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IDENTIFYING NON-ENGLISH DEPARTMENT STUDENTS’ WEAKNESS
POINTS ON COMMONLY FOUND EPT GRAMMAR PROBLEMS
(A STUDENTS’ NEEDS ANALYSIS)
Achmad Fanani
Afifa S. Zulfikar
THE USE OF MORPHEMES: AN ALTERNATIVE WAY TO INCREASE
THE MASTERY OF STUDENTS’ VOCABULARY
Dian Novita
TES KEBAHASAAN
Rina Suci Andriani
BETWEEN ACQUISITION AND LEARNING: ADULT SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS
Muhammad Saifuddin
AIMS FOR USING FUN GAMES TO IMPROVE THE ESL STUDENTS’
SPEAKING ABILITY
Maisarah
JENIS KESALAHAN YANG BIASA TERJADI DALAM KARANGAN
SISWA BERBAHASA BAHASA JEPANG
Sri Aju Indrowaty
0
IDENTIFYING NON-ENGLISH DEPARTMENT STUDENTS’ WEAKNESS
POINTS ON COMMONLY FOUND EPT GRAMMAR PROBLEMS
(A STUDENTS’ NEEDS ANALYSIS)
IDENTIFIKASI KELEMAHAN MAHASISWA NON-BAHASA INGGRIS
PADA MASALAH GRAMMAR YANG SERING MUNCUL DI EPT
(SEBUAH ANALISIS KEBUTUHAN)
Achmad Fanani1
Afifa S. Zulfikar2
Unipdu – Jombang
[email protected]
Abstract
The EPT test is a test that measures the academic English proficiency of a non-native speaker
of English. This research is aimed at identifying the students‟ weakness points on commonly
found grammar problems in EPT. The identification is then used as the basis for constructing
a syllabus that meets the students‟ need. In general, the students‟ needs based on the analysis
are as follows: 1. Incomplete sentences: conjunctions, comparisons, subject missing,
adjective clauses, 2. Underlined words: count/non-count nouns, banana rule, adjectives,
prepositions, noun-pronoun agreement, singular/plural nouns; 3. Reading Comprehension
and Vocabulary: References, passage organization, exception, inferences, topics, main ideas.
Keywords: EPT, students‟ needs, grammar problems
Abstrak
Tes EPT adalah sebuah tes standar bahasa Inggris yang mengukur kemampuan berbahasa
Inggris akademik para petutur non bahasa Inggris. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk
mengidentifikasi kelemahan-kelemahan siswa pada masalah-masalah umum tata bahasa
yang sering ditemukan di EPT. Identifikasi tersebut kemudian digunakan sebagai dasar
untuk membangun sebuah silabus yang memenuhi kebutuhan siswa. Secara umum,
kebutuhan siswa berdasarkan analisis yang telah dilakukan adalah sebagai berikut: 1.
Incomplete sentences: conjunctions, comparisons, subject missing, adjective clauses, 2.
Underlined words: count/non-count nouns, banana rule, adjectives, prepositions, nounpronoun agreement, singular/plural nouns; 3. Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary:
References, passage organization, exception, inferences, topics, main ideas.
Kata kunci: EPT, kebutuhan siswa, masalah tata bahasa
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ways in ESL teaching (Richards, 2003:
51). Students‘ needs are often described in
terms of linguistic deficiency, that is, as
describing the difference between what a
learner can presently do in a language and
what he or she should be able to do. One
of the basic assumptions of curriculum
development is that a sound educational
program should be based on analysis of
learners‘ needs (Richards, 2003: 51).
Procedures used to collect information
about learners‘ needs are known as needs
analysis.
This research is aimed at
identifying the common EPT grammar
problems and identifying the students‘
weakness points on commonly found
grammar problems. The identification is
very important to be used as the basis for
constructing a suitable syllabus that meets
the needs of non-English department
students at UNIPDU with low level of
English proficiency. An important
advantage of specifying the target readers
is contextualization. A key criticism of
commercial materials, particularly those
produced for the world-wide market is that
they are necessarily generic and not aimed
at any specific group of learners or any
particular cultural or educational context.
Thus by specifying the target readers, the
problem of lack of ‗fit‘ of the course book
will be able to overcome.
A. INTRODUCTION
The
EPT
(EGLISH
PROFICIENCY TEST) is a test of
standard English that is used to measure
the academic English proficiency of a nonnative speaker of English. EPT is
organized by UNIPDU to measure the
ability of its students to use and
understand English as it is spoken, written
and heard in college and university
settings. EPT uses PBT TOEFL format as
the model of the test. It consists of three
Sections:
Section
1.
Listening
Comprehension, Section 2. Structure and
Written Expression, and Section 3.
Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary.
In
preparing
non-English
department students for the EPT test, the
EPT trainers at UNIPDU often face some
difficulties. First, they come from different
English language background and, by and
large, have insufficient English skills.
Second, there are so many topics or
problems to discuss while the time allotted
for the class preparation is limited. At
UNIPDU, the EPT training is only
conducted in 20 and 30 hours (13 – 19
meetings). Such situation, of course, often
makes EPT trainers at UNIPDU have
difficulty deciding which topics should be
addressed in the training and which ones
should not. As a result, the students often
do not get what they actually need which
in turn makes their scores on EPT remain
low. Therefore sound syllabuses and
teaching materials which comply with the
students‘ needs are urgently needed.
The first and most important factor
to be considered when constructing
teaching materials is the learners. If the
points of the materials are relevance,
interest, motivation, and meeting specific
students‘ needs, then clearly syllabus
developers must ensure they know their
learners well. Any consideration of
syllabus or materials design must begin
with a needs analysis.
Meeting students‘ or learners‘
needs is one of the effective and efficient
B. FINDINGS
1. The results of question items analysis
1) Incomplete Sentences
Questions number 1 to 15 in
Structure and Written expressions section
are called ‗incomplete sentences‘. Here the
test takers are required to complete a
sentence with one of four possible answers
provided. In this type of question, out of
150 questions analyzed, 35 problems are
identified and nine problems can be
categorized as commonly found problems:
Adjective clauses, conjunctions, verbs,
subject
missing,
S+V
missing,
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comparisons, adverbs, participial phrases,
and appositives.
The problems in this type of
questions can be classified into five
groups: sentence construction, phrasal
construction, connectors, degrees of
comparison, and classes of words.
b) Phrasal Construction
The questions that have to do with
phrasal construction are those on
appositives and participial phrases.
An appositive can also be regarded
as common problem in this section. 6
questions (4.00 %) deal with this problem.
An appositive is a word or phrase that
follows a noun and defines it. An
appositive usually has a comma before it
and a comma after it.
For example:
a) Sentence Construction
The sentence construction is
represented by the questions on subject
missing and S+V missing. The first
problem deals with subject missing. Here
the test takers are required to fill out the
blank with the correct word or noun phrase
which acts as a subject of the
sentence/clause. There are 5 questions
(3.33 %) dealing with this problem.
Speciation, _____, results when an
animal population becomes
isolated by some factor, usually
geographic.
(A) form biological species
(B) biological species are formed
(C) which forming biological
species
(D) the formation of biological
species
For example:
A regional writer with a gift for
dialect, _____ peoples her fiction
with the eccentric, comic, but vital
inhabitants of rural Mississippi.
(A) and Eudora Welty
(B) Eudora Welty
(C) because Eudora Welty
(D) Eudora Welty who
The next problem related to phrasal
construction is participial phrases. Among
the questions analyzed in this section, 7
questions (4.67 %) are concerning this
problem. A participial phrase is a word
group consisting of a present participle or
past participle, plus any modifiers, objects,
and complements.
For example:
The second problem dealing with
sentence construction is Subject+Verb
missing. This problem requires the test
takers to identify not only the right verb
but also the right subject based on the
context of the sentence. Among the
questions analyzed, Nine questions (6.00
%) deal with this problem.
For example:
______, the hummingbird gets its
name from the sound that its wings
make during flight.
(A) Has a brilliant color
(B) The brilliant color
(C) Which is brilliantly colored
(D) Brilliantly colored
_____ initial recognition while still
quite young.
(A) Most famous scientists achieve
(B) That most famous scientists
achieved
(C) Most famous scientists who
achieved
(D) For most famous scientists to
achieve
c) Connectors
The questions on adjective clauses
and conjunction assess the test takers‘
knowledge of English connectors. The
problem on adjective clauses is the most
commonly found one. Out of 150
questions analyzed, 21 questions (14.00
%) are about this problem. The questions
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‗the least…‘, are often found.
The
following is the example of questions
dealing with this problem.
mainly relate to the relative clauses (e.g.
who, which, that, etc) that should be used
in a certain context of sentence.
For example:
The knee is _____ most other joints
in the body because it cannot twist
without injury.
(A) more likely to be damaged than
(B) likely to be more than damaged
(C) more than likely to be damaged
(D) to be damaged more than likely
Algonkian-speaking Native
Americans greeted the Pilgrims
_____ settled on the eastern shores
of what is now New England.
(A) to whom
(B) of which
(C) who
(D) which
e) Classes of words
In incomplete sentence type of
question, the problems related to word
classes commonly deal with verb and
adverb forms. Some questions will require
the test takers to identify the correct form
of a verb and some ask which verb agrees
with the subject. This problem is
sometimes called verb missing because the
test takers must fill out the blank with one
of the verbs provided. Out of 150
questions, 9 questions (6.00 %) have to do
with this problem. For example:
Another problem dealing with
connectors is conjunctions. Conjunctions
are words or phrases that clarify
relationships between clauses. "Conjoin"
means "to join together." There are 12
questions (8.00 %) dealing with this
problem. The questions ask the test takers
to choose which conjunction best
completes a sentence. The conjunctions
can be in form of coordinating
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions,
and paired conjunctions. The following is
an example of questions dealing with
conjunctions.
After the Second World War the
woman wage earner _____ a
standard part of middle-class life
in the United States.
(A) who became
(B) becoming that which
(C) became
(D) to become
The chair may be the oldest type of
furniture, _____ its importance has
varied from time to time and from
country to country.
(A) but when
(B) until then
(C) in spite of
(D) although
The next problem dealing with
word classes is adverbs which accounts for
4.67 % (7 questions) of the incomplete
sentence questions analyzed. An adverb is
a part of speech. It is any word that
modifies any part of speech or other verbs
other than a noun. Adverbs can modify
verbs, adjectives, clauses, sentences and
other adverbs. Adverbs typically answer
questions such as how? in what way?
when? where? and to what extent? This
function is called the adverbial function,
and is realized not just by single words
(i.e., adverbs) but by adverbial phrases and
adverbial clauses. Some questions address
d) Degrees of comparison
Eight questions (5.33%) out of 150
assess the ability of the test takers on
comparison problems. More frequently the
questions deal with comparatives, double
comparatives, and superlatives. The test
takers are often asked about the
comparative pairs such as ‗more…than…‘,
‗less…than…‘, and ‗-er…than…‘; or
double comparatives such as ‗the
more…the
more…‘.
Besides,
the
superlative forms such as ‗the most…‘ and
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the adverb of manner (how?), while some
address the adverb of time (when?).
For example:
verb tenses, preposition, word classes, and
agreement.
a) Sentence patterns
Passive voice is the problem that
deals with sentence pattern found in the
‗underlined word‘ type of question. The
questions mainly concern with the rule to
form English passive voices (be + verb
III). The questions sometimes deal with
the ‗be‘ and sometimes with the ‗verb III‘.
To be able to answer the questions well,
the test takers must consider the context of
the sentence. Out of 250 questions
analyzed, 14 questions (5.60 %) are
dealing with this problem. The following
is an example of the question addressing
this problem.
Helicopters can rise or descend
vertically, hover, and move
forward, backward, _____.
(A) they move laterally
(B) and are lateral
(C) or lateral motion
(D) or laterally
Taken as a whole, the common
problems found in Section 2: Incomplete
Sentences can be listed as follows.
The commonly found problems in Section
2: Incomplete Sentences
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Problems
adjective
clauses
conjunctions
verbs
S+V missing
comparisons
adverbs
participial
phrases
appositives
subject missing
Occurrence
Percentage
21
12
9
9
8
7
14.00
8.00
6.00
6.00
5.33
4.67
7
6
5
4.67
4.00
3.33
Rainbows in the shape of complete
A
circles are sometimes seen from
B
airplanes because they are not
C
cutting off by the horizon.
D
b) Phrasal construction
The first problem that relate to
phrasal construction in the underlined
word type of questions is phrasal verbs.
Five questions (2.00 %) deal with this
problem. Commonly a phrasal verb is a
combination of a verb and a preposition.
Phrasal verbs are particularly frequent in
the English language. A phrasal verb often
has a meaning which is different from the
original verb (e.g., take off). Similarly, an
adjective preposition is a combination of
an adjective and a preposition, and this
combination is unchanging (e.g. dependent
on).
2) Underlined Words
Questions number 16 to 40 are
underlined words. The test takers are to
choose the incorrect words/phrase among
four underlined words/phrases. There are
250 questions analyzed. Out of them 37
problems are identified. 16 problems can
be said as commonly found problems.
They are adjectives, prepositions, noun
forms, singular/plural nouns, articles,
adjective clauses, passive voice, adverbs,
subject-verb agreement, conjunctions,
noun-pronoun agreement, count/non count
nouns, banana rule, word order, tenses and
phrasal verbs. The problems can be
grouped into seven groups: sentence
patterns, phrasal construction, connectors,
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For example:
Ripe fruit is often stored in a place
A
B
who contains much carbon dioxide
C
D
so that the not decay too rapidly.
The ease of solving a jigsaw puzzle
A
depends the number of pieces, their
B
shape and shadings, and the design
C
D
of the picture.
Besides
adjective
clauses,
conjunction is the common problem that
has to do with connectors. As in the
‗incomplete sentence‘, the questions on
conjunctions are commonly about the
coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions, and paired conjunctions used
in the sentences. There are 9 questions out
of 250 dealing with this problem.
For example:
Word order is another common
problem in the underlined word type of
question that deals with phrasal
construction. Word order is very important
in English. The wrong word order may
result in different meaning or even make a
sentence meaningless. The primary word
orders are the constituent order of a
clause—the relative order of subject,
object, and verb; the order of modifiers
(adjectives, numerals, demonstratives,
possessives, and adjuncts) in a noun
phrase; and the order of adverbials. There
are 7 questions (2.80 %) addressing this
problem.
For example:
Despite television is the dominant
A
entertainment medium for United
States households, Garrison Keillor‟s
Saturday night radio show
B
of folk songs and stories is heard by
C
millions of people.
D
The walls around the city of Quebec,
which was originally a fort military,
A
B
still stand, making Quebec the only
C
D
walled city in North America.
d) Verb tenses
Questions on tenses are common in
this type of question. Usually the questions
are dealing with the following tenses: the
simple present, simple past, present and
past perfect, and future. The test takers
must be able to choose the correct tense
based on the time signal that exists in the
sentence. Among the questions analyzed, 7
questions are dealing with this problem.
For example:
c) Connectors
In the ‗underlined word‘ type of
question, the problem of adjective clauses
commonly deal with the use of connectors.
Out of 250 questions, 14 are addressing
this problem. The questions, as in
incomplete sentence type, usually require
the test takers to decide whether the
relative pronouns used have already been
correct or not or whether a certain clause
needs a relative pronoun or not.
For example:
In the 1800's store owners sold
A
everything from a needle to a plow,
B
trust everyone, and never took
C
D
inventory.
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e) Preposition
Many questions deal with English
prepositions. Prepositions are words or
phrases
that
clarify
relationships.
Prepositions are usually followed by nouns
and pronouns. In grammar, a preposition is
a part of speech that introduces a
prepositional phrase. For example, in the
sentence "The cat sleeps on the sofa", the
word "on" is a preposition, introducing the
prepositional phrase "on the sofa". In
English, the most used prepositions are
"of", "to", "in", "for", "with" and "on". The
following is a question dealing with this
problem.
Another common problem in this
group is noun forms. Often the test takers
are required to identify the correct form of
a noun. The questions commonly pose the
test takers to nouns which are constructed
through inflectional endings such as
‗development‘, ‗trial‘, ‗correctness‘, etc.
Such questions are quite tricky because,
besides there are many kinds of noun
endings (e.g. -ness, -ing, -ment, -al, -er),
not all words need an inflectional ending
to become a noun like ‗increase‘ and
‗decrease‘. There are 19 questions out of
250 questions (7.60 %) concerning this
problem.
For example:
Homo erectus is the name
commonly given into the primate
A
B
species from which humans
C
are believed to have
D
evolved.
According to most psychological
A
B
studies, body language expresses a
C
speaker's emotions and attitudes,
and it also tends to affect the
emotions and attitudes of the listen.
D
The problem of singular/plural
nouns is another problem that can be
classified into this group. There are 17
questions (6.80 %) which address this
problem. The test takers are to identify
whether they have to use a singular or
plural noun in a sentence based on the
quantity marker that exist (e.g. a, some,
various, 4, 5, etc).
For example:
f) Word classes
The most common problem in this
group is the questions on adjectives.
Adjective is the most commonly found
problem in this type of question. An
adjective is a word that modifies a noun.
Out of 250 questions, 27 questions (10.80
%) deal with this problem. The questions
commonly require the test takers to
identify the correct form of the adjective.
This problem is sometimes difficult
because there are many ways to form
adjectives in English such as adding the
inflectional endings of –ful (e.g. beautiful),
-ish (e.g. childish), -ly (e.g. manly) or -al
(e.g. rectal). The following is an example
of question dealing with this problem.
Although pure diamond is colorless
A
and transparent, when contaminated
B
with other material it may appear in
C
various color, ranging from pastels
D
to opaque black.
Chocolate is prepared by a
complexity process of cleaning,
A
blending, and roasting cocoa beans,
B
which must be ground and mixed
C
D
with sugar.
Questions on articles are also
common in EPT. An article is a word that
combines with a noun to indicate the type
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of reference being made by the noun.
Articles
specify
the
grammatical
definiteness of the noun. The articles in
English are ‗the‘ and ‗a‘/‗an‘. There are 16
questions (6.40 %) out of 250 which deal
with this problem.
to the growth of international
C
tourism in the 1950‟s, one of the
D
most important was the advent of
jet travel in 1958.
The last common problem in this
group is the banana rule. One of the most
important rules on English is this: A
singular count noun cannot stand alone.
The test takers must understand that if they
see a singular count noun with no
determiner, then it is wrong. This problem
is very tricky, and many test takers failed
on this problem. The following is an
example of the question addressing this
problem. Among the questions analyzed,
there are 7 questions (2.80 %) dealing with
this problem.
For example:
For example:
All nations may have to make
fundamental changes in their
A
economic, political, and the
B
C
technological institutions if they
are to preserve the environment.
D
The next common problem in this
group is adverb. However, in the
underlined words the questions mainly
deal with the correct form of adverb of
manner. As can be seen in the table above,
11 questions (4.40 %) have to do with this
problem.
For example:
The manufacture of automobile was
A
extremely expensive until assemblyB
C
line techniques made them cheaper
D
to produce.
Although they reflect a strong social
A
conscience, Arthur Miller's stage
works are typical more concerned
B
C
with individuals than with systems.
D
g) Agreement
There are two types of agreement
found: subject-verb agreement and nounpronoun agreement. In subject-verb
agreement, the test takers are required to
identify whether the subject of the
sentence (in the main or sub-clause) has
already agreed with its verb. The subject
and verb must agree in number: both must
be singular, or both must be plural.
Problems occur in the present tense
because one must add an -s or -es at the
end of the verb when the subjects or the
entity performing the action is a singular
third person: he, she, it, or words for
which these pronouns could substitute.
Among the questions analyzed, 10
questions (4.00 %) address this problem.
The next common problem is
dealing with countable/uncountable nouns.
The questions sometimes ask the test
takers to identify whether a certain noun
can be categorized as a count noun or a
non count noun. And at another time, the
questions focus on the quantifiers (e.g.
few, little, much, and many) that should be
used before a certain noun. There are 8
questions (3.20 %) which deal with this
problem.
For example:
Of the much factors that contributed
A
B
For example:
8
15
Several million points on the human
A
B
body registers either cold, heat, pain,
C
D
or touch.
16
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Percentage
27
21
19
10.80
8.40
7.60
17
16
14
13
11
6.80
6.40
5.60
5.20
4.40
10
4.00
9
3.60
8
3.20
8
3.20
7
7
2.80
2.80
5
2.00
The students‘ weakness points in
‗Incomplete Sentences‘ type of questions
Number of
students
Percentage
2
4.55
8
18.18
12
27.27
13
29.55
5
conjunctions
adjective
clauses
14
31.82
6
S+V missing
16
36.36
7
appositives
18
40.91
8
adverbs
20
45.45
9
verb missing
23
52.27
No
1
2
3
4
Problems
participial
phrases
comparisons
subject
missing
As can be seen from the table
above, the most problematic question for
the respondents is that on participial
phrases. There were only 2 students (4,55
%) who could answer the questions well.
Constructing a participial phrase is one of
difficult rules in English and is of
advanced level. The knowledge on ‗–ed‘
and ‗–ing‘ is a must to be able to answer
the questions of this problem.
The next difficult problem is
comparisons. Out of 44 respondents, only
8 who could handle such problem well.
This finding indicates that most students
did not understand the concept of English
degree of comparisons.
Subject missing is also difficult
problem for the respondents. Their
inability to identify the subject of the
sentences or clauses is a sign that they did
not have sufficient knowledge of the
The commonly found problems in Section
2: Underlined Words
Occurrence
2.80
1) Incomplete Sentences
For most of their history, especially
A
B
since the 1860's, New York City has
C
been undergoing major ethnic
population changes.
D
Problems
adjectives
prepositions
noun forms
singular/plural
nouns
articles
adjective clauses
passive voice
adverbs
subject-verb
agreement
conjunctions
noun-pronoun
agreement
countable/uncounta
ble nouns
banana rule
word order
7
2. The Students’ Weakness Points on
EPT Structure and Written
Expression
Besides subject-verb agreement,
noun-pronoun agreement can also be
categorized as one of the common
problem. 8 questions (3.20 %) address this
problem. Here, the test takers must be able
to identify whether the pronouns used have
already agreed with the nouns referred or
not (e.g. plural noun with ‗they‘/‘we‘).
The agreement may deal with two things:
number (singular/one or plural/more than
one) and gender (male, female, neutral).
The following is the example of a question
dealing with this problem.
No
1
2
3
tenses
phrasal
verbs/adjective
prepositions
9
elements of a sentence/clause in English.
The counting shows that only 27.27 % of
the respondents who did not have trouble
on it.
Another problematic question is on
conjunctions. The different concept of
conjunctions in English and Bahasa
Indonesia may be contributable to their
difficulty. As we know there are two types
of conjunctions in English, coordinating
conjunction
and
subordinating
conjunction, where each type has its own
constituents. Only 13 students out of 44
could
answer
the
questions
on
conjunctions quite well.
The table also shows that for
incomplete sentences many respondents
did not have sufficient knowledge on
adjective clauses. There were only 14
students (31.82 %) who could manage the
problem well. The concept of relative
pronouns (who, which, that, etc) seems
troublesome for them. This is due to the
fact that many questions on adjective
clauses deal with the correct relative
pronouns to use.
S+V missing was another difficult
problem for many respondents where only
16 students were able to answer the
questions well. As in case of subject
missing, the students did not understand
very well the concept of sentences/clauses
in English. As a result, they had difficulty
identifying the correct subject and verb
that are missing.
Some respondents had no problem
on the problem of appositives or noun
clusters. At least 40.91 % students could
handle such question well. This question is
relatively easy for some of the students
because such concept is similar to that in
Bahasa Indonesia. What the students need
is only to find a noun phrase that modify
the noun and to be put between two
comas.
Another problem which doesn‘t
seem quite troublesome is adverbs. At
least 20 students (45.45 %) could manage
the questions well. However, more
respondents still had trouble on it. The
concept of English adverbs is relatively
easy in English. To form adverbs of
manner, mostly we just need to add ‗–ly‘
after an adjective. For adverbs of time, we
need to identify the words which express
the time, and for adverbs of place, we need
a spatial expression.
The least troublesome problem is
verb missing. Some questions ask the
correct form of the verb and some ask
which verb that agrees with the subject.
On this problem, many respondents (52.27
%) could handle the problem suitably.
2) Underlined words
The students‘ weakness points
‗Underlined Words‘ type of questions
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Problems
count/non count
nouns
noun-pronoun
agreement
adjectives
prepositions
banana rule
tenses
singular/plural noun
articles
phrasal verbs
word order
conjunctions
adverbs
noun forms
adjective clauses
passive voice
subject-verb
agreement
in
Number of
students
Percentage
1
2.27
3
4
5
5
5
6
7
8
9
9
10
11
16
17
6.82
9.09
11.36
11.36
11.36
13.64
15.91
18.18
20.45
20.45
22.73
25.00
36.36
38.64
25
56.82
The table shows that the most
challenging problem in ‗underlined words‘
type of question is count/non-count nouns.
Out of 44 respondents, only 1 student
(2.27 %) could answer the questions. This
means that their knowledge of countable
and uncountable nouns in English is very
low. This is not surprising because the
concept of countable and uncountable
nouns is not recognized in Bahasa
10
Indonesia. Therefore Indonesian students
are often failed on the questions of this
problem.
The same situation occurs in the
problems of noun-pronoun agreement,
adjectives, prepositions, banana rule,
tenses, singular/plural nouns, articles,
phrasal
verbs,
word
order,
and
conjunctions where there were only 3 to 9
students who could handle the questions.
Their difficulty is due to the fact that such
rules are more marked (more complicated)
in English than in Bahasa Indonesia. For
example, The concept of adjectives in
English seems problematic because
forming adjectives in English can be done
in some different ways such as adding the
inflectional endings of –ful (e.g. beautiful),
-ish (e.g. childish), -ly (e.g. manly) or -al
(e.g. rectal) to the base words. As a result,
this situation often makes them confused
and failed on such questions.
Another problem which seems
troublesome is adverbs and noun forms.
There were only 10 and 11 students who
could manage the questions on adverbs
and noun forms, respectively. Again, the
‗markedness‘ of the rules in English is
often contributable to the errors they did.
As we know there are many ways to form
adverbs and nouns in English. And these
many ways often make non native
speakers of English confused and in turn
make errors.
As can be seen in the table above,
many students were able to answer the
questions on adjective clauses and passive
voice. For adjective clauses 16 students
could handle the problem. In some cases
this problem is relatively easy because
many questions concerning adjective
clauses focus only on the use of the
relative clauses of ‗who‘, which is used for
human beings, and ‗which‘, which is used
for things. The same thing occurs in
passive voice in which the rule the
students need to remember is the ‗be +
verb III‘ rule.
The least troublesome problem is
subject-verb agreement. Here 25 students
(56.82 %) could answer the questions well.
In this problem the students need to
identify the disagreement between the
subject and its verb. This finding is in line
with the problem of verb missing in
‗incomplete sentence‘ type of question on
which many students do not have
difficulty handling the questions.
E. CONCLUSION
The main problem faced by the
teachers in giving training on EPT is the
time constraint. They usually have very
limited time to teach while at the same
time they have many topics to deliver.
Therefore they often have difficulty
deciding which topics that should be given
and which ones are not. The problem is
even worse when the students have low
proficiency of English.
In relation with the nature of EPT
questions, it can be concluded that the
questions are aimed at assessing the
readiness of the students in studying in
college or university. The listening and
reading sections concern with three
academic
skills:
taking
notes,
paraphrasing, and summarizing. The
grammar section tests the knowledge of
the students in building good English
sentences.
This research is aimed at
identifying the students‘ weakness points
on commonly found grammar problems in
EPT. The identification is then used as the
basis for constructing a syllabus that meets
the students‘ need. In general, the
students‘ needs based on the analysis are
as follows: 1. Incomplete sentences:
conjunctions,
comparisons,
subject
missing, adjective clauses, 2. Underlined
words: count/non-count nouns, banana
rule, adjectives, prepositions, nounpronoun agreement, singular/plural nouns;
3.
Reading
Comprehension
and
Vocabulary:
References,
passage
organization, exception, inferences, topics,
main ideas.
11
Kellough, R. and N. Kellough (1999) A
Guide to Methods and Resources.
Prentice Hall. Ohio.
REFERENCES
_______. 1998. TOEFL Practice Test
workbook.
ETS
(Educational
Testing Service), Princeton.
Long, M., 1996. Task Based Language
Learning, University of Hawaii
ESL department, spring term.
Hawaii.
_______. 2002. TOEFL: Test Preparation
Kit Workbook. ETS (Educational
Testing Service). Princeton.
Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers. 1986.
Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching: a Description
and Analysis, Cambridge Teaching
Library. Cambridge.
Angeles Linde Lopez. 2008. ―To What
Extent Does Grammar Knowledge
Account for Competence in FL
Reading
Comprehension
in
University Students?‖ RESLA 21
181-200.
Ross N. Kenneth. 1994. Sample Design for
Educational Survey Research.
UNESCO International Institute
for Educational Planning. New
York.
Barry, K. and L. King, (2nd Edit.) (1997)
Beginning Teaching And Beyond
Australia: Social Science Press.
Sharpe, J. Pamela. 2000. Barron‟s How To
Prepare for The TOEFL. 9th
edition. BinaRupa Aksara. Jakarta.
Johns, A. 1991. English for specific
purposes:
Its
history
and
contribution. In Celce-Murcia, M.
(Ed). Teaching English as a second
or foreign language. MA: Heinle &
Heinle. Boston.
Sharpe, J. Pamela. 2007. Barron‟s How To
Prepare for The TOEFL iBT. 12th
edition. BinaRupa Aksara. Jakarta.
12
THE USE OF MORPHEMES: AN ALTERNATIVE WAY TO
INCREASE THE MASTERY OF STUDENTS’ VOCABULARY
PENGGUNAAN MORFEM: CARA ALTERNATIF UNTUK
MENINGKATKAN PENGUASAAN KOSAKATA SISWA
Dian Novita
Universitas Muhammadiyah Sidoarjo
[email protected]
Abstract
Using morphemes in English teaching and learning process is essential to increase the
mastery of students‟ vocabulary. In the case, morphemes are the powerful aspects to build
words. The article is intended to propose the importance of morphemes as one of linguistic
approaches to help the learners figure out the meaning of unknown words by combining
morpheme clues and context clues. In addition, it is expected that English teachers can apply
the method in their teaching and learning process. Here, the method is divided into three
phases: the instructional phase, the practice phase, and reviews and assessments.
Keywords: morphemes, English teaching and learning process, vocabulary
Abstrak
Menggunakan morfem dalam proses belajar mengajar bahasa Inggris sangat penting untuk
meningkatkan penguasaan kosakata peserta didik. Dalam kasus ini, morfem adalah aspek
kuat untuk membangun kata-kata. Artikel ini dimaksudkan untuk menunjukkan pentingnya
morfem sebagai salah satu pendekatan linguistik untuk membantu peserta didik mengetahui
arti dari kata-kata yang tidak diketahui dengan cara menggabungkan petunjuk-petunjuk
morfemik dengan petunjuk-petunjuk kontekstual. Selain itu, para pengajar bahasa Inggris
diharapkan dapat menerapkan metode tersebut dalam proses belajar mengajar mereka. Di
sini, metode ini dibagi menjadi tiga tahap: tahap pembelajaran, tahap praktek, dan tahap
ulasan dan penilaian.
Kata kunci: morfem, proses belajar mengajar bahasa Inggris, kosakata
13
The discussion about the things in
relation to morphemes will be presented in
the following point. It includes general
meaning of morphemes, free morphemes
and bound morphemes, compound words,
roots, affixes, and stems.
A. INTRODUCTION
The mastery of vocabulary plays
a vital role in learning a language. It is not
only essential for comprehension in terms
of reading skill, but also the other three
skills of language learning: listening,
speaking, and writing. By understanding
the meaning of words, learners are able to
apply a certain word in different social
settings, spell it, or include it in their
writing. In other words, the learner‘s
success in their academic and social is
determined by their ability to learn
thousands of new words in a new
language.
Studies on the importance of
vocabulary in learning English have been
carried out by many researchers. In
general, they provide evidence for the
fundamental role of vocabulary in
mastering all the language skills. One of
ways in increasing of the mastery of
students‘ vocabulary is using morphemes
as one of linguistic approaches in English
teaching and learning process. It is
important because morphemes are the
powerful aspects to build words. Here, in
other words, morphemes construct all
words.
Morphemes are the building
blocks of English vocabulary. In line with
this, Yule (2006: 246) states that
morphemes can be defined as the smallest
unit of meaning in a word, or a ―minimal
unit of meaning or grammatical function‖.
From the statement, it can be concluded
that all the words are made up of
morphemes. When learners are conscious
of the structure, meaning, and function of
morphemes, at the end they are able to
develop a lifelong strategy to understand
word meanings. In addition, Kieffer &
Lesaux (2009) and Prince (2008) in Lems
(2010: 92) argue that English language
learners who can divide words into smaller
parts and make connections between
words that have the same morphemes have
increased
success
in
vocabulary
development.
B. DISCUSSION
1. General Meaning of Morphemes
Bishop
(2009)
defines
morphemes as the smallest units of
meaning that make up the words in a
language. For example, the word start,
which has five graphemes – written
symbols, or letters (s, t, a, r, and t) and
four phonemes – sounds (s, t, a, and r), has
a single morpheme; there is one unit of
meaning in this word. On the other hand,
the word restart has two morphemes: the
unit re-, which carries the meaning
―again,‖ and the unit start.
The word girl has a single
morpheme, whereas the word girls has two
morphemes: the unit friend and the unit -s,
which signifies a plural. Likewise, the
word girl‟s has two morphemes: the unit
girl, and the unit ‘s, which signifies
ownership.
Words can have one, two, or
more morphemes. For instance, disagreed
has three morphemes: dis-, signifying
―not,‖ agree, and -d, signifying past tense.
Similarly, the word writers has three
morphemes: write, -er, signifying ―a
person who,‖ and -s, signifying plural.
2. Free Morphemes and Bound
Morphemes
Some linguists commonly have
classified morphemes into two parts: free
morphemes and bound morphemes. Free
morphemes are those that can stand alone
as words (Bishop, 2009:161). In the case,
the examples of free morphemes are as
follow: start, girl, agree, and write.
Meanwhile, bound morphemes cannot
stand alone; they must be connected (or
bound) to another morpheme, such as the
morphemes re- in restart, -s in girls, ‟s in
14
girl‟s, dis and -ed in disagreed and -er and
-s in writers.
Furthermore, in more detail the
linguists have identified four major
categories of English morphemes (Lems,
2010). They are free morphemes, which
consist of two subcategories: lexical and
functional morphemes, and bound
morphemes, which also consist of two
subcategories: derivational and inflectional
morphemes. The morphemes category
belongs to determines where it can be used
in the English grammar system. Lems
(2008) in Lems (2010: 95) figures the
morphemes category in the following
pyramid to help the English learners to see
the distribution of the four categories.
morphemes are also called function words.
The examples of functional morphemes
are: in, he, but, modal auxiliary verbs,
such as will, and auxiliary verbs, such as
is. The functional morphemes describe the
relationship among the content words
around them, for example in the case of
modals, the function words provide the
tone of meaning of a certain word. In line
with this, Lems (2010:96) states that
English does not make sense without
function words because the relationships
among the words cannot be expressed.
The two other categories are the
subcategories of bound morphemes. They
are
derivational
morphemes
and
inflectional morphemes. Derivational
morphemes are one of the devices to
generate so many new words in English.
Also, they can change the grammatical
category, or part of speech, of a word, for
instance adding –ful to color will change
the word color from noun to the adjective
colorful. Here, derivational morphemes
can be either prefixes or suffixes.
However,
inflectional
morphemes serve as grammar markers that
show tense, number, possession, or
comparison. There are seven inflectional
morphemes. First, -s or –es, the morpheme
indicates noun plurals added to nouns or
third person singular in present tense
added to verbs. Second, „s or s‟, the
morpheme „s indicates possessive for
singular or uncountable nouns and the
morpheme s‟ indicates possessive for
plural nouns. The morpheme –ed indicates
the regular of past tense or past participle
added to verbs. Meanwhile, the morpheme
–en shows some plurals added to noun,
some past participles added to verb,
derivation from noun added to verb or
adjective.
Another inflectional morpheme is
–er. It indicates comparative form of
adjectives and adverbs added to adjective
or adverb. Moreover, the morpheme –est
indicates superlative form of adjectives
and adverbs added to adjective and
adverbs. The other inflectional morpheme
Lexical morphemes
Millions of words – formed by roots, stems, and affixes,
“content words”
Functional morphemes
(100s of words) no new ones, connect lexical
morphemes, tend to be short, small, “function words”
Free
morphemes
Derivational bound morphemes
(386 prefixes, 322 suffixes)
Help create new words
Inflectional bound
morphemes
7 suffixes only; in
nearly every
sentence last
suffixes added
Bound
morphemes
The explanation of the figure is
as follow. The top two levels of the
pyramid represent words. The lexical
morphemes are identified as the vast
majority of words of a language. Here, the
lexical morphemes are also referred as
content words. It is said so because lexical
morphemes considered as the vital organ
of the body of language (Lems, 2010).
They include nouns, verbs, adjectives,
some prepositions, and adverbs. The
examples of lexical morphemes are: house,
speak, beautiful, figure out, fast, etc.
The second level is functional
morphemes. The morphemes include most
prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions,
modals, and auxiliary verbs. Functional
15
is -ing. It indicates derivation from verb
added to noun (gerund) and present
continuous added to verb. Unlike
derivational
morphemes,
inflectional
morphemes do not create new words.
Here, the learners can practice by
naming free and bound morphemes from
each word provided by the teacher. For an
illustration, teacher asks how many
morphemes each word contains. The
teacher will help with the first one. The
word uncrowded has two morphemes: unand crowded. Crowded is a free morpheme
and un- is a bound morpheme (i.e., as used
here, it cannot stand alone as a word).
No.
Word
1
2
3
4
5
uncrowded
understandable
unlike
reconnect
longer
Free
morpheme
crowded
form a word. Bishop (2009) explains that
over 60 percent of the English language is
drawn from Latin and Greek origin.
Knowing the meaning of Latin and Greek
roots will help students‘ vocabulary
development. The following tables are
adapted from Bishop (2009: 165-166)
present the roots of Latin and Greek used
in English language.
1). Common Latin roots
Latin
Root
aud
dict
Bound
morpheme
un-
Meaning
to hear
auditorium,
audible, audition
to speak, to contradict, dictate,
tell
predict, diction
to walk
progress
to throw
inject, eject, reject
little
minimum, minimal
to send
mission, transmit
to move
movement, motion
gress
ject
min
mis, mit
mov,
mot
ped, pod foot
3. Compound Words
Bishop (2009) explains that
compound words are words composed of
two or more free morphemes that have a
single meaning that maintains some of the
meaning of the original words, for
example: the words buttermilk. If students
know the meaning of the word butter and
the meaning of the word milk, they will
likely be able to determine the meaning of
the word basketball: fatty food substance
made from milk. An understanding of the
two parts of each of these words allows
students to understand the compound
word.
pend
port
to hang
to carry
rupt
scrib,
script
to break
to write
spect,
spic
struct
to see
tract
vert
4. Roots, Affixes, and Stems
Basically, words are arranged of
three kinds of morphemes: roots, affixes,
and stems.
Vid, vis
Sample Words
pedal,
podiatrist,
gastropod
append, depend
export,
import,
report
disrupt, interrupt
describe,
manuscript,
transcript
inspect, spectator
to build, to construct, instruct,
form
structure
to pull, to attract,
contract,
drag,
to extract
draw
to turn
convert,
divert,
invert, revert
to see
vision, television,
visible
2). Common Greek roots
a. Roots
Pinker (2007:128) states that
roots are morphemes ―that cannot be cut
up into any smaller parts.‖ Here, roots may
structure complete words, or they may
need other morphemes added to them to
16
Greek
Root
anthrop
Meaning
human
astro
star
Sample Words
misanthrope,
philanthropy,
anthropomorphic
astronaut,
astronomy,
astrology,
astrophysics
Bio
life
chron
time
dem
people
geo
meter
morph
Earth
measure
form
path
feeling,
suffering
philo,
phil
phon
tele
having a
strong
affinity or
love for
sound
far, distant
those that change a word‘s grammatical
function. For instance, when the suffix less is added to the end of speech to form
speechless, the word‘s part of speech
changes from a noun to an adjective.
When the suffix -ly is added to the end of
happy to form happily, the word changes
from an adjective to an adverb. The
meaning can also change significantly, as
in the case of speech and speechless.
The following tables (adapted
frm Bishop, 2009: 170-171) will show the
examples of prefixes and suffixes that are
very beneficial for students to learn them.
1). Most common prefixes
biography, biology,
biosphere
anachronism,
chronic, chronicle,
synchronize,
chronometer
democracy,
demography,
demagogue,
endemic, pandemic
geology, geography
thermometer
amorphous,
metamorphic,
morphology
empathy, sympathy,
apathy, apathetic,
psychopathic
philanthropy,
philharmonic,
philosophy
Prefix
un-
remicrophone,
telephone,
polyphonic,
cacophony,
phoneme, phonics
telescope,
telecommunicate,
telephone, telegraph
in-, im,
ir-, ildis-
en-,
em-
b. Affixes
Affixes are bound morphemes
that are attached to a root to modify its
meaning or change its grammatical
function. In the case, affixes are
morphemes but they are not words, and
they cannot stand on their own. Affixes
connect to roots and are called prefixes
(word beginning) and suffixes (word
ending) (Lems, 2010).
There are two types of suffixes:
inflectional and derivational. Inflectional
suffixes modify the tense or number of a
word or represent a comparison. For
example, -ed is typically used to make a
verb past tense, as in the change from
study to studied. The suffix -s is often used
to change number, as in book to books.
The inflectional suffixes -er and -est are
added to a root such as long to form longer
and longest. Derivational suffixes are
nonin-, imovermissubpreinterfore-
detrans-
17
Selected
Meanings
not
reverse, or do
the opposite
again
back
not
not
reverse, or do
the opposite
in, into
to cause to be
not
in or into
too much
wrong,
incorrect
below, beneath
before
between,
among
before in time
front
removal
negate
across or over,
change
super-
over or above
semi-
half,
Examples
unhappy
untie
reexamine
repay
inappropriate,
impossible,
irreversible,
illiterate
dislike
disconnect
ensnare, encircle
enslave, enable
nonviolent
insight
overdo
misbehave
submarine
preschool
international
forecast
forehead,
foremast
decontaminate
transport
transcontinental
transform,
transcribe
superman,
superscript
semicircle
antimidunder-
partly
opposed
middle
too little
more affixes.‖ For instance, the word trees
is a stem consisting of the root tree and the
affix –s; the word description consists of a
prefix de, a root script, and a suffix -ion.
After explaining roots, affixes,
and stems to the learners, teacher can give
the word: prediction as an illustration for
them. From the word prediction, it can be
clarified that pre-: prefix
(bound
morpheme) meaning ―before‖, dict: root
word (but not a base word) from Latin
meaning ―tell‖, -tion: derivational suffix
(bound morpheme) indicating ―the act of‖
and the whole meaning for the word
prediction is the act of telling previously.
semiskilled
antislavery
midnight
undercooked
2). Most common suffixes
Suffix
-s, -es
Selected
Meanings
plural verb form
-ed
past-tense verbs
-ing
verb form
(present
participle)
characteristic of
a person who
-ly
-er, -or
-ion,
-tion
-ation,
-ition
-ible,
-able
-y
cats, houses,
plays, runs
played,
hibernated
jumping
gladly
runner,
inventor
the act of, process construction,
persecution
is
can be
characterized by
-ness
having
-ity, -ty
-ment
-ic
state of
state of
having
characteristics of
having, full of
-ous,
-eous,
-ious
Examples
-en
made of
-er
comparative
-ive,
-ative,
-itive
-ful
-less
-est
being
full of, having
without
comparative
5. How to Apply the Theory in the
Classroom
In order to arouse the students‘
motivation in learning vocabulary in
relation to the use of morphemes, the
writer proposes an explicit method to teach
it in the classroom. The method is divided
into three phases: the instructional phase,
the practice phase, and reviews and
assessments.
audible
reliable
slimy, chewy,
cheery
happiness,
boldness
sanity
contentment
metallic,
acidic
joyous,
dangerous,
courageous,
curious
a. The Instructional Phase
In the instructional phase, first,
ask the students to learn the morpheme
and its meaning. For instance, the suffix –
er or –or has the meaning a person who.
Then, put the students in small groups.
Have them read the sentences aloud, with
a group assigned to read each different
column in the table, reading across each
row. The following table will show the
steps have mentioned.
silken,
wooden
happier,
bigger
creative,
imaginative
thankful
hopeless
happiest,
biggest
c. Stems
Lems (2010: 94) states that
―stems consist of a single root plus one or
18
Group A reads
column 1
aloud.
Suffix –er and -or
Group B reads
column 2 aloud.
Example
instructor
Meaning
―a person who instructs‖
teacher
―a person who teaches‖
lawyer
―a person who practices law‖
runner
―a person who runs‖
advisor
―a person who gives advice‖
Everyone reads
column 3 together
aloud.
Sentence
The instructor gives a brief
instruction about the program.
The teacher gives the students
English assignment.
You should always consult a
suitable qualified lawyer about
any specific legal matter.
There is already a team of
marathon runners in place.
Mr. Hartono is my advisor.
Here, the students discuss the
meaning of the words and sentences by
using context and morpheme clues. The
next step, ask them to highlight the
morpheme, circle the root and underline
the affixes. If the students cannot find the
meaning of unknown words, help them to
figure out the meaning of the words by
combining morpheme clues and context
clues. Through this way the students will
understand how morphemes and meanings
bend with context. This phase should take
about 15 minutes.
concepts learned in prior lessons. This
phase can be used as tools to monitor the
students‘ learning and plan for the future
lessons. The immediate feedback upon
completion of the tests is crucial. Here, the
results of the tests indicate the students‘
success in mastery English vocabulary. In
addition, teachers also can look for the
increasing use of morphemic analysis in
context during content-area reading.
C. CONCLUSION
Vocabulary knowledge is a good
predictor of academic and social success.
One of ways in increasing students‘
mastery of vocabulary knowledge is
teaching morphemes as one of linguistic
insights in English. Morphemes are
powerful tools for building English
vocabulary. When learners are aware of
the structure, meaning, and function of
morphemes, they are able to develop a
lifelong strategy to figure out word
meanings. Besides, morphemes also give
clues about the grammatical categories, or
parts of speech, that words occupy within
a sentence.
An explicit method to teach
vocabulary in relation to morphemes is
essential to help the students to figure out
the meaning of unknown words by
combining morpheme clues and context
clues. This classrooms activity is able to
b. The Practice Phase
In this phase, students complete
the practice in relation to the new
morpheme on the instructional phase.
Here, the teacher explains the instructions
and models a few samples. Then, allow the
students to complete the page individually
or in partners. In the case, a dictionary is
available for reference. Students discuss
the answers together, and the teacher gives
immediate and explicit feedback. The
practice phase should take about 10-15
minutes.
c. Reviews and Assessments
The
discussions
about
morphemes are very vast. In this phase, it
is expected that the practice review all the
19
build students‘ metacognitive awareness in
English vocabulary.
REFERENCES
Bishop, Ashley. 2009. Vocabulary
Instruction
for
Academic
Success.
California:
Shell
Education.
Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, N. K. 2009. ―The
role of derivational morphology
in the reading comprehension of
Spanish-speaking
English
language learners‖. Reading and
Writing. Vol. 61 (2), pp. 134134.
Lems, Kristin. 2010. Teaching Reading to
English Language Learners.
New York: The Guildford Press.
Pinker, S. 2007. The Language Instinct:
How
the
Mind
Creates
Language. New York: Harper.
Prince, R. E. C. 2008. Morphological
analysis: New light on a vital
reading skill. Usable knowledge.
Cambridge,
MA:
Harvard
Graduate School of Education.
Yule,
George. 2006. The Study of
Language
(3rd
edition).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
20
LANGUAGE TESTS
TES KEBAHASAN
Rina Suci Andriani
Mahasiswa Program Pascasarjana Unesa – Surabaya
[email protected]
Abstract
The language test intended to measure the students' communicative abilities in this case is
the student communicative test in the target language and not merely in the form of the final
or summative test. In the process, the good one is the test in the process, during the ongoing
process of learning. The purpose of this test is to show and fix the mistakes or errors made by
the students. The language test to measure the student learning outcomes should be
appropriate to the nature of language teaching conducted. The forms and nature of the test is
so bound to the nature of language teaching applied. The Javanese language teaching for
children whose mother‟s mother tongue is Javanese will certainly be different from the
teaching of Bahasa Indonesia as a second language. It is because the children have mastered
the language for communication purposes both representatively and productively. The
Differences of the nature and status of the teaching of the languages require different
language tests for language learners, especially concerning the scope of material and level of
difficulty of the test items.
Keywords: language test, students, teaching and learning process
Abstrak
Tes kebahasaan yang dimaksudkan untuk mengukur kemampuan komunikatif siswa Dalam
hal ini yaitu tes komunikatif siswa dalam bahasa target dan tidak semata-mata hanya berupa
tes akhir atau sumatif saja. Dalam proses tersebut yang baik adalah tes dalam proses,
selama masih berlangsung proses pembelajaran. Tujuan dari tes ini yaitu menunjukkan dan
memperbaiki kesalahan-kesalahan yang dilakukan siswa. Tes kebahasaan yang dimaksudkan
mengukur hasil belajar siswa hendaknya sesuai dengan sifat pengajaran bahasa yang
dilakukan. Wujud dan sifat tes sangat terikat sifat pengajaran bahasa yang dikenakan kepada
siswa di sekolah yang bersangkutan. Pengajaran bahasa Jawa bagi anak-anak yang
berbahasa ibu bahasa jawa tentunya akan berbeda dengan pengajaran bahasa Indonesia
yang merupakan bahasa kedua. Hal itu disebabkan anak-anak telah menguasai bahasa untuk
keperluan komunikasinya baik bersifat representative maupun produktif. Perbedaan sifat dan
kedudukan pengajaran bahasa tersebut menuntut perbedaan tes kebahasaan bagi siswa
pembelajar bahasa khususnya yang menyangkut cakupan bahan dan tingkat kesulitan butirbutir tes.
Kata Kunci: Tes Kebahasaan, siswa, proses belajar mengajar
21
Tujuan dari tesini yaitu menunjukkan dan
memperbaiki kesalahan-kesalahan yang
dilakukan siswa.
A. PENDAHULUAN
Tes kebahasaan dan pengajaran ini
merupakan kegiatan yang saling berkaitan
.Kegiatan tes sangat diperlukan dalam
pengajaran bahasa karena berdasarkan
informasi tes itulah dapat dilakukan
penilaian secara objektif, khususnya
terhadap hasil belajar bahasa siswa. Hal ini
juga dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai masukan
untuk meningkatkan pengajaran bahasa
selanjutnya.
Dalam melakukan pengajaran bahasa
dan tes kebahasaan tentu masing-masing
mempunyai permasalahan yang cukup
kompleks. Ada banyak faktor yang
memdasarindan perlu dipertimbangkan
dalam
keduanya.
Masalah
dalam
pengajaran bahasa terutama yang berkaitan
dengan dengan peningkatan keberhasilan
belajar siswa dalam bahasa yang dipelajari
dan bahasa target, sedangkan masalah tes
kebahasaan antara lain tentang bagaimana
mengungkapkan hasil belajar yang
mencerminkan kemampuan siswa yang
nmendekati sebenarnya.
Dalam hal ini kaitannya tes
merupakan bagian pengajaran bahasa baik
bahasa pertama, bahasa kedua, maupun
bahasa asing. Tes ini bertujuan mengukur
seberapa banyak siswa telah menguasai
bahasa yang dipelajari.
a. Penguasaan yang pertama bersifat
teoritis yaitu tentang bahasa itu
sendiri yang systemini bersifat
diskrit, dalam mempelajari bahasa
terhadap linguistic akan tetapi
dalam penerapan komunikasi kita
b. Penguasaan
kedua bersifat
praktis, maksudnya siswa dapat
berkomunikasi dengan bahasa
yang dipelajari.
Tes kebahasaan yang dimaksudkan untuk
mengukur kemampuan komunikatif siswa
Dalam hal ini yaitu komunikatif siswa
dalam bahasa target, tidak harus (jangan
semata-mata)hanya berupa tes akhir atau
sumatif saja, melainkan yang baik adalah
tes dalam proses tersebut melainkan yang
baik adalah tes dalam proses, selama
masih berlangsung proses pembelajaran.
B. PENELITIAN
DENGAN
TES
KEBAHASAAN
Kegiatan penelitian merupakan hal
yang sangat diperlukan dalam pengajaran
dalam pengajaran bahasa dan sastra. Ada
beberapa masalah pengajaran yang dapat
ditemukan yaitu (a) seberapa tinggi tingkat
kemampuan berbahasa siswa tingkat
tertentu , dalam bahasa target tertentu.(b)
adakah
pengaruh
teknik
tertentu
(lingkungan atau sesuatu yang lain)
terhadap prestasi belajar bahasa siswa, (c)
adakah
kaitan
antara
penguasaan
keterampilan
berbahasa
dengan
kemampuan apresiasi sastra siswa (d) dsb.
Agar penelitian yang dilakukan dapat
memberi hasil yang dapat dipercaya, tes
kebahasaan yang dipergunakan sebagai
instrument penelitian hendaknya dapat
dipertanggung jawabkan,khususnya dari
segi kesahihan dan keterpercayaan.
Tes kebahasaan yang dimaksudkan
mengukur hasil belajar siswa hendaknya
sesuai dengan sifat pengajaran bahasa
yang dilakukan.Wujud dan sifat tes sangat
terikat sifat pengajaran bahasa yang
dikenakan kepada siswa disekolah yang
bersangkutan.
Sifat pengajaran bahasa bahasa
antara lain dapat ditinjau dari kedudukan
bahasa yang diajarkan kepada siswa,
apakah ia berupa bahasa ibu atau bahasa
pertama, atau bahasa asing. Sifat
pengajaran bahasa pertama tentunya akan
berbeda dengan sifat pengajaran kedua dan
bahasa
asing,
khususnya
jika
mempertimbangkan lingkungan dan fungsi
pemakaian
bahasa
tersebut
bagi
masyarakat tempat siswa bertempat
tinggal.
Pengajaran bahasa jawa bagi anakanak yang berbahasa ibu bahasa jawa
tentunya akan berbeda dengan pengajaran
bahasa Indonesia yang merupakan bahasa
kedua. Hal itu disebabkan anak-anak telah
menguasai bahasa untuk keperluan
22
komunikasinya baik bersifatrepresentative
maupun produktif. Perbedaan sifat dan
kedudukan pengajaran bahasa tersebut
menuntut perbedaan tes kebahasaan bagi
siswa pembelajar bahasa khususnya yang
menyangkut cakupan bahan dan tingkat
kesulitan butir-butir tes.
ditolak karena tidak secara cermat
menyampaikan maksud tertentu.
2. Tes kosa kata
Kosa kata dalam suatu bahasa
biasanya jumlah banyak sekali.Akan
tetapi, hanya sebagian kosakata yang
dipergunakan secara aktif dalam kegiatan
berkomunikasi sedangkan yang lain jarang
digunakan. Berdasarkan kenyataan itu
kosakata dibedakan ke dalam kosakata
aktif dan pasif, yang mencerminkan
tingkat kesulitan kosa kata. Untuk dapat
melakukan kegiatan komunikasi dengan
bahasa , diperlukan penguasaan kosakata
dalam jumlah yang memadai.
C. KOMPONEN
TES
KEBAHASAAAN
Komponen tes kebahasaan terdiri
kompetensi kebahasaan, keterampilan
bahasa dan kesusastraan.
1. Tes Kompetensi Kebahasaan
Kompetensi kebahasaan seseorang
berkaitan dengan pengetahuan tentang
system bahasa, tentang struktur, kosakata
atau seluruh aspek kebahasaan itu, dan
bagaimana tiap aspek tersebut (Brown,
1987:27-28).
Dengan
kompetensi
kebahasaan yang dimiliknya itu, seseorang
akan mampu membedakan antara ―bahasa‖
dan ―bukan bahasa‖.Artinya ia akan
mampu membedakan antara , misalnya
bunyi yang merupakan bunyi bahasanya
yang bermakna dengan bunyi bukan
bahasa, struktur kalimat yang gramatikal
dan dapat diterima oleh para penutur asli
dengan struktur yang tak gamatikal(bukan
bahasa) atau tidak dapat diterima, dan
sebagainya.
Tes yang menyangkut kompetensi
kebahasaan secara garis besar dapat
dikelompokkan menjadi tes struktur dan
kosakata (dengan tanpa mengabaikan
system fonologi). Struktur dan kosakata
merupakan dua aspek kebahasaan yang
penting untuk dikuasai karena semua
tindak
berbahasa
pada
hakikatnya
merupakan‖pengoperasian‖ kedua aspek
tersebut. Syarat melakukan kegiatan
berbahasa yaitu penguasaan struktur dan
kosakata.
1. Tes struktur tata bahasa
Tes
ini
berkaitan
dengan
kegramatikalan
kegiatan
berbahasa.
Kegramatikalan
kalimat
sangat
menentukan apakah suatu penuturan dapat
diterima karena bermakna atau sebaliknya
2. Tes Kemampuan Berbahasa
Kegiatan berbahasa merupakan
tindak mempergunakan bahasa secara
nyata untuk maksud berkomunikasi.
Kemampuan berbahasa dapat dibedakan
menjadi dua kelompok memahami
(comprehension) dan mempergunakan
(production), masing-masing bersifat
reseptif dan produktif. Kemampuan
reseptif merupakan proses decoding,
proses usaha memahami apa yang
dituturkan
orang
lain.
Sebaliknya
kemampuan produktif merupakan proses
encoding,
proses
usaha
mengkomunikasikan ide, pikiran, atau
perasaan
melalui
bentuk-bentuk
kebahasaan.
(1) Tes Kemampuan Reseptif
Kemampuan reseptif terdiri dari dua
macam
kemampuan
berbahasa,
kemampuan
berbahasa,
kemampuan
membaca dan menyimak. Dalam hal ini
membaca merupakan kegiatan yang
memahami
konteks
ekstralinguistik
melalui
sarana
linguistik.Kegiatan
membaca sarana bahasa disampaikan
secara tertulis, tetapi dalam menyimak
disampaikan secar lisan yang berupa
lambang bunyi. Jika dalam kegiatan
membaca diperlukan pengetahuan tentang
sitem ejaan, dalam menyimak diperlukan
kemampuan mengenai system bunyi
bahasa
yang
bersangkutan.
Tes
kemampuan reseptif umumnya menuntut
23
siswa untuk memahami secara kritis
informasi yang disampaikan dalam suatu
wacana tertentu.
(2) Tes Kemampuan Produktif
Kemampuan produktif terdiri dua
macam
kemampuan
berbahasa,
kemampuan menulis. Kegiatan berbicara
merupakan kegiatan mengahsilkan bahasa
dan mengkomunikasikan ide dan pikiran
secara lisan. Masalah kelancaran dan
ketetapan bahasa serta kejelasan pikiran
merupakan hal yang sering diteskan
(dinilai) dalam kegiatan berbicara.
berbahasa saja, misalnya menyimak,
membaca, berbicara, atau menulis, tanpa
mengaitkan dengan keterampilan yang
lain.
Sebagai contoh misalnya tes
keterampilan menyimak yang hanya
menuntut
siswa
untuk
mengenali
perbedaan fonem-fonem tertentu atau
aspek kebahasaan yang lain, yang
didengarkan fakta dengan pakta, kafan
dengan
kapan..Untuk
keterampilan
berbicara misalnya siswa hanya diminta
melafalkan kata-kata atau kalimat tertentu.
Berikut contoh tes dikrit yang menyangkut
aspek fonologi, struktur, struktur dan
kosakata.
a. Tes Fonologis yang dimaksudkan untuk
mengukur kemampuan menyimak dapat
dilakukan dengan meminta siswa
mengenali perbedaan bunyi pada katakata yang mirip (Lado, 1964). Contoh:
Tulisan S jika kedua kata yang
diperdengarkan berikut sama, D jika
berbeda
(a) Sleep – slip
(b) Ship – sheep
(c) Heat – heat
(d) Neat – knit
3. Tes Kesusastraan
Tes terdiri dari aspek kompetensi
dan perfomasi, tes kesustraan dapat
dibedakan menjadi tes pengetahuan
tentang sastra dan kemampuan apresiasi
sastr.Pentingnya
pengetahuan
sastra
merupakan ―alat bantu‖, maka tes
pengetahuan tentang sastra harus bukan
merupakan prioritas.
Tes sastra harus diprioritaskan pada
usaha
mengungkap
kemampuan
mengapresiasi sastra siswa dan secara
langsung berhubungan dengan karya
sastra. Tes yang bersifat apresiatif akan
menopang tercapainya tujuan pengajaran
sastra yang berkadar apresiatif.
Dalam bahasa Jepang:
(a) hashiーhoshi
(b) ushiーashi
D. JENIS TATA BAHASA
Berbagai jenis tes kebahasaan
tersebut berkaitan dengan pandangan
terhadap bahasa. Tes kebahasaan yang
pertama bersifat dikrit, integrative,
pragmatik dan komunikatif.
(c) aiーkoi
(d) ooiーookii
Menurut pandangan komunikasi dan
pragmatik, pengajaran yang bersifat diskrit
tidak akan mencapai keberhasilan. Tidak
ada seorangpun yang dapat belajar bahasa
secara mutlak diskrit.
1. Tes Dikrit
Tes Dikrit adalah tes yang hanya
menekankan atau menyangkut satu aspek
kebahasaan pada satu waktu (Oller,
1979:37). Menurut Oller tes yang bersifat
dikrit tidak hanya menyangkut aspek
kebahasaan saja, melainkan berbagai
macam keterampilan berbahasa.Jika tes
secara khusus hanya dimaksudkan
mengukur salah satu keterampilan
2.
Tes Integratif
Tes yang bersifat integrative muncul
sebagai reaksi terhadap teori tes
diskrit.Jika teori diskrit aspek-aspek
bahasa dan keterampilan berbahasa
dilakukan secar terpisah dalam tes
integrative aspek dan keterampilan
24
berbahasa itu dicakup secara bersamaan.
Tes integrative ditekanakan pada adanya
dua aspek kebahasaan atau keterampilan
berbahasa yang diujikan pada saat
bersamaan.Berikut contoh-contoh tes yang
bersifat integratif baik yang menyangkut
aspek-aspek kebahasaan, keterampilan
berbahasa keduaanya.
Soal ini juga dimaksudkan untuk
mengukur kemampuan reseptif membaca
dan menyimak. Letak perbedaannya
wacana yang diteskan di sini lebih panjang
dan biasanya terdiri dari beberapa nomor
soal. Sebaliknya, tes yang sama untuk
mengukur kemampuan menyimak tidak
banyak dilakukan orang dibanding
kemampuan(pemahaman)membaca.
Tes yang diberikan harus benarbenar menuntut siswa untuk memahami
secara kritis wacana yang dibaca
(didengar).
(4) Menyusun sebuah alinea berdasarkan
kalimat-kalimat yang disediakan
Untuk menyusun sebuah alinea
diperlukan
kemampuan
untuk
menghubungkan kalimat yang satu dengan
ide
yang
lain.Tes
ini
menuntut
kemampuan siswa yang menyangkut
beberapa
aspek
dan
keterampilan
berbahasa, bahkan juga termasuk unsur
ekstralinguistik.
(1) Menyusun kalimat
Dalam tes ini, disediakan seperangkat
kalimat (untuk satu soal) yang katakatanya diacaksehingga kalimat ini tidak
memiliki makna gramatikal
Contoh:
(a) Terkejut –sedih ia- itu-mendengarsangat-berita-yang
(b) tsukue-arimasu-wa-hon-naka-ni
untuk contoh diatas, siswa diminta
menyusun
sendiri
kalimat
jawabannya.Model yang lain, kita
dapat menyediakan kalimat-kalimat
jawaban dan siswa tinggal memilih
yang dianggapnya paling tepat.
Untuk contoh soal diatas , misalnya:
(a) ia itu yang terkejut sangat sedih
mendengar berita itu
(b) ia yang terkejut sangat sedih
itumendengar berita
(c) ia sangat terkejut mendengar
berita yang sedih itu
(d) ia yang sangat terkejut mendengar
berita sedih itu
Bahasa jepang:
(a) hon wa tsukue no naka ni arimasu
(b) hon ni naka no tsukue wa arimasu
(c) hon no tsukue wa naka ni arimasu
(d) tsukue ni hon naka hon wa arimasu
(2) Menafsirkan Wacana Singkat yang
dibaca atau di dengar
Dalam kegiatan ini setelah siswa
membaca tau mendengar sebuah wacana
singkat, kemudian disuruh menafsirkan isi
wacana tersebut baik dengan cara
menuliskan(atau
mengucapkan)dengan
bahasa sendiri maupun memilih sejumlah
alternative yang telah disediakan.
(3) Memahami Bacaan yang dibaca atau
didengar
3. Tes Pragmatik
Tes pragmatik muncul sebagai reaksi
tes dikrit yang dipandang banyak
kelemahannya.
Teori
diskrit
yang
memecahkan unsur kebahasaan dan
kemudian diteskan secara terpisah dan
terisolasi bersifat sangat artifisial. Artinya
belum dapat mencerminkan kemampuan
siswa mempergunakan bahasa sesuai
dengan fungsi komunikatif. Tes pragmatik,
di pihak lain, merupakan suatu pendekatan
dalam tes keterampilan (skills).
Teori tes pragmatik sejalan dengan
(atau berasal dari) pedekatan komunikatif
dalam
pengajaran
bahasa
yang
menekankan pembentukann kompetensi
berbahasa kemampuan berbahasa dalam
fungsi komunikatif secara wajar. Tes
pragmatik dapat diartikan sebagai suatu
prosedur atau tugas yang menuntut siswa
untuk mengahasilkan urut-urutan unsur
bahasa sesuai dengan pemakaian bahasa
itu secara nyata dan sekaligus menuntut
siswa untuk menghubungkan unsur-unsur
bahasa
tersebut
dengan
konteks
ekstralinguistik (Oller. 1979:39)
25
Berikut akan diberikan beberapa
contoh tes kebahasaan yang bersifat
pragmatic. Tes-tes yang dicontohkan
sebenarnya bukan merupakan sesuatu yang
baru buat kita, dalam arti telah banyak
didengar dan (mungkin) dilaksanakan.
(1) Dikte
Dalam tes ini siswa dituntut untuk
mampu memahami makna dari sesuatu
yang
didengar
dan
kemudian
menuliskannya
dengan
sekaligus
mengatasi kendala waktu. Menurut Oller
dikte sabagai tes kebahasaan sangat sesuai
dengan
kriteria
validitas
konstruk
karena(a)mencerminkan lanadasan teoritis
kebahasaan(b)berkorelasi secara positif
dengan tes kebahasaan lain yang
sejenisdan(c)kesalahan-kesalahan dalam
dikte berkaitan erat dengan kesalahanyang
dibuat siswa dalam pemakaian bahasa
yang nyata.
Prosedur dikte dapat dibuat secara
bervariasi dengan teknik-teknik yang
berupa dikte standar, dikte sebagian, dikte
dengan gangguan suara, dikte komposisi,
dan produksi lisan imitasi.
(2) Berbicara
Tes keterampilan berbicara lebih
mendapat perhatian karena ia paling
mencerminkan kemampuan berbahasa
seseorang. Tes keterampilan berbicara
(ekspresi lisan) yang bersifat pragmatik
(3) Pemahaman Parafrase
Sebuah wacana singkat disajikan
kepada siswa, lisan atau tertulis, kemudian
siswa, lisan atau tertulis, kemudian siswa
diminta untuk memilih salah satu dari
beberapa
paraphrasealternative
yang
disediakan yang maknanya paling sesuai
dengan wacana.
Rangsang yang diperdengarkan
Jawaban dalam lembar tugas
-pram yang datang pukul 10.00 lebih
dahulu
(a) pram datang paling dahulu
Lebih dahulu daripada zan, tetapi
terlambat
(b) zul zul datang sesudah Zan
Satu jam daripada zul
(c) Zul datang sebelum Zan
(d) Zan datang sebelum Pram
(4) Jawaban Pertanyaan
Tugas ini berupa tes komprehensi
dengar (lisan). Sebuah pertanyaan yang
diajukan melalui sarana pendengaran
(rangsang yang diperdengarkan), dan
diikuti beberapa alternative jawaban secara
tertulis yang terdapat dalam lembar tugas.
Rangsang yang diperdengarkan Jawaban
dalam lembar tugas
-Mahalkah
baku
pengangan
yang
diwajibkan itu?
(a) bersama kawan-kawanmu
(b) uangmu pasti mencukupi
(c) beberapa jam yang lalu
(d) tak seindah bentuknyakan
Pertanyaan yang diajukan dapat juga
didasarkan pada wacana bentuk dialog
yang diperdengarkan sebelumnya. Berikut
dicontohkan dalam bahasa Indonesia
-Rangsang yang diperdengarkan
(1) Suara pertama (laki-laki):
- Halo,Tin apa kabar?
- Berapa lama kita tak berjumpa,
ya?
(2) Suara kedua (perempuan)
- Baik! Sebenarnya akau masih
senang di rumah tetapi perkuliahan
hamper mulai
(3) Suara ketiga (perempuan)
- Kapankah kedua orang kawan itu
berjumpa
Jawaban dalam lembar tugas
(a) pada
saat
perkuliahan
sudah
berlangsung
(b) menjelang
perkuliahan
akan
berlangsung
(c) menjelang perkuliahan sudah hampi
selesai
(d) pada saat perkuliahan telah berakhir
(5) Teknik Cloze (Cloze Technique, Cloze
Procedure, Cloze Test)
Istilah cloze berasal dari persepsi
psikologi gestal yang merupakan proses
―menutup‖ sesuatu yang belum lengkap.
Dalam teknik cloze tempat kosong sengaja
disediakan dalam satu wacana dengan
menghilangkan kata-kata tertentu. Tugas
26
siswa dalam tes ini adalah mengisikan
kembali kata-kata itu secara tepat, siswa
dituntut menguasai system gramatikal
bahasa dan harus memahami wacana.
Dalam mengukur kemampuan berbahasa
siswa penyusunan teknik cloze harus
dipilihkan wacana yang ―memaksa‖ siswa
untuk memahami wacana itu.
Contoh sebuah teknik cloze:
Dalam sebuah Negara ada seorang
permaisuri tua, sedang raja negeri itu
sudah mangkat, permaisuri itu …….(1)
seorang putri yang amat cantik…..(2).
Putri itu telah bertunangan dengan….. (3)
anak raja jauhdari negerinya…(3) samapi
waktu akan kawin , putri…..(4) bersiaplah
hendak berangkat ke negeri….(5)
Kata yang dihilangkan: (1)
mempunyai, (2) parasnya, (3) seorang (4)
setelah (5) itu.
Ada beberapa teknik penilaian yang
dipergunakan dalam teknik cloze, yaitu
metode kata secara eksak yaitu jika
pengisian harus seperti teks sedangkan
penilaian kelayakan konteks yaitu ada
rentangan menggunakan systemskala 1-4
apabila dalam rentang tersebut bisa
memenuhi maka dapat dikatakan benar.
Pengujian dengan teknik cloze dapat
berupa kegaiatan membaca.
Agar pembelajaran bahasa dapat
mencapai target, pembelajaran yang
dilakukan
haruslah
menekankan
pemeberian kesempatan kepada siswa
untuk memperoleh apa yang disebut
kompetensi
komunikatif. Kompetensi
komunikatif merupakan kompetensi untuk
memahami dan mempergunakan bahasa
dalam kegiatan komunikasi secara factual
dan wajar sesuai dengan konteks
pembicaraan.
5. Perlukah Tes Diskrit Dipertahankan
Pengalaman telah membuktikan
bahwa
betapapun
baiknya
suatu
(penemuan) teori baru, tetapi kita tidak
dapat melepaskan sama sekali teori
―lama‖. Teori yang ada sebelumnya
bagaimanapun juga tetap memberikan
andil yang bermanfaat dan ―merangsang
timbulnya teori yang lebih dikemudian.
Dalam dunia pengajaran bahasa
(kedua) dewasa ini diramaikan dengan
teori baru, apabila teori ini ditekankan
pada kompetensi berbahasa siswa dan
langsung dikaitkan
dengan
situasi
komunikatif hal ini mengakibatkan siswa
belum dapat memahami bahasa secara
benar.
E. TES
KEBAHASAAN
DAN
ANALISIS KESILAPAN
Setiap guru bahasa pasti akan selalu
menjumpai kesilapan-kesilapan berbahasa
yang dibuat siswa. Adanya kesilapan yang
dibuat siswa yang sering mencangkup
berbagai aspek kebahasaan itu khususnya
yang terlihat dalam belajar bahasa kedua
atau asing tersebut (Burhan Nurgiyantoro,
2001:11). Secara principal seorang
pembelajar tidak lepas dari kesilapan, hal
tersebut bukan berarti berakibat negative
bahkan dari kesilapan tersebut kita dapat
mengambil manfaat. Jadi dalam kegatan
ini apabila siswa dipaksa agar senantiasa
berbahasa yang betul maka tidak akan
pernah produktif dalam berkomunikasi
dengan alat bahasa.
Analisis kesilapan menunjuk pada
kegiatan menaganalisis kesilapan bahasa
4. Tes Komunikatif
Sejak kurikulum 1994 dilakukan
pentingnya fungsi bahasa yang sebagai
fungsi yang komunikatif. Pengajaran
bahasa disekolah haruslah memberikan
kesempatan kepada peserta didik untuk
memperoleh
berbagai
kemampuan
berbahasa yang dapat dimanfaatkan untuk
kegiatan yang berkomunikasi dalam
kehidupan
sehari-hari.
Kemampuan
berbahas itu meliputi kemampuan
pemahaman (menyimak dan membaca)
dan kemampuan penggunaan (berbicara
dan menulis). Fungsi komunikatif bahasa
adalah berupa pemahaman (aktif reseptif)
dan penggunaan (aktif produktif) bahasa,
sedang tata bahasa adalah semua aspek
yang terkait dengan system bahasa.
27
yang dihasilkan siswa, menemukan,
mengidentifikasi,
mendeskripsikan,
menghitung frekuensi dan menentukan
sumber kesilapan.
1. Kekeliruan dan kesilapan
Kekeliruan (mistakes) dan kesilapan
(errors) adalah dua kasus yang sering
ditemuidalam kegiatan (belajar) berbahasa.
Kekeliruan berbahasa lebih berhubung
dengan
masalah
penampilan
(performance), sedang kesilapan lebih
disebabkan oleh factor kemampuan
(competence). (Brown, 1987:170)
Kekeliruan mungkin hanya berupa
salah ucap atau salah tulis, yang
disebabkan
oleh
factor-faktor
kelelahan,emosi,
kerja
acak-acakan
dsb.Sedangkan Kesilapan disebabkan
kompetensi kebahasaan siswa biasanya
bersifat sistematis dan terjadi pada tempat-
Jumlah
Ejaan
Morfologi
Sintaksis
ringan
berat
r ingan
berat
ringan
berat
ringan
berat
ringan
berat
Tingkat
kesalahan
Leksikon
Jenis
kesalahan
tempat
tertentu
yang
umumnya
menunjukkan
tingkat
kemampuan
kebahasaan siswa.
2. Tingkat keparahan dan Jenis kesilapan
Kesilapan terbagi 2 yaitu kesilapan
global dan kesilapan local. Kesilapan
global yaitu kesilapan berbahasa yang
menyebabkan pembaca atau pendengar
menjadi salah paham terhadap informasi
yang disampaikan. Sebaliknya kesilapan
local adalah penyimpangan yang tidak
begitu
mengganggu
kelancaran
berkomunikasi.Jika tingkat keparahan dan
jenis kesilapan tersebut digabungkan,
kesilapan-kesilapan itu akan menjadi
:kesilapanlafal(ejaa) global dan local,
kesilapan struktur global dan local. Berikut
contoh pengkategorian jenis dan tingkat
kesilapan
1. Nama
2. 1. Tono
3. 2. Tini
Jumlah
penjelasan dan pemberian latihan (d)
memperbaiki pengajaran secara remedial.
Dengan demikian analisis kesilapan
lebih ditujukan untuk keperluan umpan
balikpengajaran dan tidak secara langsung
untuk menilai tingkat keberhasilan belajar
siswa.
Pelaksanaan
umpan
balik
pengajaran pada umumnya berupa
mengulangi meremidi hal-hal yang masih
menyulitkan siswa .Tes kebahasaan tidak
cukup diskor dan diranking melainkan
harus dianalisis (ingat analisis butir soal).
Berdasarkan hasil analisis itulah akan
diketahui butir-butir soal mana(baca:bahan
F. KESIMPULAN
Kedua
macam data kebahasaan
tersebut
dapat
berupa
ulanganulanganharian atau tes yang sengaja
direncakan. Data kebahasaan yang
dihasilkan siswa untuk dianalisis haruslah
data yang bersifat pragmatic atau
komunikatif. Tujuan analisis kesilapan
meliputi tujuan praktis dan teoritis. Tujuan
praktis adalah untuk (a) mengidentifikasi
daerah kesulitan (b) menentukan urutan
sajian (c) menentukan penekanan dalam
28
yang mana) yang masih menyulitkan yang
perlu diajarkan kembali.
Dengan
melakukan
analisis
kesilapan dan atau analisis butir soal, kita
telah menempuh jalan pintas untuk
maksud pengajaran remedial. Jadi jika
seorang
siswa
mendapatkan
nilai
mengarang kurang dari nilai maksimal
bukan berarti siswa tersebut tidak bis
mengarang sama sekali. Ada kemungkinan
ia hanya tidak menguasai semua aspek
kebahasan tertentu. Untuk menentukan
aspek-aspek kebahasaan yang belum
dikuasai siswa, analisis kesilapan yang
mampu memberikan jawaban secara
terpercaya.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA
Bachman, L. F. 1989. The development
and use of criterion-referenced tests
of language ability in language
program evaluation. In R. K.
Johnson (Ed.) 1989. The Second
Language Curriculum. Cambridge:
Cambridge. University. Press.
Brown, H.D. 1987. Principles of
Language Learning and Teaching.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Lado, Robert. 1964. Language teaching: A
scientific approach. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Nurgiyantoro, Burhan.2001. Penilaian
dalam pengajaran bahasa dan
sastra Yogyakarta: BPFE.
Oller W. John. 1979. Language Tests at
School, Jr. London Longman
29
BETWEEN ACQUISITION AND LEARNING: ADULT SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS
ANTARA AKUISISI DAN BELAJAR: PROSES PEMEROLEHAN
BAHASA KEDUA PEMBELAJAR DEWASA
Muhammad Saifuddin
Unipdu – Jombang
[email protected]
Abstract
Language acquistion and learning posit the way children get their second language. It
defines the process of getting the language in which they may develop it in different
circumstance. In the early ages, they acquire their second language in which it can be done
through children - mother‟s communication or even through their social communication.
Later, they tend to learn the second language. On the other hand, as they grow older and
become adult, they conciously learn language. However, it is not always assumed that adult
get their second language through learning but it is rather acquiring. Adult have more time
exposure to a language acquisition that it shows their acquisition process is bigger than
children‟s. The input also determines the acquirers to stimulate the language production
where it refers to language competence and language performance in which both of them are
also the principle of language acquisition.
Keywords: Acquisition, Learning, Language Process
Abstrak
Proses pemerolehan dan belajar bahasa mengandaikan cara anak-anak mendapatkan
bahasa kedua mereka. Artikel ini mendefinisikan proses pemerolehan bahasa di mana
mereka mengembangkannya dalam situasi-situasi yang berbeda. Pada usia dini, mereka
memperoleh bahasa kedua mereka melalui komunikasi ibu - anak atau bahkan melalui
komunikasi sosial mereka. Kemudian, mereka cenderung untuk belajar bahasa kedua. Di
sisi lain, saat mereka tumbuh dewasa dan menjadi dewasa, mereka dengan sadar belajar
bahasa. Namun, itu tidak bisa diasumsikan bahwa orang dewasa mendapatkan bahasa
kedua mereka selalu melalui pembelajaran tetapi sebenarnya mereka hanya sekedar
mengakuisisi. Orang dewasa memiliki waktu akuisisi bahasa yang lebih banyak sehingga
menunjukkan proses akuisisi mereka lebih besar dari pada anak-anak. Input juga
merangsang produksi dan kompetensi bahasa pengakuisisi dimana keduanya juga
merupakan prinsip akuisisi bahasa.
Kata kunci: Akuisisi, Belajar, Proses Bahasa
30
of them, and being able to talk about them
(Krashen, 1982:11).
A. INTRODUCTION
Some children grow up in a social
environment where more than one
language is used and are able to acquire a
second language in circumstances similar
to those of first language acquisition.
Second language acquisition reflects to the
development of new system of language.
Language acquisition rises both for
children and adult. However, there are
some theorists who distinguish between
children and adult second language
acquisition. On particular circumstance of
language development is that adult can
also acquire language. Pinker (1994)
argues that children‘s acquisitions of a
normal language (phonology) emerge
steadily at the early age up to six which is
compromised from then until shortly after
puberty, and is rare thereafter. Thus, it is
not completely acceptable to understand
that acquisition can only be done by
children.
The nature of the language
development done by the human is that
how human get the language through.
Both children and adult have their own
pattern in getting the knowledge of
language development. However, there is
fundamental process in which it elaborates
the process of getting use of language.
Furthermore, in terms of language
acquisition, there are two key terms when
it deals with language acquisition. They
are language acquisition and language
learning, a) language acquisition, is a
subconscious process; language acquirers
are not usually aware of the fact that they
are acquiring language but are only aware
of the fact that they are using the language
for communication, b) language learning,
refers to conscious knowledge of a second
language, knowing the rules being aware
The concept of acquisition and
learning must be understood well
particularly for those who are concerned
with the study of it. The acquisitionlearning distinction is perhaps the most
fundamental of all the hypotheses to be
presented here. It states that adults have
two distinct and independent ways of
developing competence in a second
language. The first way is language
acquisition, a process similar, if not
identical, to the way children develop
ability in their first language. Language
acquisition is a subconscious process;
language acquirers are not usually aware
of the fact that they are acquiring
language, but are only aware of the fact
that they are using the language for
communication (Krashen, 1982: 102). The
result of language acquisition, acquired
competence, is also subconscious. We are
generally not consciously aware of the
rules of the languages we have acquired.
Instead, we have a "feel" for correctness.
Grammatical sentences "sound" right, or
"feel" right, and errors feel wrong, even if
we do not consciously know what rule was
violated.
Language acquisition is the process
of acquiring the language whether it is
first, second, third, fourth, etc. Ritchie and
Bathia (2004) state that second language
acquisition is the phenomenon that has
come to occupy an important place in the
understanding development of the human
capacities for language. This means that
human language develops from time to
time, starting from the first language into
second, third, or fourth language. The
second language learner differs from the
first language learner in two critical ways.
Haznedar
and
Gavruseva
(2013)
distinguish the first language learners and
the second language learners in that:
1. The second language learner begins the
process of acquisition at a time she or
31
he has matured past age when the first
language is normally acquired
2. The second language learner has a
language system in a place
language proficiency than those
beginning as adults.
Language competence tends to the ability
of linguistic or syntactic rules. Brown
(2000: 30) who states that competence
refers to one‘s underlying knowledge of a
system, event, or fact. Linguistically, in
building a communication, adult precisely
produce more and more sentences in
which the communication brings out the
rules of grammar. In this case, adult are
unconscious as they acquire new system of
language.
Dealing
with
language
competence, adult acquisition may emerge
as their monitor hypothesis works in the
process of communication. Moreover,
human are equipped with the capacity of
innate. As it brings out by Chomsky
(2000: 78) claims that is human is born
with innate knowledge of predisposition
toward language. Humans have a
biological tool in their brain that enable
them acquire language naturally called
LAD or ‗Language Acquisition Device‘.
Ellis (1996: 4) also adds that
sometimes a distinction made between a
‗second‘ and a ‗third‘ or even a ‗fourth‘
language. However, it is said that the term
second is generally used to refer to any
language other than the first language.
Furthermore, Ellis (1996) takes a
conclusion
that
second
language
acquisition becomes the term that may be
used to mean the acquisition of mother
tongue. In line, Krashen (1981: 2) made
the difference between the terms of
acquisition and learning. Krashen points
out that language acquisition is very
similar to the process children use in
acquiring first and second language. It
requires meaningful interaction in the
target language natural communication in
which speakers concern not with the form
of their utterances but with messages they
are conveying and understanding. In
acquisition, the acquirer doesn‘t have to
have a conscious awareness of the rules
they possess, and may self correct only on
the basis of a feel for grammatically.
While conscious language learning, on the
other hand, is thought to be helped a great
deal by error correction and the
presentation of explicit rules.
Adult acquisition can be seen in a
language competence as it is the result of
unconscious process of getting language
system. Krashen (1982: 43) adds that age
can also give effect on second language
acquisition:
1. Adults proceed through the early stages
of second language development faster
than children do
2. Older children acquire faster than
younger children, time and exposure
held constant
3. Acquirers who begin natural exposure
to second languages during childhood
generally achieve higher second
A. KRASHEN HYPOTHESES
OF
SECOND
LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
Krashen (1982), elaborates his five
hypotheses dealing with second language
acquisition. These hypotheses enlighten
the notion of acquisition and learning done
by the adults or even children. The most
rigorous hypothesis among the others
which gives more explanation to adult
acquisition is ‗the input hypothesis‘. We
acquire only when we understand
language that contains structure that is "a
little beyond" where we are now. We also
use context, our knowledge of the world,
our extra-linguistic information to help us
understand language directed at us. The
input hypothesis runs counter to our usual
pedagogical approach in second and
foreign language teaching. As Hatch in
Krashen (1982: 20) has pointed out, our
assumption has been that we first learn
32
structures, then practice using them in
communication, and this is how fluency
develops. The input hypothesis says the
opposite. It says we acquire by "going for
meaning" first, and as a result, we acquire
structure! There are two parts of input
hypothesis as it follows:
1. The input hypothesis relates to
acquisition, not learning.
2. We acquire by understanding language
that contains structure as it beyond our
current level of competence (i + 1).
This is done with the help of context or
extra-linguistic information.
However, it Krashen (1982) says
that if the Monitor hypothesis is correct,
that acquisition is central and learning
more peripheral, then the goal of our
pedagogy should be to encourage
acquisition. Some of individual variations,
we see in adult second language
acquisition and performance can be
accounted for in terms of differential use
of the conscious monitor. Monitor
hypothesis posits that acquisition and
learning are used in very specific ways.
Monitor hypothesis implies that formal
rules, or conscious learning, play only a
limited role in second language
performance (Krashen, 1982: 17).
Furthermore, he explains that monitor use
results in the rise in rank of items that are
‗late-acquire‘ in the natural order, items
that the performers has learned but not has
acquired.
These are performers who have not
learnt or if they have learnt, prefer not to
use their conscious knowledge even when
condition allow it. Under-users are
typically uninfluenced by error correction,
can self correct only by using a ‘feel‘ for
correctness and rely completely on the
acquired system.
3. The optimal monitor user
Our pedagogical goal is to produce
optimal user, performers who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it
does not interfere with communication.
Many optimal user will not use grammar
in ordinary conversation where it might
interfere. Therefore, optimal user can use
their learned competence as a supplement
to their acquired competence.
B. ADULT SECOND LANGUAGE
PROCESS
Some theorists have assumed that
there is a distinction between children and
adult in second language acquisition. It is
assumed that the ability of acquiring
second language depends on particular
period. It other words, there is a certain
time which can only provide human to
acquire language, it is called puberty. In
this case, children acquire the language
while adult learn language. It can be also
said that the ability of picking up
disappear after children reach the puberty.
However, this argument is still in doubt
among the theorist. According to Krashen
(1982: 10) who states that the ability of
acquiring doesn‘t disappear in a certain
level after the puberty. This doesn‘t mean
that adult will always be able to achieve
native like levels in a second language but
it does mean that adults can access the
same natural "language acquisition device"
that children use. Thus, the acquisition is a
very powerful process in the adult.
Moreover, in a matter of language
learning, children differ from adults when
1. Monitor over-user
These are people who attempt to
monitor all the time, performers who are
constantly checking their output with their
conscious knowledge of the second
language. As a result, such performers
may speak hesitantly, often self correct in
the middle of utterances and are also
concerned with correctness that they
cannot speak with any real fluency.
2. Monitor under-user
33
it comes to learning. Some of the basic
differences between children and adults as
learners are (Krashen, 1982):
Children
Adults
1. Rely on others to
choose what is
important to be
learned
2. Accept
the
presentation
of
important
information
3. Have expectations
that what they are
learning will be
useful in their long
term future
4. Have little or no
experience upon
which to build
1. Decide
for
themselves what
is important to be
learned
2. Need
to
substantiate the
information based
on their beliefs
and experience
3. Expect that what
they are learning
will
be
immediately
useful
4. Have
much
experience upon
which to build
spoken language in order to acquire it.
Any young child will acquire native
fluency in any language if exposed to it on
a regular basis in a social environment. A
child will naturally acquire native fluency
in more than one language under such
circumstances. In the vast majority of
individuals, though, this natural skill to
acquire a spoken language without
deliberate effort begins to diminish
roughly at about the age of puberty (12-14
years of age). Teenagers exposed to a new
language after this age will acquire it with
definite interference from whatever
language or languages they had been
exposed to before puberty. Practically
speaking, language acquisition by adults is
in fact language learning, that is, a
deliberate, thorough, intellectual process
that rarely, if ever, results in the level of
native fluency acquired so naturally by any
young child, despite intellectual ability or
personal motivation. The deficiency is
mainly obvious at the level of phonetics,
and adults who learn second languages
usually
speak
them
with
some
recognizable non-native accent.
Thus, language acquisition by
children and language learning by adults
are noticeably distinct phenomena. If
every child, regardless of intellectual
stage, is equally gifted at acquiring
language, the case of adults is entirely
different. Some adults can learn a second
language with something close to native
fluency; others will retain a distinct
foreign accent even after years of practice
which might make us think that some
adults possess a special ability for learning
languages after the critical age. Although
any adult can learn a second language, not
all will do so with equal results. Although
there are differences in the ability of
individual adults to acquire a second
language, any adult of reasonable abilities,
if given enough time, enough opportunity,
and, probably most importantly, having
enough desire, can learn to communicate
in any language. But the degree of
eventual fluency achieved will differ
When adults undertake to learn
through their own initiative, they start with
an existing experience. Then they observe
the experience, reflect on it and identify
what new knowledge or skill they need to
acquire in order to perform more
efficiently. They create abstract notions
and generalizations. Consequently, they
test their concepts and generalizations in
new situations, thus gaining new
experiences. Adults bring a wealth of
personal experiences to any learning
situation. Anything that is presented in a
learning session will be filtered through
those personal experiences. Encouraging
and inviting adult learners to participate in
this way also encourages them to be active
learners who take responsibility for their
own learning. It also demonstrates the fact
that the teacher values and respects their
experiences which may be a key tool for
the success of adult language teaching.
During
childhood,
language
acquisition is a natural effect of longlasting exposure to a language. A child
does not need to be formally taught a
34
considerably from one individual to
another, unlike the situation with child
language acquisition, where every child
achieves perfect fluency if there is enough
exposure.
In a matter of language acquisition,
the term of intake is very important. This
follows from our conclusions that
language acquisition is more central than
language learning in second language
performance. "Intake" is, simply, where
language acquisition comes from, that
subset of linguistic input that helps the
acquirer acquire language (Krashen, 1981:
102). It appears to be the case of the major
function of the second language classroom
is to provide intake for acquisition. This
being a very difficult task, one could also
say that the major challenge facing the
field of applied linguistics is to create
materials and contexts that provide intake.
From these characteristics, it can be said
that intake is first of all input that is
understood. Indeed, comprehension may
be at the heart of the language acquisition
process, perhaps we acquire by
understanding language that is "a little
beyond" our current level of competence.
This is done with the aid of extra-linguistic
context or our knowledge of the world.
five
hypothesis
which
give
us
understanding that adult can also acquire
language.
REFERENCES
Brown, H.D. 2000. Principles of
Language Learning and Teaching.
Fourth Edition. New York: Addison
Wesley Longman
Chomsky, N. 2000. New Horizon in the
Study of Language and Mind.
Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Ellis, Rod. 1996. The study of Second
Language
Acquisition.
Second
Edition.
New
York:
Oxford
University Press
Haznedar, B & Elena, G. 2013. Childhood
Second Language Acquisition. In
Herschensohn, J & Martha YoungScholten Edition. The Cambridge
Handbook of Second Language
Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Krashen, D. Stephen. 1981. Second
Language Acquisition and Second
Language
Learning.
California:
Pergaman Press. Inc
C. CONCLUSION
In a second language acquisition,
there are some aspects reviewed in order
to broaden how language acquires. There
is no a great amount of the distinction
between children and adult language
acquisition. It is not only children who can
only acquire second language, but also
adult can acquire language for some cases.
Then,
understanding
of
language
competence and performance which refer
to where the input of language build a new
system of knowledge, the adult acquisition
emerges on it. In addition, given a brief
explanation and understanding the cases in
which elaborate the concept of adult
acquisition, Krashen (1982) has defined
Krashen, D. Stephen. 1982. Principle and
Practice in Second Language
Acquisition. California: Pergamon
Press Inc
Pinker, Steven. 1994. The Language
Instinct: The New Science of
Language and Mind. London:
Penguin
Ritchie, W. C. & Bathia, Tej. K. 1999. The
Handbook
of
Child
Language.
Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
35
AIMS FOR USING FUN GAMES TO IMPROVE THE ESL STUDENTS’
SPEAKING ABILITY
TUJUAN PENGGUNAAN FUN GAMES UNTUK MENINGKATKAN
KEMAMPUAN SPEAKING PEMBELAJAR ESL
Maisarah
Unipdu – Jombang
[email protected]
Abstract
This article reveals the reasons why fun games are effective to help the students improve their
vocabularies and use the language actively. The use of games can be a good language
learning tool. During the games, a student not only competes with other students to achieve
the learning goal but also collaborates with the others. This process makes the students do
the game as good as possible for the sake of winning. When the games are applied, the
students are „forced‟ to speak and they will try to use vocabularies related to the theme of the
game. It would be very helpful especially for the students in building their confidence and
improving their speaking ability. Moreover, games can be used to help the students of
beginning level through the silent period. They facilitate the students through many kinds of
learning so that the ESL students can absorb the language very well. Not only the reasons to
use fun games in the classroom, this article also shares how to choose suitable games for the
students completed with their application in the classroom.
Keywords: Fun games, ESL students, speaking ability
Abstrak
Artikel ini mengungkapkan alasan mengapa fun games efektif untuk membantu pembelajar
meningkatkan kosakata mereka dan menggunakan bahasa secara aktif. Penggunaan game
bisa menjadi alat pembelajaran bahasa yang baik. Selama permainan, pembelajar tidak
hanya bersaing dengan siswa lain untuk mencapai tujuan pembelajaran, tetapi juga bekerja
sama dengan orang lain. Proses ini membuat pembelajar melakukan permainan sebaik
mungkin demi kemenangan. Ketika game diterapkan, siswa 'dipaksa' untuk berbicara dan
mencoba untuk menggunakan kosakata yang terkait dengan tema permainan. Ini akan sangat
membantu terutama bagi pembelajar dalam membangun rasa percaya diri mereka dan
meningkatkan kemampuan berbahasa mereka. Selain itu, game dapat digunakan untuk
membantu pembelajar dari tingkat awal (silent period). Game memfasilitasi pembelajar
melalui berbagai jenis pembelajaran agar pembelajar ESL dapat menyerap bahasa dengan
sangat baik. Tidak hanya alasan mengapa menggunakan fun game di dalam kelas, artikel ini
juga berbagi tentang bagaimana memilih game yang cocok dan dilengkapi dengan
aplikasinya di dalam kelas.
Kata kunci: Fun games, pembelajar ESL, kemampuan berbicara
36
using the games with a number of
students. In summing, this article shows
the result of using the games in learning
process conducts some reason why using
games are effective for ESL students to
improve their speaking ability.
A. INTRODUCTION
For ESL students, increasing their
English vocabulary is very important to
support their speaking ability. That is why
teachers teach as many vocabularies as
possible to their students. In conventional
way, teachers directly provide the students
with English words and their literal
meaning, and then they ask the students to
memorize them. Learning this way is very
ineffective because memorizing words is
not an easy matter. Even when they can
memorize the words, it will not last longer,
and even worse, the students can get bored
easily. Those are the reasons why this
study concerns to help the students to
improve their speaking ability in a
different way.
There are several ways to help
students improve their speaking ability.
One of them is using games. Game is an
entertaining activity, and usually used as
an educational tools. Game is different
with work and art, although some forms of
games involve working and some of them
involve esthetic result. The example of
working game is kinesthetic games, where
the participant should do something
individually or in a team. The example of
an art game is puzzle or lego.
Most students like to play games.
They find that game is something fun.
Using games while students are learning
would be very effective, because they
would feel happy to do the activities
without realizing that they are learning.
Games offer students a fun-filled and
relaxing learning atmosphere. By doing
games, students have the opportunity to
use language in a non-stressful way
(Uberman in Chen: 2005).
This article would like to present
not only reasons for using games but also
some fun games that can be used in
speaking class as well as the steps to play.
This study also explains some factors that
should be considered by the teachers to
determine the suitable games based on the
students‘ characteristics and situation. The
observation is containing experiences in
B. GENERAL
PROBLEMS
IN
SPEAKING
Before giving solution to the
students on their speaking problems, the
teacher should observe some problems or
causes which are faced by the students
when they are conducting speaking.
According to Ur in Aleksandrzak (2011),
the problems that are generally undergone
by a student in speaking L2 are:
1. Inhibition - fear of making
mistakes, losing face, criticism;
shyness;
2.
3.
37
Most students are not confident
when they have to speak in front of
many people. It is because they feel
fear. They have a burden and fear
to make mistake. Most of them are
shy and feel forced to speak up.
That is why the students would
prefer to keep silent or having
conversation in their language. In
fact, they are still learning a new
language, and it is a common thing
for them to make a mistake.
Nothing to say - learners have
problems with finding motives to
speak, formulating opinions or
relevant comments
Instead of unconfident to speak,
most of the students have lack of
vocabulary. This is the main
problem in speaking. How can the
students talk much if they do not
have enough vocabulary to speak?
The students will be able to talk
about many things if they have
many vocabularies. Those who
have lack of vocabulary will be the
passive participants.
Mother tongue use - particularly
common in less disciplined or less
means that the students‘ anxiety is
reduced, so that they can build better
speech fluency and communicative
competence. The students learn the
materials more quickly in unstressful
and comfortable environment (Chen:
2005).
motivated classes, learners find it
easier or more natural to express
themselves
in
their
native
language.
In less disciplined or less motivated
classes, usually the students are
enjoying to use their language
rather than English although they
are in English classes. They feel
that expressing something using
their language is easier than using
English. That is why; giving them
only motivation is not enough.
High motivation and discipline in
speaking English should be applied
in those kinds of classes if the
teacher wants the students to
improve their ability in speaking.
3. Games are improving the students‘
pronunciation
In some games, students express and
share their ideas. Here, they would try
to use the language as good as
possible
especially
about
the
pronunciation so that they would be
understood by the other students.
During the games, the students are
listening to each other. By listening,
the students memorize the ways to
pronounce certain vocabularies. It
means that they are building better
pronunciation.
Based on the problems, it can be
summed up that the students need a
revolution in learning. They need a new
way of learning where they can feel they
are not studying, but in fact, they are.
4. Games are stimulating collaboration
Some games enable a group of
students to make groups. Here, they
can discuss each other and make
collaboration. By collaborating, the
students can share their ideas and
allow them to speak up.
C. REASONS FOR USING FUN
GAMES
The following are some reasons
why fun games are effective for improving
students‘ speaking ability. They are:
1. Games are motivating
Games always give a feeling to
compete with each other. In language
learning activities, games do the same
way. Games also give impulse or
stimulus to the students to use
language (Prasad in Chen: 2003).
During the games, the students will
try to concentrate and are stimulated
to use English.
5. Games are integrating some language
skills
Games enable the students to study
not only one linguistics skill but also
two or three linguistics skills. There
are some games which can integrate
some linguistics skills, for instance,
Speaking and Writing, Speaking and
listening. This condition may help the
students to learn more.
2. Games are relaxing
Using games to learn language is one
of non-stressful ways (Uberman in
Chen: 1998). When playing the
games, the students are not paying too
much attention to the linguistic form,
but they will speak up and do
anything for the sake of winning. It
D. DETERMINING WHICH GAME
TO USE
There are many kinds of games that
can be applied by the teachers in the ESL
Classroom. The games can be taken from
many sources, especially internet. The
teachers have been shown many choises,
38
but of course they should be wise in
choosing what games are suitable to use in
the classroom and consider some factors
into account. Carrier (1990) mentioned
that the teacher should consider the level
of the game to fit with the student‘s
language ability.
There are some factors which the
teachers should consider while they would
like to use games in their classroom. The
first is the students‘ characteristics and the
second is the situation. The students‘
characteristic
is
something
that
distinguishes and defines a person or a
group. The example of considering
students‘ characteristics is thinking over
the students‘ age, whether they are old or
young. The old students will get bored
easily when the game they play is
monotonous and too easy. On the other
hand, the game would be very hard to do
for the young. So, the teacher should
observe the game whether it would be suit
with the age of students or not.
The other example of considering
students‘ characteristics is that the teacher
should think over the students‘ motivation,
whether they are having high or low
motivation. This is important to observe
because certain games are not suitable to
be applied in a low motivation class. In a
high motivation class, many kinds of
games can be easily be used, whether they
are kinesthetic games or art games, where
hard thinking is needed. It is different from
the low motivation class, where kinesthetic
games are preferred to the art games.
The second factor is situation. The
teacher should consider whether the game
will be applied in the morning or in the
afternoon. Usually in the morning, the
students‘ conditions are still fresh and they
are ready to begin the activities. In the
morning, the students can absorbs the
lesson better than in the afternoon. Kinds
of game would make them enjoy the
lesson. Most of the students are tired and
would not interest in the lesson activity in
the afternoon. That is why the teacher
should be observing the suitable games in
the right situation.
The most important thing is that the
game must be more than just fun. The use
of the games should support the students
in understanding the materials in a fun,
relax and friendly environment, otherwise,
it is only wasting time. All students should
involve and active in the game so that the
classroom can be alive and the goal of the
lesson can be gained.
E. GAMES TO SHARE
Here are some games that can be
used for speaking lessons as well as the
steps of doing the game:
1. Who is she/ who is he?
The game is good for teaching
speaking and vocabularies dealing with
famous persons. This game also allows
the students to practice their listening
skill by listening to the other student‘s
description about someone.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Ask your students to imagine their
famous actress or actor. Do not let
them to say who he is/ who she is.
- Choose one of your students to
come forward.
- Ask him/ her to describe the
actress/
actor‘s
physical
appearance
- The rest of the students listen and
pay attention to presentation
- One who can guess who the actor
or actress is directly raise his/ her
hand and get some scores.
2. Landmarks
The game is good for improving the
students‘ speaking ability and
knowledge about famous places in the
world. This game lets the students
make collaboration in a team and
allow them to make a good team
work.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Divide the students into group of
two or three
39
-
Prepare some pictures of famous
landmarks
Ask one students from each group
to get one picture randomly
Give them time to arrange the
information about the picture
Ask the groups one by one to
present their picture
-
-
The student in the middle may only
say ―yes‖ or ―no‖.
When one of the students can guess
the profession, the paper should be
opened.
The students who can guess the
profession is the winner.
5. Run and Hit (Big Class)
The game is good for teaching
speaking and vocabularies dealing with
food. This game also allows the
students to practice their listening skill
by listening to the other student‘s
question to the teacher.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Prepare a number of foods and
drink flashcards.
- Stick the flashcards on the
whiteboard.
- Divide the students into two groups
- Choose one student from each
group to stand up in the corner of
the classroom.
- The teacher choose one picture of
flash card but he/she does not tell
anyone about the picture
- The rest of the students guess the
picture by asking to the teacher,
e.g. Do you usually drink this in
the morning?
- The teacher should only say ―yes‖
or ―No‖
- When the teacher says ―yes‖, the
two standing students have to run
as fast as possible and hit the
flashcard directly.
- The fastest student is the winner
(Taken from genkienglish.com)
3. What a funny/ frightening story.
The game is good for teaching
speaking and vocabularies and
improving students‘ writing skill. The
students will enjoy the game because
the topics are interesting and based on
their real stories.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Ask your student to make one or
two paragraph containing a funny
or frightening story of their own.
- Choose the student by giving a ball
to the student.
- The ball will be come to one
student to the other students as
long as the music play.
- When the music stop, the student
who get the ball must come
forward to retell the story without
any text at all.
- The students who come forward
will get score/ reward.
4. Who am I?
The game is good for improving
students‘ speaking and vocabulary
dealing with occupation. This game
also allows the students to practice
their grammatical skill by asking
correctly in grammar to the other
student.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Let the students sit semicircle and
one student in the middle.
- The student in the middle, write
down his/her profession on a piece
of paper and close it.
- The other students try to guess the
profession by asking, e.g. Do you
use pan and stove when you are
working?
6. Run and Hit (Small Class)
The game is good for teaching
speaking and vocabularies dealing
with food. This game also allows the
students to practice their listening skill
by listening to the other student‘s
question to the teacher.
Here are the steps of doing the game:
- Prepare a number of foods and
drink flashcards.
40
-
-
-
-
Put the flashcards on the floor
Ask the students to make a circle
around the flashcards
The teacher choose one picture of
flash card but he/she does not tell
anyone about the picture
One by one the student guesses the
picture by asking the teacher e.g.
Do you usually drink this in the
morning?
The teacher should only say ―yes‖
or ―No‖
When the teacher says ―yes‖, the
two standing students have to run
as fast as possible and hit the
flashcard directly.
The fastest student is the winner.
(Taken from genkienglish.com)
students are faced by a material which
have to be presented in collaboration. The
students in groups should share their ideas
dealing with their knowledge about the
picture before explaining to the other
groups. This chance let the students to
practice their confidences and also
pronunciation
The games can also be used to
integrate two language skills or more. For
instance, in the game ‗Run and Hit‘, the
game stimulates the students to practice
their speaking and listening ability. During
the game, the two students in the corner
have to pay attention to the other students‘
questions before they run in front of the
class and hit one of the flash cards. It
means that they practice their listening
skill. The rest of students automatically
practice their speaking skill by asking
questions to the teacher based on the
picture of the flashcard. This is also
identified that by using games in language
learning, not only the students‘ speaking
ability were improve but also other
language skills, more specifically listening
skill.
Moreover, the fun games had also
made the students think creatively by
asking some questions. It indicates that the
games stimulate the development of their
speaking ability. In short, the games were
good stepping stone for them to develop
their speaking ability.
F. OBSERVATION
I had applied the fun games above
in my speaking class at FBS Unipdu.
Throughout the fun games, my students
looked very interested in the game. Their
enthusiasm to the lesson was developing.
The students were more attracted and try
to use English as much as possible. By
using games, the students were more
relaxed to express their ideas without
being afraid of making grammatical errors.
For instance, in the game ―Who is she/
who is he?‖ and ―Who am I‖, the students
could freely express their ideas by using
English even though they made some
errors in their pronunciation.
By using fun games, my students
were motivated to speak because they
must compete with the others to win the
game. For instance, in the game ‗Hit and
Run‘ for small class, the students were
very active asking question to the teacher
and tried to hit the flashcard as fast as
possible to get win. The classroom became
alive and it can ease their bored and tired
immediately.
Some games need collaboration by
making groups for a number of students.
This process let the students discuss with
each other. In the game ‗Landmarks‘, the
G. CONCLUSION
There are several reasons that can
be summed up why fun games are
effective for improving the students‘
speaking competence. It is because fun
games
are
motivating,
relaxing,
encouraging students to have a good
pronunciation, constructing collaboration,
and integrating some linguistics skills.
The games enable the students to
work with their other friends and motivate
them to communicate in English.
Furthermore, by using fun games the
41
students can learn more than one
linguistics skill. After using the fun games,
the students are more motivated to be
more active in using English. According to
Uberman in Chen that games encourage,
entertain, teach and promote fluency and
communicative skills (2005). There are
many choices of games that can be used in
the classroom. Not all the games are
suitable to be applied with the students.
The teacher should help the students to use
the suitable games that fit with their
language ability by observing some
factors, such as: their characteristics and
situation. The characteristics including
their age and motivation, while the
situation deals with the time of the game
which are going to conduct.
36 (1):
20.http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/
vols/vol36/no1/p20.htm
www.genkienglish.com
REFERENCES
Aleksandrzak.
Magdalena
(2011)
Problems and challenges in teaching
and learning speaking at advanced
level Glottodidactica Xxxvii Adam
Mickiewicz University Press Poznań
Uniwersytet
im.
Adama
Mickiewicza w Poznaniu
Carrier, M. 1990. Take 5: Games and
Activities for the Language Learner,
UK: np. Pp 6-11.
Chen, I-Jung. 2005. ―Using Games to
promote Communicate skills in
Language Learning‖. The Internet
TESL Journal
Prasad, U.2003.Achieving Communicative
Competence in English. India‟s
National Newspaper
(29,July).http://www.hindu.com/the
hindu/edu/2003/07/29/stories/20030
72900010200.htm
Uberman, A. 1998. The Use of Games: for
Vocabulary Presentation and
Revision. English Teaching Forum
42
TYPES OF ERRORS COMMONLY OCCUR IN JAPANESE
STUDENTS’ LANGUAGE WRITINGS
JENIS KESALAHAN YANG BIASA TERJADI DALAM KARANGAN
SISWA BERBAHASA BAHASA JEPANG
Sri Aju Indrowaty
Unibraw – Malang
[email protected]
Abstract
The use of different languages raises various language errors, either consciously or
unconsciously. The process of learning a second language cannot be separated from errors
they may make. Making errors is a hallmark of learning. However, errors in language
production is very disturbing in achieving the goal of attaining a good language. The types of
errors made range from errors in listening (kiku), errors in speaking (hanasu), errors in
reading (yomu), errors in writing (kaku). Using Japanese in writings, especially in an essay,
often results in various errors. This article describes the grammatical errors that are often
made by the students in their writings. This study at least find errors in morphological level,
errors in phrasal level, and errors in syntactic level.
Keywords: Errors, writing, type of errors
Abstrak
Pengunaan berbagai bahasa menimbulkan berbagai kesalahan berbahasa, baik disadari
maupun tidak disadari. Proses pembelajaran bahasa kedua tidak terlepas dari adanya
kesalahan. Kesalahan merupakan ciri dari pembelajaran. Namun demikian kesalahan dalam
berbahasa sangat mengganggu dalam usaha tujuan pencapaian bahasa yang baik. Jenis
kesalahan yang dilakukan bervariasi mulai dari kesalahan mendengarkan (kiku), kesalahan
berbicara (hanasu), kesalahan membaca (yomu), kesalahan menulis (kaku). Penggunaan
bahasa Jepang dalam penulisan, terutama dalam sebuah karangan sering menimbulkan
berbagai kesalahan. Artikel ini menjelaskan tentang kesalahan-kesalahan gramatika yang
sering dibuat oleh para siswa dalam karangan-karangan mereka. Penelitian ini setidaknya
menemukan kesalahan dalam hal kesalahan morfologis, kesalahan frasa, dan kesalahan
sintaksis.
Kata kunci: Kesalahan, karangan, jenis kesalahan
43
(Kesalahan berbahasa Jepang
adalah bukan kesalahan dari
penutur asli bahasa Jepang
melainkan dari pembelajar
bahasa Jepang itu sendiri.)
A. PENDAHULUAN
Bahasa Jepang merupakan bahasa
yang selalu dipengaruhi oleh keadaan dan
juga tidak terlepas dari pemakaian bentuk
waktu pada verbanya, sehingga verba yang
berfungsi sebagai predikat akan berubah
bentuknya sesuai dengan kondisi dan
keadaan yang diacu dari saat pengucapan.
Perubahan verba dalam bahasa Jepang jika
dilihat berdasarkan pada perubahan
predikatnya digolongkan ke dalam
kelompok verba yang terdiri dari tiga
kelompok.
Kelompok
I
disebut
godandoushi), kelompok II (ichidan
doushi) dan kelompok III (henkaku
doushi).
Proses pembelajaran bahasa kedua
tidak terlepas dari adanya kesalahan. Jenis
kesalahan yang dilakukan bervariasi mulai
dari kesalahan mendengarkan (kiku),
kesalahan berbicara (hanasu), kesalahan
menulis (yomu), kesalahan menulis (kaku).
Penelitian ini akan meneliti kesalahan
berbahasa terutama kesalahan menulis.
Menurut Yoshikawa (1997:4) kesalahan
berbahasa jepang adalah,
Berkaitan dengan kesalahan dalam
penulisan, maka penelitian ini mengkaji
tentang kesalahan yang biasa terjadi
dalam karangan mahasiswa. Contoh
karangan yang terdapat kesalahan adalah
sebagai berikut.
(1a) 初めて会うことは二年高校生です。
Hajimete au koto wa ninen koukousei
desu.
(1b)*初めて会うことは高校二年生です。
Hajimete au koto wa koukou ninensei
desu.
(Pertama kali bertemu kelas 2 SMA).
Pada kalimat (1a) ninen koukousei
terjadi kesalahan yaitu berupa urutan kata
dalam frasa tersebut menggunakan urutan
frasa bahasa Indonesia. Frasa bahasa
Jepang yang benar adalah koukou ninensei
seperti pada contoh (1b). artinya dalam
bahasa Indonesia adalah pertama kali
bertemu kelas 2 SMA.
Dalam hal ini terjadi kesalahan
struktur
bahasa
Indonesia
D-M
(diterangkan
menerangkan)
日本語誤用分析と言えば日本
語話者のそれではなく、日本
語学習者の誤用というこ
とになる、後ほどあげる誤用
pada二年高校生/ninen koukousei yang
artinya kelas 2 SMA, kalimat tersebut
memakai pola bahasa Indonesia, padahal
susunan bahasa Jepang yang benar
memakai pola M-D (Menerangkan
例はすべて、こうした、日本
語学習者ものである。
Nihongo goyou bunseki to ieba
nihongo
washa
no
soredewanaku,
nihongo
gakushuusha no goyou to iu
koto ni naru, ato hodo ageru
goyou rei ha subete, koushita,
nihongo gakushuu sha mono de
aru.
diterangkan)
yaitu高校二年生/koukou
ninensei.
Sedang kesalahan lain terdapat pada
contoh (2a).
(2a) わたしの趣味は絵をかきます。
Watashino shumi wa e o kakimasu.
44
(2b)* わたしの趣味は絵をかくことです。
Watashino shumi wa e o kaku koto desu.
(Hobi saya adalah menggambar).
dengan kaidah bahasa Jepang mendapat
teman
dengan
ともだちをつくる/tomodachi o tsukuru.
Atau kalau diterjemahkan tsukuru artinya
membuat dan tomodachi adalah teman.
Dari beberapa kalimat di atas, terjadi
kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh pemelajar
bahasa Jepang. Adapun penelitian ini
dilakukan untuk mencari berbagai jenis
kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh pemelajar
bahasa Jepang.
Pada kalimat (2a) di atas terdapat
kesalahan
pada
pola
kalimat
~趣味は絵をかきます/. shumi wa e o
kakimasu . Artinya dalam bahasa
Indonesia yaitu hobinya menggambar.
Bahasa Jepang yang benar adalah seperti
pada contoh (2b)Sedang kalimat yang
dimaksud oleh mahasiswa adalah hobi
saya adalah menggambar.
Pada kalimat pertama (2a) terjadi
kesalahan yaitu menyatakan kegemaran
dinyatakan dengan menyebut klausa ‗Hobi
saya menggambar‘ yang diterjemahkan
dengan
B. KAJIAN PUSTAKA
1. Kesalahan Berbahasa
Kesalahan
berbahasa
oleh
pembelajar bahasa Asing terdiri dari
beberapa jenis. Khususnya bahasa Jepang
yang memiliki bentuk huruf, tata bahasa
dan kosakata sendiri. Menurut Yoshikawa
(1997:4) jenis-jenis kesalahan adalah
sebagai berikut.
わたしの趣味は絵をかきます/Watashin
o shumi wa e o kakimasu . Dalam hal ini
terjadi pola pikir bahasa Indonesia atau
terjadi interferensi bahasa Indonesia ke
bahasa Jepang.
Sedang untuk kesalahan morfologi
誤用には実に様々なものがあ
る。誤用の研究をするには、
seperti terlihat pada contoh (3a) berikut.
まずこれらをいくつの
(3a)
種類に分けて考えるのが得第
わたしはともだちをできることが好きです。
である。分類基準として、言
Watashi wa tomodachi o dekiru koto ga
suki desu.
(3b)
語媒体のべつ、つまり
発音と表記、言語単位のレベ
*わたしはともだちをつくることが好きです。
ルの別つまり語彙、文法、表
Watashi wa tomodachi o tsukuru koto ga
suki desu.
(Saya suka mendapat teman).
Pada kalimat (3a) di atas
kesalahan
記の考え、次の五種と
するのが適当と思われる。
(Sebenarnya ada bermacammacam kesalahan berbahasa.
Untuk menelitinya kesalahan
berbahasa tersebut terdapat
klasifikasinya yaitu, Hatsuon
dan Hyoki, kemudian tingkatan
bahasa yaitu Goi, Bunpou dan
Hyogen).
terdapat
yaituともだちをできる/tomodachi
o
dekiru, yang artinya mendapat teman. Hal
ini berbeda dengan pembentukan bahasa
Jepang seperti contoh (3b). Pada kalimat
(3a) terjadi kesalahan yaitu mendapat
teman
denganともだちをできる/tomodachi o
dekiru. Dekiru artinya mendapat dan
tomodachi artinya teman. Hal ini berbeda
Kesalahan berbahasa pada pembelajar
bahasa Jepang disebabkan oleh berbagai
macam fenomena. Menurut Yoshikawa
45
(1997:11) penyebab kesalahan berbahasa
tersebut diantaranya,
a. Interferensi oleh bahasa Ibu
b. Pengaruh bahasa Asing yang telah
dipelajari sebelumnya.
c. Pengaruh bahasa Jepang yang telah
dipelajari sampai saat ini
d. Pemahaman yang tidak cukup
e. Penjelasan yang tidak cukup
f. Analogi yang tidak tepat
g. Terlalu dipikirkan.
sampaikan harus jelas dan tidak
menimbulkan berbagai tafsiran. Misalnya,
kalau kita mengatakan kursi kuliah akan
berbeda dengan kita mengatakan kursi,
karena kursi bersifat umum.
Kesalahan register berhubungan
dengan bidang pekerjaan seeorang.
Misalnya kata operasi bagi seorang dokter
berbeda dengan kata operasi bagi petugas
pemerintahan. Sedang kesalahan sosial
berhubungan dengan latar belakang sosial,
misalnya jenis kelamin, umur, tempat
tinggal dan jabatan jadi kesalahan social
berhubungan dengan status seseorang.
Kesalahan tekstual muncul akibat
salah menafsirkan pesan yang tersirat
dalam kalimat atau wacana. Misalnya pada
kalimat ―Anak dokter Ahmad Ali sakit‖,
memperlihatkan berbagai kemungkinan
tafsiran. Sedang kesalahan penerimaan
berhubungan
dengan
keterampilan
menyimak atau membaca.
Kesalahan pengungkapan berkaitan
dengan pembicara. Pembicara salah
menyampaikan apa yang dipikirkan,
dirasakannya atau yang diinginkannya.
Sedang
kesalahan
perorangan
berhubungan dengan kesalahan yang
dilakukan oleh perorangan sedang
kebalikannya adalah kesalahan kelompok
yaitu kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh
kelompok homogeny yang mempunyai
bahasa ibu yang sama.
Kesalahan
menganalogi
adalah
kesalahan pada si terdidik menguasai suatu
bentuk bahasa yang dipelajari. Terjadi
proses penerimaan yang salah dan
terkadang
pemukul
rataan
yang
berlebihan. Sedang kesalahan transfer
terjadi
karena
bahasa
pertama
mempengaruhi bahasa kedua, dengan
adanya integrasi dan interferensi.
Kesalahan guru berhubungan dengan
teknik dan metode pengajaran. Sedang
kesalahan local adalah kesalahan yang
disebabkan oleh penggunaan bahasa yang
biasa dipakai didaerah tertentu dipakai di
daerah lain. Sedang kesalahan global
kesalahan karena efek makna seluruh
kalimat, yang menyebabkan pendengar
Corder (dalam Pateda 1989:32)
membedakan
pengertian
kekeliruan
mistakes dan kesalahan error. Dalam hal
ini
Corder
mengemukakan
bahwa
kekeliruan mengacu pada performansi,
sedang
kesalahan
mengacu
pada
kompentensi.
2. Jenis Kesalahan
Kesalahan berbahasa merupakan
kecacatan suatu ujaran atau tulisan
berdasarkan kaidah atau norma yang
dilakukan oleh pembelajar bahasa.
Menurut Pateda (1989:38) jenis kesalahan,
a. Kesalahan acuan, referential errors
b. Kesalahan register, register errors
c. Kesalahan social, social errors
d. Kesalahan tekstual, textual errors
e. Kesalahan penerimaan, receptive errors
f. Kesalahan pengungkapan, expressive
errors
g. Kesalahan perorangan, errors of
individual
h. Kesalahan kelompok, errors of groups
i. Kesalahan menganalogi, errors of
overgeneralization atau analogical
errors
j. Kesalahan transfer, transfer errors
k. Kesalahan guru, teaching-induced
l. Kesalahan local, local errors
m. Kesalahan global, global errors
Kesalahan acuan berkaitan dengan
realisasi benda, proses, atau peristiwa
yang tidak sesuai dengan acuan yang
dikehendaki pembicara atau penulis.
Untuk menghindari agar kesalahan acuan
tidak terjadi, sebaiknya pesan yang kita
46
atau pembaca salah mengerti pesan yang
disampaikan.
(dalam Rahardi, 2001:22). Jadi kode
merupakan varian bahasa.
3. Analisis Kontrastif
5. Campur Kode
Untuk mengatasi kesulitan untuk
mengajarkan bahasa yang bukan bahasa
ibu, dipakai pendekatan analisis kontrastif.
Pateda (1989:17) mengemukakan analisis
kontrastif sebagai suatu pendekatan
pengajaran bahasa yang mengasumsikan
bahwa bahasa ibu mempengaruhi si
terdidik ketika mempelajari bahasa kedua.
Whitman (dalam Brown, 1980:150)
mengemukakan empat prosedur untuk
menerapkan analisis kontrastif. Empat
prosedur tersebut yakni,
1. Deskripsi, ahli bahasa atau guru bahasa
memerikan (mendeskripsikan) sistem
bahasa yang diperbandingkan.
2. Seleksi, ahli bahasa atau guru bahasa
menentukan unsur kebahasaan yang
berbeda baik yang berhubungan dengan
fonologi, morfologi dan sintaktis.
3. Mengkontraskan unsur-unsur tersebut
4. Menentukan kesalahan yang dibuat si
terdidik terhadap bahasa yang sedang
dipelajari atau bahasa kedua karena
pengaruh bahasa pertama.
Campur kode dapat terjadi tanpa
adanya sesuatu dalam situasi berbahasa
yang menuntut adanya pencampuran
bahasa, tetapi dapat juga disebabkan faktor
kesantaian, kebiasaan atau tidak adanya
padanan yang tepat.terjadi apabila seorang
penutur menggunakan suatu bahasa secara
dominan mendukung suatu tuturan disisipi
dengan unsur bahasa lainnya. Hal ini
biasanya
berhubungan
dengan
karakteristik
penutur,
seperti
latar
belakang sosial, tingkat pendidikan, rasa
keagamaan.Biasanya ciri menonjolnya
berupa kesantaian atau situasi informal.
Namun bisa terjadi karena keterbatasan
bahasa, ungkapan dalam bahasatersebut
tidak ada padanannya, sehingga ada
keterpaksaan menggunakan bahasa lain,
walaupun hanya mendukung satu fungsi.
Campur kode termasuk juga konvergense
kebahasaan (linguistik convergence).
6. Integrasi
4. Alih Kode
Integrasi adalah penggunaan unsur
bahasa lain secara sistematis seolah-olah
merupakan bagian dari suatu bahasa tanpa
disadari oleh pemakainya (Kridalaksana:
1993:84). Salah satu proses integrasi
adalah peminjaman kata dari satu bahasa
ke dalam bahasa lain.
Oleh sebagian sosiolinguis, masalah
integrasi merupakan masalah yang sulit
dibedakan dari interferensi. Chair dan
Agustina (1995:168) mengacu pada
pendapat Mackey, menyatakan bahwa
integrasi adalah unsur-unsur bahasa lain
yang digunakan dalam bahasa tertentu dan
dianggap sudah menjadi bagian dari
bahasa tersebut. Tidak dianggap lagi
sebagai
unsur
pinjaman
atau
pungutan.Mackey
dalam
Mustakim
(1994:13) mengungkapkan bahwa masalah
Alih kode adalah peristiwa peralihan
dari kode yang satu ke kode yang lain, jadi
apabila seorang penutur mula-mula
menggunakan kode A dan kemudian
beralih menggunakan kode B, maka
peralihan bahasa seperti inilah yang
disebut sebagai alih kode Suwito (dalam
Rahardi, 2001:20). Kode ialah suatu
sistem tutur yang penerapan unsur
bahasanya mempunyai ciri-ciri khas sesuai
dengan latar belakang penutur, relasi
penutur dengan mempunyai lawan bicara,
dan situasi tutur yang ada. Jadi, dalam
kode ini terdapatlah unsur-unsur bahasa
seperti
kalimat-kalimat,
kata-kata,
morfem, dan fonem. Kode adalah salah
satu varian di dalam hierarki kebahasaan
yang dipakai dalam berkomunikasi Suwito
47
interferensi
adalah
nisbi,
tetapi
kenisbiannya itu dapat diukur.Menurutnya,
interferensi dapat ditetapkan berdasarkan
penemuan adanya integrasi, yang juga
bersifat nisbi.
Subjek biasanya ditandai oleh partikel ga,
namun jika tidak, berarti yang dimaksud
adalah topik kalimat seperti contoh berikut
yang diambil dari Seiichi dan Michio,
(1986:11)
a. ジョンがりんごを食べた
7. Interferensi
Jon ga ringo o tabeta
Jon makan apel
Interferensi merupakan topik dalam
sosiolinguistik yang terjadi sebagai akibat
penggunaan dua atau lebih bahasa dalam
masyarakat. Hal ini sejalan dengan
pendapat
Chaer
(1995:158)
yang
menjelaskan bahwa dalam masyarakat
tutur
yang
multilingual
sering
menyebabkan adanya interferensi bahasa.
Penggunaan sistem bahasa tertentu pada
bahasa lainnya disebut transfer. Transfer
ada dua macam, pertama jika penggunaan
atau penerapan sistem bahasa pertama
terhadap bahasa kedua tidak menimbulkan
kekacauan karena kesamaan, sistem
tersebut transfer positif. Kedua, jika
penggunaan atau penerapan sistem bahasa
pertama
terhadap
bahasa
kedua
menimbulkan kekacauan karena adanya
perbedaan, sistem disebut transfer negatif.
b. マリが先生にほめられた
Mari ga sensei ni homerrareta
Mary dipuji oleh gurunya
c. ナンシーはきれいだ
Nanshi wa kireida
Nancy cantik
d. ドアが開いた
doaga aita
pintunya terbuka.
Namun demikian, tidak selamanya
subjek harus hadir secara eksplisit dalam
sebuah kalimat. Mungkin saja subjek hadir
secara implisit, seperti dalam contoh :
e.ボルペンを使ってください
Borupen o tsukatte kudasai
Pakailah bolpen
Yang apabila diucapkan secara
lengkap, akan menjadi:
f.わたしはあなたにボルペンを使って
8. Struktur Kalimat Bahasa Jepang
くださいといいました。
Struktur fungsi yang terdapat dalam
Watashi wa anata ni ―borupen o
tsukatte kudasai‖ to iimashita.
(Saya mengatakan pada anda, ―Pakailah
bolpen‖).
kalimat bahasa Jepang antara lain :
1). Subjek (shugo)
Definisi subjek menurut Seichi dan
Dalam konteks kewacanaan, kalimat
(e)
lebih
wajar
diucapkan
jika
dibandingkan
dengan
kalimat
(f).
berkaitan dengan kewajaran tersebut,
Widowson dalam Oka (1994:213)
memberikan pertimbangan bahwa unsur
kalimat yang sudah ada, pernah
dinyatakan, dan atau unsur yang
merupakan topik dalam kalimat, tidak
perlu dinyatakan dalam kalimat yang
bersangkutan karena kehadirannya akan
membayangi (overshadow) unsur yang
Michio adalah,
The subject is an element of a
sentence which indicates an agent
of an action in active sentences
(as in (a)) or an experience of an
action (as in (b)) or someone or
something that is in a state or a
situation (as in (c), and (d)). The
Subject is normally marked by the
particle ga in Japanese unless it is
the sentence topic (Seichi dan
Michio, 1986 : 11).
48
seharusnya menonjol dalam kalimat itu,
yaitu kalimat (e) itu sendiri.
Jadi, lengkap tidaknya sebuah kalimat
tidak berhubungan dengan benar atau
salahnya kalimat yang dimaksud. Benar
dan salahnya sebuah kalimat harus dilihat
dari segi tuntutan konteks, yakni konteks
kewacanaan.
in (a)). An inanimate direct object is
typically something which is created,
exchanged, or worked on, in short, the
recipient of the action of the verb (as in
(b)). Although direct objects are
marked by the particle o, nominals or
nomina phrases marked by o are not
always direct object, as in (c)
2). Predikat (jutsugo)
Seiichi dan Michio (1986:9)
menyatakan, “Predicate is the part of
sentence which makes a statement
about the subject. The core of the
predicate consist either of oa verb, an
adjective, or a no mina followed by a
form of the copula da”.
―Predikat adalah bagian dari kalimat
yang menerangkan subjek.Inti predikat
terdiri dari kata kerja, kata sifat, atau kata
benda yang diikuti oleh bentuk dari kopula
da”. Contoh penempatan predikat dalam
kalimat adalah :
―Objek langsung dari sebuah kata
kerja adalah penerima langsung dari
sebuah tindakan yang dilakukan kata kerja.
Objek langsung bisa berupa benda mati
atau benda hidup.Objek langsung yang
berupa benda hidup adalah yang
mengalami langsung sebuah tindakan
(seperti pada (a)). Objek langsung yang
berupa benda mati adalah khusus sesuatu
yang dihasilkan, ditukar atau dikenai
pekerjaan atau tindakan, dalam waktu
yang singkat, penerima tindakan yang
dilakukan oleh kata kerja (seperti pad
a(b)). Meskipun objek langsung ditandai
oleh partikel o, kata benda atau frasa
benda yang ditandai oleh partikel o tidak
selalu berarti objek langsung, (sepeti pada
(c)).‖
a. 松本さんはよく映画をみる
Matsumoto-san wa yoku eiga o miru
Mr. Matsumoto sering nonton film
b. ジョンは日本語の学生です。
Jon wa nihongo no gakusei desu
Jon adalah siswa bahasa Jepang
(Seiichi dan Michio, 1986 : 9).
a. かおりは一郎をだました。
Kaori waIchiroo o damashita
Kaori telah menipu Ichiroo
b. 一郎はみどりにスカーフをやっ
た
Ichiroo wa Midori ni sukaafu o yatta
Ichirootelah memberikan scarf pada
Midori
Dalam bahasa Jepang, predikat
digolongkan menjadi tiga macam predikat
yaitu verbal, adjektiva, dan nominal.
Predikat nominal adalah sebuah kata bantu
desu dengan perubahannya (Simanjuntak,
1993 : 05).
c. トムはその時公園を歩いていた
Tom wa sono toki kooen o aruiteita
Saat itu Tom sedang berjalan-jalan
di taman (Seiichi dan Michio,
1986:4).
3). Objek (mukotekigo)
Dalam kalimat bahasa
Jepang objek dibedakan menjadi dua,
yaitu obyek langsung dan objek tak
langsung (Seiichi dan Michio, 1986:4).
Sedangkan objek tak langsung
menurut Seiichi dan Michio (1995:20),
“the indirect object of a verb is the
recipient of the direct object of the main
verb, and is marked by the particleni. It
can be inanimate”.
The direct object of a verb is the direct
recipient of an action representated by
the verb. It can be animate or
inanimate. An animate direct object is
the direct experience of some action (as
49
(Objek tak langsung dari sebuah kata
kerja adalah penerima objek langsung
dari kata kerja utama, dan ditandai
dengan partikel ni. Objek tak langsung
bisa berupa benda mati).
terutama dilihat dari susunan jabatan
kalimatnya. Menurut Simanjuntak
(1993:05), inti kalimat bahasa Jepang
adalah predikat yang selalu diletakkan
pada akhir kalimat. Predikat ini terbagi
atas tiga macam, yaitu verbal, nominal,
dan adjektiva. Predikat nominal terdiri atas
kata benda dan kata bantu desu dengan
perubahannya.
Setelah berbagai struktur kalimat yang
telah dijelaskan diatas, secara umum
struktur kalimat dalam bahasa Jepang
adalah,
1. S-P
a. 一郎はみどりにスカーフをやった
Ichiroo waMidori ni sukaafu o yatta
Ichiroo telah memberi scarf pada
Midori
b. 台風は九州地方に多大の被害を
与えた
Taifuu wakyuushuu-chihoo ni tadai
no higai o ataeta
Angin topan itu menyebabkan
kerusakan besar di daerah Kyuushuu
(Seiichi dan Michio, 1995 : 20).
これは日本語の本です
Kore wa Nihongo no hon desu
(Sudjianto. 2000:32).
S
P
Ini buku bahasa Jepang.
2. S-O-P
Dari uraian diatas dapat disimpulkan
bahwa objek merupakan unsur kalimat
yang menderita akibat tindakan predikat.
4). Keterangan
Menurut Masuoka dan Takubo (1989)
pada prinsipnya adverbia digunakan
sebagai kata keterangan predikat.Jenis
fukushi ‗adverbia‘ yang utama adalah
yootai no fukushi, teido no fukushi, hindo
no fukushi dan tensu-asupekuto no fukushi.
Sedangkan kata yang berfungsi sebagai
kata keterangan terhadap keseluruhan
kalimat disebut bunshuushoku fukushi,
yang dianggap sebagai salah satu jenis
adverbia.
Yang dimaksud dengan yootai no
fukushi adalah adverbia yang digunakan
untuk menerangkan keadaan suatu
aktifitas. Misalnya adverbia yukkuri
‗perlahan-lahan‘ pada ungkapan yukkuri
aruku
‗berjalan
perlahan-lahan‘,
merupakan yootai no fukushi yang
menerangkan tentang bagaimana suatu
aktifitas aruku ‗berjalan‘ berlangsung.
Adverbia yang termasuk pada kelompok
ini antara lain iyaiya, kowagowa, gussuri,
bonyari, niyaniya, shikushiku, jitto,
sassato,
hakkiri(to),
kippari(to),
sukusuku(to) dan lain-lain.
Struktur kalimat bahasa Jepang
berbeda dengan bahasa Indonesia,
山田さんは中国語がわかります
Yamada-san wa Chuugokugo ga
wakarimasu (Naoko, 1996:9).
S
O
P
Yamada mengerti bahasa Cina.
3. S-O-K-P
私 はえびがすこしい食べません
Watashi wa ebi ga sukoshii
tabemasen (Sudjianto, 2000 : 38).
S
O
K
P
Saya makan sedikit udang (saya
tidak terlalu suka makan udang)
M D
C. METODE PENELITIAN
Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian
deskriptif kualitatif dengan orientasi
membuat deskripsi secara nyata dan
faktual tentang fakta yang diteliti.
Penelitian ini menghasilkan data deskriptif
berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari
hasil belajar siswa (Moleong 2002:3).
50
Dalam penelitian ini sumber datanya
adalah karangan 40 mahasiswa S1 Sastra
Jepang. Karangan yang diambil adalah
dari ulangan harian yang berjudul watashi
Dan dan muzukashii ni narimasu.
(1b) だんだんむずかしくなります。
Dan dan muzukashiku narimasu.
(―Semakin lama semakin susah‖)
no yume (私の夢) dan UTS yang berjudul
anata
no
taisetsuna
hito
Pada kalimat (1a) terjadi kesalahan
morfologi yaitu bentuk ~になる dalam
pemakaian kata. Mahasiswa menuliskan
dalam karangannnya, kata sifat +
(あなたの大切な人). Serta tugas dari
mahasiswa yang berjudul watashi no
tomodachi (わたしの友達), watashi no
ramadhan
kyuka
(わたしのラマデャン休暇),
doushite
nihongo o benkyou shite imasuka
なります/narimasu= kata sifat +に/ni+
なります/narimasu . Padahal tata bahasa
yang benar adalah kata sifat ditambah
(どうして日本語を勉強していますか),
~くなる.Menjadi seperti pada (1a). Kata
insutanto shokuhin (インスタント食品),
sifat
tomobataraki ( 共働き), miai to kekkon (
+
~くなる
/ku
naru
yaitu
インドネシアの紹介 ).
だんだんむずかしくなりま/ dan dan
muzukashiku narimasu. Yang artinya
Semakin lama semakin dingin.
(2a)
D. PEMBAHASAN
*英語の授業は楽しいになります。
Eigo no jugyou ha tanoshii ni narimasu.
見合いと結婚 ), nihongo no jugyou
(日本語の授業), Indonesia no shoukai (
(2b) 英語の授業は楽しくになります。
Eigo no jugyou ha tanoshiku narimasu.
( ―Kuliah bahasa Inggris menyenangkan‖)
Pembahasan pertama adalah kesalahan
gramatikal yang terjadi pada tataran
tataran morfologis. Sedang pembahasan
kedua adalah kesalahan yang meliputi
kesalahan frasa, kesalahan klausa dan
kesalahan kalimat majemuk
Pada
kalimat
(2a)
terjadi
kesalahan
morfologi yaitu bentuk ~になる dalam
pemakaian kata. Mahasiswa menuliskan
dalam karangannnya, kata sifat +
1. Kesalahan Morfologis
なります/narimasu= kata sifat +に/ni+
なります/narimasu . Padahal tata bahasa
yang benar adalah kata sifat ditambah
Data yang diperoleh dari karangan
mahasiswa 11 karangan yang terjadi
kesalahan Morfologi. Sedang yang disebut
dengan morfem adalah satuan gramatikal
terkecil yang mempunyai makna. Sedang
bentuk morfem selalu diikuti awalan,
akhiran, dan sisipan (Chaer, 2007:151).
Kesalahan morfem dibedakan jenisnya
menjadi.
~くなる。Menjadi seperti pada (2b). Kata
sifat
+
~くなる
/ku
naru
yaitu
楽しくになります/. tanoshiku narimasu.
Yang artinya menyenangkan.
(3a) *休み時、私は母に手伝えさせます。
Yasumi toki, watashi ha haha ni
tetsudaesasemasu.
(3b)
a. Pembentukan kata
(1a)*
休み時、私は母に手伝わさせます。
だんだんむずかしいになります。
51
Yasumi toki, watashi ha haha ni
tetsudawasasemasu.
(―Saat libur saya disuruh membantu orang
tua‖)
Pada
kalimat
(3a)
terjadi
Dari data-data yang terkumpul
banyak terjadi kesalahan frasa yang dibuat
oleh mahasiswa. Menurut data yang
terkumpul, kesalahan dibagi menurut
jenisnya. Adapun data yang terjadi
kesalahan urutan adalah.
kesalahan
morfologi. Yaitu bentuk ~させます.
Mahasiswa menuliskan dengan kata kerja
*
(5a)
二年生の高校時、たくさん日本音楽と日本のグルー
プアイドルをしてしまいました。
bentuk masu + させます/ sasemasu,
Ninensei no koukoutoki, takusan nihon
ongaku to nihon no gurupu aidoru o shite
shimaimashita.
(5b)
dalam hal ini 手伝え/tsutae+ させます/
sasemasu
menjadi手伝えさせます/
tetsudaesasemasu.. Pembentukan kata
yang benar menurut tata bahasa Jepang
adalah
高校時の二年生、たくさん日本音楽と日本のグルー
プアイドルをしてしま いました。
koukoutoki no Ninensei, takusan nihon
ongaku to nihon no gurupu aidoru o shite
shimaimashita.
手伝わさせます/tetsudawasasemasu.
Yang artinya dalam bahasa Indonesia
disuruh membantu.
(―Pada waktu kelas 2 SMA (saya) banyak
tahu lagu dan grup idola Jepang‖)
b. Kurang dalam perubahan kata
(4a)* 高校の時、実は医学に習いたいですが.
Kouko no toki, jitsu ha igaku ni naraitai
desuga.
(4b)
b. Kesalahan pembentukan
(6a)
*私たちはしばしば一緒勉強しました
高校の時、実は医学に習いたかったですが。
Kouko no toki, jitsu ha igaku ni naritakatta
desuga.
(―Waktu SMA, ingin masuk ke fakultas
kedokteran‖).
。
Watashitachi ha shiba shiba issho benkyou
shimashita
(6b)
Pada kalimat (9a) Pada kalimat
kesalahan kalimat
morfologi
私たちはしばしば一緒に勉強しました
Watashitachi ha shiba shiba isshoni
benkyou shimashita
terjadi
pada
kalimat yaitu naritai 習いたい/. Dalam
hal ini karena bentuk lampau maka
(―Kami sering belajar bersama-sama‖)
menjadi
naritakatta/習いたかった.
Kalimat di atas pembetulannya harus
memakai bentuk lampau, karena kalimat
tersebut didahului oleh keterangan
Pada
kalimat
kesalahan
(6a)
di
一緒/isshou.
atas
terdapat
Dalam
hal
ini一緒/isshou harus diikuti oleh partikel
waktu高校の時/ Kouko no toki yang
artinya waktu SMA.
に/ni.
c. Nominalisasi
2. Kesalahan Frasa
a. Kesalahan Urutan
52
(7a)
yang terjadi kesalahan kalimat majemuk.
Adapun data tersebut adalah.
*東方神起のついてはだんだん好きに
なってしまいました。
Tohoushinki no tsuite ha dandan suki ni
natte shimaimashita.
(7b)
(9a)
*時々、友達と散歩すると旅行を一緒に行
きました。
Tokidoki, tomodachi to sanpo suru to
ryokou o issyou ni ikimashita.
(9b)
東方神起についてはだんだん好きにな
ってしまいました。
Tohoushinki no tsuite ha dandan suki ni
natte shimaimashita.
(―Tentang grup Tohoushinki semakin lama
semakin suka‖)
Pada
kalimat
(7a)
di
atas
時々、友達と散歩したりと旅行を一緒に
行ったりしました。
Tokidoki, tomodachi to sanpo shitari to
ryokou o issyou ni ittari shimashita.
(―Sering bersama teman pergi jalan-jalan
dan bertamasya bersama‖).
terdapat
kesalahan pada pola kalimat ~ついて/
tsuite. Artinya dalam bahasa Indonesia
yaitu mengenai atau tentang. Bahasa
Jepang yang benar adalah seperti pada
contoh
(7b) karena
~ついて/
Pada kalimat (9a) terjadi kesalahan karena
menggunakan dua kalimat kata kerja,
sebetulnya menggunakan ~ たり
tsuite,
~ たりします。
partikel yang mendahului adalah に/ni .
E. SIMPULAN
Dari hasil penelitian yang berjudul
Jenis Kesalahan Yang Biasa Terjadi
Dalam Karangan Mahasiswa, dapat
disimpulkan sebagai berikut.
d. Kesalahan Klausa
Dari data yang diperoleh dari
karangan mahasiswa terdapat 2 karangan
yang terjadi kesalahan klausa. Adapun
data tersebut yaitu,
1. Kesalahan morfologi yang dilakukan
oleh mahasiswa yang terbanyak
karena pembentukan yang salah dan
sebagian karena kurang dalam
penyusunan bentuknya.
(8a)
*日本のようなインドネシアには見合いの事が
あります.
Nihon no youna Indonesia ni ha miai no
koto ga arimasu
2. Kesalahan Sintaksis pada tataran
frasa yang dilakukan oleh mahasiswa
terdiri dari kesalahan urutan,
kesalahan pembentukan frasa dan
nominal. Ditemukan juga frasa
perbandingan
yang
mengalami
kesalahan. Kesalahan klausa yang
dilakukan oleh mahasiswa karena
urutan dan kurang. Kesalahan
kalimat majemuk yang dilakukan
oleh
mahasiswa
adalah
jenis
majemuk koordinatif dan majemuk
subordinatif.
(8b)
日本のような見合いの事がインドネシアにあ
ります
Nihon no youna miai no koto ga Indonesia
ni arimasu
(―Seperti Jepang di Indonesia juga
terdapat perjodohan‖)
3. Kesalahan kalimat Majemuk
Dari data yang diperoleh dari
karangan mahasiswa terdapat 4 karangan
53
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