before heading to another
translation technique. However, to ensure the reason and some other aspects behind the
translation result, the translator should be confirmed and the translation process should be
analyzed which are out of the scope of this study. However, analyzing from the characteristic
of literal translation and the genre of the analyzed text, some conclusions can be drawn
related with the reason why literal translation technique is applied the most, such as:
1. To keep the ambiguity or redundancy of the text
In order to be faithful both to the message of the SL text and the style of the writer
of the SL text, translators tend to use literal translation before applying the other
technique. Literal translation technique is usually used for this reason by the
translators or religious text and legal documents to keep the translation result as
faithful as possible.
2. To preserve form features of the SL text
Using literal translation technique is one of the reasons to legitimate the use of
literal translation technique. By applying literal translation, the translator will be
able to preserve the syntactic features of the SL text.
3. To bring the target reader closer to the SL
Literal translation is often used by the translator to bring the readers of the target
text to get closer to the SL text so that when the readers read the translation result,
they feel like reading the original text.
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