Download PESt MANAGEMENt GUidE

Pest management
guide
Pest management
guide
Pest management
guide
Index Species
01
Phytophthora spp.
02
Pucciniastrum epilobii
03
Rhabdocline pseudotsugae
04
Sirococcus conigenus
05
Verticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum
06
Agrilus biguttatus
07
Agrilus planipennis
08
Agrilus viridis
09
Anoplophora chinensis,
Anoplophora malasiaca
10
Anoplophora glabripennis
11
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
12
Cephalcia spp.
13
Corythucha arcuata
14
Cryphalus piceae
15
Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer
16
Dryocosmus kuriphilus
17
Ips amitinus
18
Ips cembrae
19
Ips typographus
Index Species
20
Leperisinus varius = Hylesinus varius
21
Leptoglossus occidentalis
22
Lymantria dispar
23
Phaenops cyanea = Melanophila cyanea
24
Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens,
P.spinidens, P. vorontzove
25
Pityogenes chalcographus
26
Pityophthorus pityographus
27
Tetropium gracilicorne
28
Thaumetopoea pityocampa
29
Thaumetopoea processionea
30
Tomicus destruens
31
Tomicus spp.
(Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)
32
Tortrix viridana
33
Viscum album ssp. Album
34
Viscum album ssp. abieti
35
Viscum album ssp. austriacum
36
Armillaria spp.
37
Chalara fraxinea
Index Species
38
Chrysomyxa abietis
39
Cryphonectria parasitica
40
Sphaeropsis sapinea
41
Eutypella parasitica
42
Gibberella circinata
43
Herpotrichia juniperi
44
Heterobasidion annosum
45
Meria laricis
46
Mycosphaerella dearnessii
47
Mycosphaerella pini
48
Neonectria coccinea
49
Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi
50
Phacidium infestans
51
Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii
Index
01
Phytophthora spp.
Phytophthora spp.
Phytophtora root rot (Engl.), Wurzelhalsfäule (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
Fitoftorna sušica vejic (Slowen.)
Host species
Various woody plants, dominantly deciduous trees, rarely conifers. In urban areas a severe problem mainly on horse chestnut.
Symptom
droplets of dark reddish brown liquid on the bark (“bleeding”) If the outer bark is scraped away,
a dark brown canker surrounded by a dark line is visible in the inner bark. Bleeding canker can
girdle the tree and then the leaves turn brown and the entire crown dies.
Causal agent
Phytophthora species; destructive, soil borne parasitic fungi causing brown rot in trees, infection mainly via motile, flagellated spores which actively swim to the fine roots in the soil
water. Spores penetrate the roots and develop into a mycelium growing towards the stem.
Infection causes loss of fines roots and girdling of stem which lead to water stress for the tree.
Long distance spread of pathogen by infested soil and plant material. (Phytophthora ramorum
Quarantine organism!).
Possibilities of errors
Root rot of different origin, sap flow due to cracks and insect holes.
Effects
Strong dieback, tree death may occur within several months to several years after initial infection.
Control
Curative measures successful only in nurseries with young trees and in early stages of the disease by application of special fungicides. Effective control measures for trees have not been
developed If suspected that a tree is suffering from disease caused by quarantine organism
such as P. ramorum immediately inform National plant protection service.
Index
02
Pucciniastrum epilobii
Pucciniastrum epilobii
Silver fir needle rust (Engl.), Tannennadelrost (Deut.), rouille du fuchsia (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
Rja jelovih iglic (Slowen.)
Host species
Fir
Symptoms
Young needles in early summer show white, column shaped structures (Aecidia) on the bottom side, which release orange yellow spore dust. The infected needles become first yellow
and later brown. Needles are shed in the second half of the year. The shoots rarely die but
sometimes show distortion.
Causal agent
Fir needle rust requires a second host. Therefore infested sites are restricted and related to species of Epilobium or Vaccinium in close vicinity. Weather conditions during time of infection (air
humidity) are an additional triggering factor. The transmission from Fir to Fir or older needles
is impossible.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
Loss of needles. Apical shoot is usually uninfected because it grows later. After repeated infestation a loss in growth is expected. With very high infection pressure damage and die back of
shoots is possible.
Control
Measures are recommended only in Christmas tree cultivations or heavy infested areas. Careful
application of herbicides to remove the secondary host.
Index
03
Rhabdocline pseudotsugae
Rhabdocline pseudotsugae
Rhabdocline needle cast (Engl.), rostige Douglasienschütte (Deut.), flétrissement des aiguilles
du sapin Douglas (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rdeči osip duglazije (Slowen.)
Host species
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Symptoms
Autumn small yellow dots form on the upper and lower surface side of current-year needles.
In winter the spots colour turns from orange to later brown. In spring fruiting body of the fungus (Apothecia) development appear on each side of the needles midrib of the lower surface.
The epidermis lifts off and exposes an orange to brown fungus structure. Infected needles fall
off by June to July.
Causal agent
Of local importance as a needle cast fungus, following rainy springs. In moist weather and low
temperature re-infection only of the new growing needles by spores from the infected needles
which remained at the twig. The needle turns brown and falls off after the spores release The
disease occurred epidemic in the last past decades.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
The tree is more sensitive to frost than usual. Repeated, heavy infestation leads to significantly
lower growth and the gradual death of trees.
Control
In general not necessary. Proper choice of seed origin, use soils with good drainage, space
plants for good air circulation, dispose of heavily infested individual trees.
Index
04
Sirococcus conigenus
Sirococcus conigenus
Sirococcus shoot blight (Engl.), Fichten Triebsterben (Deut.), dépérissement des pousses de
l‘épicéa (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Sušica smrekovih poganjkov (Slowen.)
Host species Picea abies, P. pungens, P. sitchensis, P. rubens, P. mariana, P. glauca, rarely other conifers such as
Pinus contorta, P. resinosa, P. jeffreyi and Tsuga heterophylla.
Symptoms
Developing shoots in May at first discolour, bend and finally hang down. Later on they turn
brown and fall off in the course of weeks. In the autumn, fruiting bodies appear as black spots
on the bark of the dry shoots.
Causal agent
Microfungus only known in its asexual stage; frequently in foggy areas, on humid sites, furthermore in cool springs with rain during the flushing time. The fungus survives as a saprophyte
on scales of dry galls of Spruce Gall aphids (Sacchiphantes spp.). Furthermore, spruces on poor
sites (nutrient deficiencies) are highly susceptible.
Possibilities of errors
Other dieback causing fungi, Grey mould; spring frost; herbicide damage. The disease can be
mistaken for Grey mould or for Spruce cone rust, which may also infect current years shoots,
but here the symptoms appear later in the year (length growth nearly terminated), and there
is a blackish stain of the bark.
Effects
Repeated infections may cause deformation, growth loss and dieback of crown parts Seedlings
can be killed.
Control
Usually no control necessary. Fungicide treatment advisable in the middle of May when the
shoots are only a few centimeters long. Cool, humid and shady conditions favour infection.
Index
05 Verticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum
Verticillium dahliae, V. albo-atrum
Maple Wilt (Engl.), Verticillium-Welke (Deut.), fletrissure verticillienne, verticilliose (Franc.),
tracheo-verticilliosi (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Maples, ash, horse chestnut, limes, catalpa, sumac, other deciduous trees.
Symptoms
Leaves and shoot-tips wilt, then die later. Cross sections show greenish or grayish-green discoloration in the sapwood, appearing as a ring, in longitudinal section as a stripe; the discoloration is a consequence of fungal hyphae growing in the vessels; this results in plugging of the
vessels and wilting of the tree. Sectorial chlorosis and/or necrosis of leaf tissue may be the only
external symptom of disease.
Causal agent
More common on young plants than on older trees. Microscopic fungus, infection via root- and
twig-injuries or from soil (as a consequence of long viable permanent stages of the fungus).
Diseases caused by V. dahliae are favoured by moderate to high temperatures, although
temperatures above 30 ° C are inhibitor.
Possibilities of errors
Abiotic agents, esp. spring frost, Grey mould, Dutch elm disease.
Effects
Sensitive tree species and young trees may die in the first year after infection, older or less
sensitive trees may show a chronic course of the disease, with a characteristic thin canopy and
a sectoral death in parts of the crown.
Control
Curative measures successful only in case of low infestation-intensity: extensive watering and
application of ammonium-fertilisers (never nitrate!) may enhance vitality. Avoid wounds on
roots; disinfect pruning equipment; on stands with contaminated soil choose less sensitive
tree species for re-afforestation; exchange of soil before replanting, plant material should be
free from the fungus.
Index
06
Agrilus biguttatus
Index
06
Agrilus biguttatus
Agrilus biguttatus
oak splendour beetle (Engl.), zweipunktartiger Eichenprachtkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
agrilus biguttatus fabricius (Slowen.)
Host species
Main host Oak species; others are chestnut and beech.
Symptoms
Typical crescent-shaped exit hole of the young beetle; dark spots on the trunk from mucus
flow; early yellowing and wilting of individual branches or the whole tree crown; early leaf fall;
Dead twigs; increased of impact woodpecker; detachment of the bark; typical feeding tunnels
of the larvae´s.
Causal agent
beetle: 9-12mm; shiny metallic green; white spot on each wing cover; maturation feeding on
leaves; Larva: white, legless, widened chest ring and two horny spikes at the last abdomen;
the feeding tunnels of the larvae run zigzag and are provided with cloudy drillings; the larva
of the oak splendor beetle can be found to 15 cm below the surface at strong roots; heat- and
light-loving secondary pest; usually infest weakened but living oaks; the development usually
takes two years.
Possibilities of errors
Mechanical damage caused by faulty tree-anchoring, after exposing the larvae tunnels no
possibility of confusion; other splendor beetle.
Effects
Damage only caused by larva: in extreme cases, trees are dying as a result from interruption of
sap flow in tree; growth losses.
Control
Preventive measures: location-specific forestry and mixed cultures, protection against insect
damage; Removal of infested trees; debarking of infested trees (bark: burning, removal); no
storing of firewood with bark in the forest.
Index
07
Agrilus planipennis
Agrilus planipennis
emerald ash borer (Engl.), Eschenbastkäfer (Deut.), agrile du frêne (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Agrilus planipennis (Lat.)
Host species Main host ash species (Fraxinus spp.); others Juglans mandshurica, Pterocarya rhoifolia, Ulmus
davidiana and Ulmus propinqua.
Symptoms
Sapwood: long serpentine galleries (up to 26-32 mm long); enlarge as larvae grow; filled with
brownish sawdust and frass. Vertical splits, 5-10 cm long, in the bark above a gallery (caused
by callus tissue). ‚D‘-shaped (3-4 mm diameter) exit holes on trunks and branches. Yellowing
and thinning of the foliage; dying of branches, crown dieback, detachment of bark; plant dead.
Basal sprouting and the presence of woodpeckers.
Causal agent
The adults are 8.5-14.0 mm long and 3.1-3.4 mm wide. The body is narrow and elongate, cuneiform and metallic blue-green. The compound eyes are kidney-shaped. The head is flat and
the vertex is shield-shaped; adult feed on the foliage.The mature larvae are 26-32 mm long
and creamy-white. The body is flat and broad. The head is small and brown and retracted into
the prothorax, exposing only the mouthparts. The prothorax is enlarged and the meso- and
meta-thorax are slightly narrower. The larvae typically feed in the cambium of trees or in the
stems of vines and small woody plants. typically has one generation per year. mature larvae
overwinter in pupal cells. Eggs are laid individually on the bark surface, inside bark cracks and
crevasses. Attacks mostly weakened ash trees.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
dying of branches, crown dieback, detachment of bark and eventually death of the tree after
2 to 3 years of infestation.
Control
No effective control methods are currently available. Infested trees containing larvae and pupae
can be cut and chipped. Restrict the movement of ash trees, firewood, branches and logs from
infested.
Index
08
Agrilus viridis
Index
08
Agrilus viridis
Agrilus viridis
beech splendor beetle (Engl.), Buchenprachtkäfer (Deut.), agrile du hetre, bupreste vert
(Franc.), Agrilo del faggio, Agrilo verde (Ital.), Zeleni Bukov Krasnik (Slowen.)
Host species
Beech, alder, lime oak, birch, willow and maple.
Symptoms
exit hole of the young beetle; bright spots due to tree sap; early yellowing and wilting of
individual branches or the whole tree crown; early leaf fall; Dead twigs; increased of impact
woodpecker; detachment of the bark; typical feeding tunnels of the larvae; irregular swelling
of the bark.
Causal agent
beetle: 5-11mm; shiny metallic blue to green to gold or brass color, elongated beetle;
maturation feeding on young beeches; Larva: white, legless, widened chest ring, a big head
and two horny spikes at the last abdomen the feeding tunnels of the larvae between phloem
and sapwood run zigzag and are provided with cloudy drillings; the development usually takes
two years.
Possibilities of errors
Longhorn beetles, weevils and other splendor beetle.
Effects
Damage only caused by larva: usually leads to death in younger trees as a result from interruption of sap flow in tree; wood devaluation.
Control
Avoid bark damage, increase vitality; removal of infested trees; debarking of infested trees
(bark: burning, chopped); no storing of firewood with bark in the forest.
Index
09
Anoplophora chinensis,
Anoplophora malasiaca
Anoplophora chinensis,
Anoplophora malasiaca
citrus long-horned beetle (Engl.), Citrusbockkäfer (Deut.), capricorne á points blancs (Franc.),
Kitajski Kozliček (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species
Citrus, maple, sycamore, birch, hornbeam, beech and around 100 other deciduous woody species.
Symptoms
3-4 mm wide, T-shaped slits in the bark; Discharge of drilling chips at the trunk base and roots
from oval, round exit holes of 10-20 mm in diameter. Wilting symptoms.
Causal agent
Beetle: Typically cerambycid in shape, adults are black and shiny, 21 (male) to 37 (female)
mm long, with long black antennae with a blue-grey base.; granulare Elytra Basis; Elytral pubescence form several irregular, white to blue hair spots and usually covering the scutellum;
A. malasiaca has two bluish-white hair spots on either side of the pronotum, whereas the
pronotum of A. chinensis is entirely black; maturation deeding on bark, twigs and leaves;
Oviposition in T-shaped slits in the bark; Larva: up to 56mm long; pale yellowish-white, with
the anterior part of the head brown, legglees.
Possibilities of errors
Beetles and larvae are very similar to those of the Asian Longhorned Beetle. The citrus longhorn
beetle, unlike the ALB has a granulare elytra base (approach), the rest is smooth. The larvae can
be confused with other native longhorn beetles. Other native Monochamus-species.
Effects
cause serious damage to healthy fruit, ornamental and amenity trees; more readily susceptible
to diseases and wind damage. Trees dies after e few years of infestation; Sap flow interruption
in the tree; Exit holes are a possible entry for pathogens.
Control
Quarantine organism: Report suspected Anoplophora chinensis to the Plant Protection Service;
capture of beetles ; cut and burn heavily infested trees and their root system; Insecticide treatments are used against A. malasiaca in citrus orchards in Japan; Protecting trunks with fine
wire mesh to prevent oviposition; Importation of Citrus plants for planting is already prohibited
or restricted.
Index
10
Anoplophora glabripennis
Index
10
Anoplophora glabripennis
Anoplophora glabripennis
Asian long-horned beetle (Engl.), asiatische Laubholzbockkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
Azijski Kozliček (Slowen.)
Host species
Deciduous trees, especially maple, poplar, sycamore, horse chestnut.
Symptoms
Resin bleeds from oviposition holes and larval tunnels in the bark. Larval galleries (30mm)
under the bark and later, tunnels in the wood. Masses of wood shavings extruding from round
exit holes (10 mm) are also signs that adults have emerged from infested wood. Piles of wood
shavings also collect at the base of infested trees; wilting symptoms in the crown.
Causal agent
Beetle:Typically cerambycid in shape, 25 mm (male) to 35 mm (female) long. Antennae 2.5
times body length in males; 1.3 times body length in females; antennae have 11 segments,
each with a whitish blue base; body shiny black with about 20 irregular, white spots on the elytra; maturations feeding on leaves, petioles and young bark; oviposition under the bark in slits;
Larva: The larva is a legless grub up to 50 mm long when fully grown. It is creamy white, with a
chitinized brown mark on the prothorax; Pupation in chambers in the heartwood, with characteristic wood ‚shavings‘ that are packed into the chamber; can attack healthy trees as well as trees
under stress; A. glabripennis is indigenous to China (distribution: plant material, wood packing).
Possibilities of errors
Native Monochamus-species; Leopard moth and Goat moth; on poplar large and small poplar
longhorned beetle and fox-colored sawfly; Similar to Anoplophora chinensis, and Anoplophora
malasiaca.
Effects
cause serious damage to healthy fruit, ornamental and amenity trees; more readily susceptible
to diseases and wind damage. Trees dies after e few years of heavy infestation; Sap flow interruption in the tree; Exit holes are a possible entry for pathogens.
Control
Quarantine measures: the obligation to notify plant protection service, prohibition of the transport of infested wood. With timely detection of the infestation (oviposition sites on the trunk,
exudate, maturation feeding in the crown), before the emergence of the beetle the tree is to be
cut down and chopped; application of insecticides (China); strong measures have been taken
for wood packing materials from China (like heat treatment).
Index
11
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
Bursaphelenchus xylophilus
pine wood nematode (Engl.), ? (Deut.), nématode des pins, nématode du bois de pin (Franc.),
? (Ital.), Borova Ogorčica (Slowen.)
Host species
Pine species; other conifers.
Symptoms
Sudden wilting of crown parts or the entire tree crown, at first pale yellow coloration, which
changes very rapidly in orange-red to reddish-brown discoloration of the needles, the sapwood discolors quickly blue with the lack of insects (bark beetles, etc.), who could spread the
blue stain fungi.
Causal agent
Quarantine pest! Roundworm (nematode), 0.5 - 0.8 mm small, translucent, crown-like head
with a mouth sting. Parasite is transmitted by longhorn beetles of the genus Monochamus,
multiplies at temperatures between 25 ° and 30 ° C rapidly, damaging the cambium tissue and
clogs the pathways of the sapwood. Within the wood the nematodes feed on the hyphae of
fungi (usually Ceratocystis species) also transmitted to the wood by ovipositing beetles; only
reliable diagnosis by a specialist laboratory; indigenous to North America.
Possibilities of errors
Dieback of Pine (Sphaeropsis; Cenangium); Complex disease dying pine; Damages by spring
frost; Crown discoloration similar to bark beetle infestation.
Effects
varies between the tree species, also depending on climatic conditions, usually leads to death
of affected conifers.
Control
Quarantine measures: mandatory reporting to the relevant Plant Protection Service! Combat
the major vector (Monochamus sp.), Cases of the affected tree, burning of infected material (in
place); in the case of individual trees with a particular significance (e.g. religious), infection can
be prevented by a prophylactic chemical treatment.
Index
12
Cephalcia spp.
Cephalcia spp.
spruce webworm (Engl.), Fichtengespinstblattwespe (Deut.), lyde de l‘épicéa (Franc.),
lida dell‘abete rosso (Ital.), Smrekova Zapredkarica (Slowen.)
Host species
Black pine, white pine, mountain pine (mainly plant troughs), other species of pine, spruce.
Symptoms
More or less large silk nests with abundant faeces of the caterpillars, either last year and older
needles (fir plantation-web sawfly, spruce web sawfly) or exclusively on needles of the Mai
(Pine cultural cocoon sawfly), until about July / August can be found in the silk nests one or
more after caterpillars cocoon tubes. Thinning of the tree crown.
Causal agent
Sawflies, larvae (+ / - olive green with dark stripes) are from May to July / August in the
cocoon, then as nymphs in the topsoil (about lying); 1-3 year generation, so every 2 - 3 years
possible outbreaks.
Possibilities of errors
By pine Spruce bell moth; no errors by spruce.
Effects
Depending on the type of infection/species it can reach dangerous level, at least the host plant
is weaken and susceptible to secondary pests; growth losses.
Control
Normally no measurements needed; for small plants and small infestations: clearing out the
silk nests, use of insecticides as early as possible because caterpillars cocoon tube are relatively
well protected.
Index
13
Corythucha arcuata
Corythucha arcuata
oak lace bug (Engl.), amerikanische Eichennetzwanze (Deut.), punaise réticulée du chêne
(Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species
Oaks species.
Symptoms
Severely infected leaves dry up; Premature leaf fall (especially after longer periods of good
weather), reduced assimilation; by sucking of the bugs on the oak leaves occur chlorotic, yellow
mottles and spots.
Causal agent
lace bugs: approximately 3 mm long: overwinter in bark crevices or in leaf litter.After budding
of the leaves, oviposition on the underside of leaves; per egg clutch 15 to several 100 spindleshaped, black eggs. Larvae: dark gray to black and equipped with light spines; late larval stages
have some white spots; per year, three or four generations are emerging, which combine in the
second half, so that while various development stages can be found.
Possibilities of errors
The egg masses on the undersides of the leaves are unmistakable. Adult bedbugs can be confused with the sycamore lace bug (Corythucha ciliata). The latter, however, has significantly
fewer brown spots on.
Effects
Infested oaks do not die, but photosynthesis is limited (reduced assimilation), and the trees
may be more susceptible to other pests and diseases; Premature leaf fall.
Control
Control measures are usually not justified and are difficult to perform. Premature sloping
leaves, on which there are still larvae, can at best be swept up and destroyed.
Index
14
Cryphalus piceae
Cryphalus piceae
fir bark beetle (Engl.), kleiner Tannenborkenkäfer (Deut.), petit bostryche du sapin (Franc.),
Crifalo dell‘ abete bianco (Ital.), Zrnati Smrekov Lubadar (Slowen.)
Host species
Main host fir; others spruce, pine, larch.
Symptoms
Detachment of the bark; Resin flow on the twigs, brown wood shavings from small bore holes,
browning of branches or the whole crown; under the bark star-shaped galleries visible; larvae,
pupae and beetles in the gallerie; bark peeling, higher woodpecker activity; dieback.
Causal agent
Beetle: 1,1-1,8 mm long; fron is curved; elytra with few, long and protruding hair; massive
maturation feeding in the thin branches of the crowns; larva galleries are radiating; prefers the
thin bark on branches and twigs of older weakened fir trees; is also found in broken tree tops
and branch material on the ground; 2 generations and sister breeding per year possible; tends
to mass propagation; overwinter in the first development stages in the galleries and later on
hibernation trees.
Possibilities of errors
Other bark beetle species.
Effects
Death of the infected branches or the entire tree.
Control
If individual branches are affected, cut or burn only them before the hatching of the young
beetles, or treat them with insecticides (eg. strain retardants); removal and debarking of whole
trees to protect uninfested. forest management practice would be to mix fir with broadleaved
trees such as Fagus sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus; brushwood traps; Removel from snow and
storm fallen trees; search for hibernation trees.
Index
15 Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer
Index
15 Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer
Diprion pini, Neodiprion sertifer
? (Engl.), gemeine Kiefernbuschhornblattwespe, rotgelbe Kiefernbuschhornblattwespe (Deut.),
lophyre du pin, diprion du pin (Franc.), Tentredine del pino, tenthredine nerastra del pino (Ital.),
Navadna borova grizlica, Rjava borova grizlica (Slowen.)
Host species
Pine species; seldom spuce.
Symptoms
Large larval colonies feed on needles from spring to mid-summer; older needles are fed on
down to the needle sheath and the newly developing needles are mainly untouched; older
larvae may also consume bark from the older, thin branches. Heavy outbreaks may result in the
complete removal of the old foliage. D. pini: egg clusters on the previous year‘s needles; eggs
are laid in rows on adjacent needles and are covered by a pale-yellow spumous coating; faeces
larval have a characteristic rhombic shape and are green The ovoid brown cocoons on twigs or
on overstorey vegetation during summer and in the forest litter close to the tree trunk during
autumn and winter; plant dead; dieback.
Causal agent
Neodiprion sertifer: Sawflies about 8 mm in size; moth flight in September, laying eggs at this
year‘s needles; larvae: gray-green with light and dark longitudinal stripes and a dark head,
pupate in the soil, mass multiplication of up to 30 years old trees, is usually over after 3-4
years due to virus infection. Diprion pini: female 8-10,5 mm pale-yellow with black spots on
the dorsal side of caput, thorax and abdomen; with serrate antennae; male: black, slender
shape. Typical pectinate antennae; larvae: Cylindrical shape; head usually light brown; body
light yellow, with black spots on suprapleural lobes. Both species tend to outbreaks; attacked
by several hymenopterous and dipterous parasitoids.
Possibilities of errors
way of feeding and the symptoms of defoliation are very similar between many pine sawfly
species; other defoliating pests on pine, mainly belonging to the Lepidoptera (Panolis flammea).
Effects
trees recover later in the summer when the new shoots and needles reach their full size. Heavy
defoliations in subsequent years may kill buds and twigs. Although extensive mortality seldom
occurs, repeated defoliation weakens the trees and increases their susceptibility to attack from
secondary pests; Loss in increments.
Control
Spraying with insecticides in May immediately after the occurrence of young larvae, and biological (virus) preparations successfully, Neodiprion sertifer: pheromone traps for trapping of
male sawflies; nuclear polyhedrosis virus of N. sertifer (NsNPV); D. pini: control outbreaks by
release of the gregarious cocoon parasitoid Dahlbominus fuscipennis (experimental).
Index
16
Dryocosmus kuriphilus
Dryocosmus kuriphilus
Orientalchestnut Gall Wasp (Engl.), japanische Esskastaniengallwespe (Deut.), Chalcide du
chataignier (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Kostanjeva Šiškarica (Slowen.)
Host species
Oak species and their hybrids.
Symptoms
Galls: unilocular or multilocular, 5–20 mm in diameter, green or rose-coloured, often containing portions of developing leaves, stems and petioles; develop on young twigs, on leaf petioles or on the midrib of the leaves; After adult emergence, the gall dries, becomes wood-like,
and remains attached to the tree for up to two years. While galls are readily detected on plants
or parts of plants, eggs or first instar larvae inside the buds cannot be detected by simple visual
inspections. Deformation of leaves.
Causal agent
adult: 2.5–3 mm long on average, body is black; legs, scapus and pedicels of antennae, apex
of clypeus and mandibles are yellow brown. vertex is black, antennae 14-segmented and propodeum with distinct median longitudinal carina; Eggs are deposited by females into the buds
of current shoots; larva: 2.5 mm long when fully grown, milky white, without eyes and legs.
Pupa: 2.5 mm long, black or dark brown; Early instar larvae overwinter inside chestnut buds;
next year development of galls for feeding; Spread by introduction of infested twigs or shoots.
Possibilities of errors
Rsembles the European oak cynipid wasp, Dryocosmus cerriphilus giraud, known to induce galls
on Quercus cerris only. However, the last has the vertex with large yellowish-red markings, the
antennae are 15-segmented, the propodeum without median longitudinal carina.
Effects
significantly reduced fruit- and shoot development (yield reductions of 50–70%). Severe
infestations may result in the decline and death of chestnut trees.
Control
Quarantine organism: New iInfestation must be reported to the Plant Protection Service;
infestations in small chestnut orchards may be reduced by pruning and destroying the infested shoots. At present, there are no efficient plant protection products for control of this pest;
biological control with a Chinese parasitic wasp successfully in Japan.
Index
17
Ips amitinus
Ips amitinus
eight-toothed spruce bark beetle (Engl.), kleiner achtzähniger Fichtenborkenkäfer (Deut.),
bostryche amitinus, petit bostryche du pin (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Mali Osmerozobi Smrekov Lubadar
(Slowen.)
Host species
Main host common spruce; other conifers silver fir; common larch and pine species.
Symptoms
discoloured crowns; yellowed or dead leaves; abnormal leaf fall; thinning crown; frass (lightbrown sawdust) can be found on the bark in the basal part of the stems of standing trees;
increased woodpeckers activity (detachment of bark); gallery systems under the bark extend
vertically on the tree, from a nuptial chamber with four to seven irregular and wavy maternal
galleries; stem: gummosis or resinosis.
Causal agent
beetle: 3.5-4.5 mm long, cylindrical, dark-brown, shiny and hairy; posterior edges of the
elytra form a characteristic collar shape with dents on both side; elytral declivity has four
spines on each side, the third spine is the largest and capitate; larvae: 4.5-5.5 mm long, white,
cylindrical and legless. They have small, brown, chitinous heads and brown mandibles; usually
accompanies Ips typographus and co-exists with the bark beetle, Pityogenes chalcographus;
secondary pest (weakend or dying trees); tends to mass propagation.
Possibilities of errors
I. amitinus is similar in all stages of development to Ips typographus and Ips duplicatus.
Effects
heavy infestations can cause death of the tree; often only a few branches or crown parts
damaged member of the complex of bark beetles responsible for tree mortality.
Control
removal of infested trees from stands before the emergence of a new generation of beetles;
preventive treatment of neighboring trees with a stem protection insecticide; identification of
infested trees is late (advanced development of insects inside the bark), debarking and barkdestroying (processing and composting) are effective; Trap logs.
Index
18
Ips cembrae
Ips cembrae
large larch bark beetle (Engl.), großer achtzähniger Lärchenborkenkäfer (Deut.), bostryche du
meleze, grand, scolyte du cembro (Franc.), Il bostrico del larice, Bostrico del pino cembro (Ital.),
Veliki Macesnov Lubadar (Slowen.)
Host species Main host common larch; seldom on spruce, fir; pine or other larch species.
Symptoms
frass (light-brown sawdust); discolored crowns; yellowed or dead leaves; abnormal leaf fall;
thinning crown; increased woodpeckers activity (detachment of bark); heavy resin flow; broken off branches on the ground; blue sapwood; breeding galleries under the thick bar;. Most
commonly, three female galleries diverge longitudinally from the nuptial chamber, two in one
direction and one in the opposite direction. Galleries with one, two or four female galleries are
also found. Female galleries are rarely longer than 25 cm, usually 13-17 cm.
Causal agent
Adult beetles are blackish,yellow hair, 4-6 mm long, four spines on each side of the elytral
declivity, the third is the largest and is strongly capitate; 1-2 generation per year + sister brood;
maturation feeding in branches of younger trees or near brood gallery; hibernation in breeding
tunnels or in thick bark on the ground; secondary pest (breeding in logs, wind-blown stems
and dying trees); vector for bluestain fungus (Ceratocystis laricicola).
Possibilities of errors
Similar to other bark beetle (Ips typographus, Ips amitinus).
Effects
heavy infestations can cause death of the tree; often only a few branches or crown parts
damaged.
Control
Pheromone trap; spatial or temporal gaps should be left between harvesting and thinning;
debarking; removal of infested trees from stands before the emergence of a new generation of
beetles;debarking and bark-destroying (processing and composting) are effective; Trap logs;
use of Parasitoide; removal of possible breedingnmaterial.
Index
19
Ips typographus
Index
19
Ips typographus
Ips typographus
European spruce bark beetle (Engl.), Buchdrucker (Deut.), bostryche typographe, grand rongeur de l‘epicea (Franc.), bostrico tipografo (Ital.), Osmerozobi Smrekov Lubadar (Slowen.)
Host species
Main host spruce; other conifers larches, firs and pines.
Symptoms
discoloured crowns, needles are lighter in color, form mats and often fall to the ground ( especially during a mass (rapid) attack, this symptom may be absent);detachment of bark; gallery
systems under the bark extend from a nuptial chamber; one to four regular, vertically extending maternal galleries and perpendicular wavy larval galleries; frass (light-brown sawdust);
entrance holes; increased woodpeckers activity; dieback.
Causal agent
Beetle: 4.2-5.5 mm long, cylindrical, dark-brown, shiny and hairy. The antennae are clavate;
rows of depressed points on the glossy elytra, with spaces in between them. The posterior
edges of the elytra form a characteristic collar shape, with dents on both sides. There are
four teeth on these edges and the third tooth is capitate; larvae: similar size as adults; white,
cylindrical and legless, with small, brown, chitinous heads and brown mandibles; larvae,
pupae and adults overwinter in the galleries and the adults can also overwinter in stumps;
tends to outbreaks; Flight time from April- May and July-August (warm, dry, summers a third
generation may be swarming in September.
Possibilities of errors
similar in all stages of development to Ips duplicatus and Ips amitinus; other small bark beetles
(Pityogenes chalcographus).
Effects
In most cases the trees, which are colonized by bark beetles successfully, die within a few
months.
Control
Felling and removal of infested trees from forests. Infested material should be disposed of in
any case (burning, chopping, or organic waste removal). Still uninfested trees can be protected
with an insecticide treatment or debarking of logs. Monitoring of flight time and population
density with pheromone traps; trap-trees or logs; Avoiding of pure spruce stands.
Index
20
Leperisinus varius
Hylesinus varius
Leperisinus varius (Hylesinus varius)
ash bark beetle (Engl.), bunter Eschenbastkäfer (Deut.), hylesine du frene (Franc.), Ilesino del
frassino (Ital.), Pisani Jesenov Ličar (Slowen.)
Host species Ash, in addition, walnut, oak, pear, maple, hazel, hornbeam.
Symptoms
Wilting of individual branches or the entire crown; drilling dust ejection visible at base of
the stem, „Beetle Grind“ barks excrescences due to maturation feeding in healthy tissue - in
the crown area or weak stems. Breeding system under the bark with two maternal tunnels,
perpendicular to the stem axis.
Causal agent
Beetle: about 3mm large; black with short hair; infest whipped trees, split wood, or even
living, already weakened trees; early flight time from March to May; one generation + sister
brood per year.
Possibilities of errors
Cancer-causing fungi;Bacterial Canker of Ash; The Big Black ash bark beetle (Hylesinus crenatus)
but has longer larvae tunnel; lesser pine shoot beetle has similar breeding galleries but puppet
cradles in the sapwood.
Effects
Beetles usually infest diseased trees and brings them to the death; in outbreaks even healthy
trees can be infested. A successful attack is always lethal for the plant.
Control
As with all species of bark beetles is a curative control not possible. Hygiene measures:
immediate removal and destruction of infected and freshly dead material, possibly trap trees.
No storage of ash firewood in the vicinity of healthy ash trees.
Index
21
Leptoglossus occidentalis
Leptoglossus occidentalis
western conifer-seed bug (Engl.), amerikanische Zapfenwanze/ Kiefernrandwanze (Deut.),
? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Storževa Listonožka (Slowen.)
Host species Conifers, especially pine, Douglas fir, spruce, fir, cedar, juniper.
Symptoms
No outward symptoms appear, because the bugs suck on the seeds of the cones. The bug itself
is unmistakable.
Causal agent
Bug: 9-20 mm large (females larger than males); reddish-brown; in the middle of the body a
fine, white zigzag line; hind legs have a leaf-like enlargement. exude by touch a not unpleasant smell, reminiscent of apple or lemon; hibernation in protected places (bark, buildings);
spring, they suck on the flowers and last year pins; May / June oviposition of the brown eggs in
a single row on needles; larvae/nymphs: first orange later red-brown; Sucking on the needles
and the developing seeds of cones; one generation per year.
Possibilities of errors
Unmistakable.
Effects
Injuries caused by suction results in reduced germination. With a strong attack the seed
production can complete collapse.
Control
No measurements needed; for harassment in a residential area the bugs can be collected in the
fall and be suspended outside or destroyed.
Index
22
Lymantria dispar
Lymantria dispar
gypsy moth (Engl.), Schwammspinner (Deut.), bombyx disparate, spongieuse, zig-zag
(Franc.), bombice dispari, farfala dispari, limantria dispari (Ital.), Gobar (Slowen.)
Host species Oak; rarely beech, hazel, hornbeam, sweet chestnut and other.
Symptoms
Between May and June sociable eating larvae on the leaves (initially skeletonizing feeding
pattern (lonly leaf veins remain), later on all tissues eaten by caterpillars), high populations
often result in total tree defoliation; crown dieback; egg layers sponge-like on the stem bark,
yellowish-white, palm-sized.
Causal agent
Butterflies: female white with brown, zigzag stripes and black dot; 50-70 mm wingspan. Males are darker (gray-brown) and smaller (35-50 mm wingspan); Larva: first black; later with
brown, dense hair in bunches; max. 40-70 mm long with yellow longitudinal lines or a broad
brown stripe, each with 2 blue dots (Knopf warts) in the first five segments, on the other red
button warts; highly polyphagous; Can have mass outbreaks; one generation per year; first
larva instar overwinters in the egg shell; have a lot of natural enemies; Skin irritation in susceptible persons by caterpillar hairs.
Possibilities of errors
Frass by other butterfly caterpillars (e.g. Winter moth; Mottled umber moth; Oak processionary
moth; buff-tip moth ; egg mass on the bark are typical sign of recognition for gypsy moth.
Effects
With several years of defoliation the trees will possible die, otherwise only weakening (reduced
growth increment, crown dieback); but predisposed to attacks by secondary damaging agents.
Control
Control for young caterpillars with Bacillus thuringiensis-stage preparations, nor the use of
biotechnological molting inhibitors (e.g. Dimilin) is possible. Remove the egg masses from the
trunk and branches in winter; Monitoring: e.g. counts of egg masses after leaf fall; male moths
can be lured and trapped with pheromone traps.
Index
23
Phaenops cyanea
Melanophila cyanea
Phaenops cyanea (Melanophila cyanea)
steelblue jewel beetle (Engl.), blauer Kiefernprachtkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
Modri Borov Krasnik (Slowen.)
Host species Pine species, rare in larch, spruce, white fir.
Symptoms
initially observed no safe infestation characteristics; Resin droplets on the bark; infestation is
visible from September (usually with needles still green) because of the increased woodpecker
activity on the lower stem; crown shows massive signs of decline (gray-green needles), and
the bark of the lower stem sounds when knocking hollow, detachment of the bark; development 1-2 years; blue stained wood; crescent-shaped exit hole.
Causal agent
Beetle: about 7,2-11,9mm large; blue to blue-green shining; oval and narrowed in the last
third; flight time Juni-August; ovopsition at sunny bark sides; larva: up to 24 mm long, whitish,
legless and flattened with oval, dark, wrinkled chitinous plate on the front chest; first segment
of the larva is considerably broadened (spoon-like formed) larvae galleries: in the bast zigzag
winding tunnels; getting wider with development of the larva; pressed, cloudy drilling dust in
the tunnels; hibernation as larva in breeding system; Pupate in the bark; larva lies in U-form in
the pupate cradle; maturation- and regeneration feeding on the pine needles; prefers standing,
weakened old pine species; light and warm- loving insect; tends to outbreaks; vector for blue
stain fungi; early stage of complex of pine decline.
Possibilities of errors
Larvae galleries similar to Pissodes-species; longhorn beetle (difference in drilling dust); ribbed
pine borer (larva lies straight in the pupate cradle).
Effects
Under favorable weather conditions (heat) and weakened trees beetles are harmful and lethal
for the tree; vigorous trees can fend off attacks by intensive fresh resin formation; Impairment
of the wood by blue stain fungi.
Control
No curative measures for infested trees are possible. For the protection neighboring trees infested trees have to be felled before the emergence of the beetle by the end of May; debarking
and burning of the bark; Trap trees.
Index
24
Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens,
P.spinidens, P. vorontzove
Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens,
P.spinidens, P. vorontzove
Silver fir bark beetle, fir bark beetle (Engl.), krumzähniger Tannenborkenkäfer, westlicher
Tannenborkenkäfer (Deut.), bostryche curvidenté, rongeur du sapin blanc, scolyte curvidenté
(Franc.), Bostrico dai denti curvi, Bostrico dell‘abete bianco (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Firs, seldom larch, cedar, Douglas fir, pine, spruce.
Symptoms
Resin flow on the stem and on twigs, shiny resin droplets, brown wood shavings from small bore
holes, browning of branches or the whole crown; under the bark star-shaped galleries visible;
larvae, pupae and beetles in the gallerie; bark peeling, higher woodpecker activity; dieback.
Causal agent
since the fir bark beetles swarm very early (March), two to three generations per year and
sometimes a siblings generation are possible. Stronger attacks on pre-damaged trees (drought
stress or Armillaria-infection); under the bark star-shaped galleries; often associated with
other scolytid species; by high population density attack of healthy trees; overwinter first in
the breeding trees and as young and old beetle in hibernation trees; beetles: characteristically
curved sutural teeth on the hind end (distinguish the individual species and sex of the beetle
on the basis of different shape of the frons); 2,5 to 3,2 mm(Pityocteines (Ips) curvidens); 2 to
2,8 mm (P.spinidens); 1,6 to2,4mm (P. vorontzove).
Possibilities of errors
Other bark beetle species: watch for the shape of the gallery under the bark surface !
Effects
Death of the infected branches or the whole tree.
Control
When only single branches are infested, they should be cut, burnt or controlled with insecticides (for instance stem protecting insecticides) before the appearance of young beetles.
If necessary removal and debarking of whole tree in order to prevent attacks on healthy trees.
forest management practice would be to mix Abies with broadleaved trees such as Fagus
sylvatica, Acer pseudoplatanus; pheromone traps; Removel from snow and storm fallen trees;
search for hibernation trees.
Index
25
Pityogenes chalcographus
Pityogenes chalcographus
six-toothed spruce bark beetle (Engl.), Kupferstecher (Deut.), bostryche chalcographe, petit
rongeur de l‘épicéa, petit rongeur du sapin (Franc.), bostrico calcografo (Ital.), Šesterozobi
smrekov lubadar (Slowen.)
Host species main host Spruce species; other coniferous tree species Douglas fir; Pine and larch.
Symptoms
Change in colour of their needles, which start by yellowing and then become brown later on
(young trees – whole crown, older tress – at first only upper crown); small boring holes in
the thin bark with shavings and resin flow from the holes; feeding tunnels below the bark:
3-6 arms, star-shaped, central room hidden in the bark.
Causal agent
beetle: 1,6 – 2,9mm; has a black head and thorax, the elytra has a characteristic red-brownish
shine; Elytral declivity longitudinally impressed in the middle and armed with three strong
lateral spines on each side; male with each teeth on the hind end; female with only 6 reduced
teeth, frons has a deep transversal impression above epistomal margin; preferred the upper,
thin barked parts of the trunk; flight period April/May and in case of a second generation in
July/August (in very hot weather it is also developing a third Generation).
Possibilities of errors
Pityophthorus pityographus and P. bidentatus is approximately equal to the six-toothed spruce bark beetle, inhabited the same species of trees and gnawing a similar feeding picture.
Morphologically, the closest related species are P. trepanatus, P.fossifrons and other „three
simple-spined“ Pityogenes spp. with impressions on female the frons.
Effects
Common spruce bark beetle, especially causing severe damage in young stands (death of
trees); in old trees often together with the wood borer; also recently planted spruces may be
attacked, if there are depositions of branch material in the vicinity.
Control
General measures against bark beetles: freshly attacked spruces should be felled and removed
from the forest (infested material should be burnt or chipped); in spring before hatching of the
beetles trapping-trees including branches should be exposed in the forest; pheromone traps;
debarking of logs to prevent P. chalcographus from being introduced into isolated new areas.
Thicker parts of trunks can be treated chemically.
Index
26
Pityophthorus pityographus
Pityophthorus pityographus
fir bark beetle (Engl.), gefurchter Fichtenborkenkäfer (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Jelov vejni
lubadar (Slowen.)
Host species mainly Douglas fir and Spruce; other Coniferous species Pine; Larch; Fir.
Symptoms
Small boreholes in the trunk or branches; dying of twigs and branches of old trees, but also of
younger plants, which have been physiologically weakened; underneath the bark star-shaped
galleries, mating chamber deeply inserted in the springwood, larval tunnels wide.
Causal agent
Beetle: very short 1,1 bis 1,5 mm; flies late from April/Mai; two generations pro year (one
generation at high altitudes), young beetle overwinters in the galleries. Especially in afforestations attacking healthy trees after mass propagation.
Possibilities of errors
by contrast to those of the Six-toothed Spruce bark beetle (Pityogenes chalcographus) mating
chamber deeply inserted in the springwood for for fir bark beetle (Pityophthorus pityographus)
and mother tunnels wider for Six-toothed Spruce bark beetle. Pityogenes conjunctus silimar
damage of feedeing but the mother tunnels are a litle wider.
Effects
Heavy infestations and association with other bark beetles it can come to the death of the trees,
but often only damage of individual branches or crown-parts.
Control
Hygienic measures: above all in afforestations quick removal of infested plants; infested matrerail can be chopped or burned; preventive treatment of neighboring trees with a trunk protection (insecticide) before the flight season, use of pheromones.
Index
27
Tetropium gracilicorne
Tetropium gracilicorne
Fine-antenna spruce borer (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Khingan fir, Dahurian larch, Siberian larch, Yeddo spruce, fruit pine, Siberian stone pine, Scots pine.
Symptoms
internal feeding; galleries in the drying-out bast which they usually fill up with small-grained
boring dust; width of the gallery is 10 m, longitudinal, straight or curved and sometimes they
cross light traces on the sapwood; cradles in the bark along the stem; large entrance and emergence holes in trunks, peeling bark, borings at the base of infested trees, tunnels made by large
larvae. The needles of attacked trees often show yellowing and wilting.
Causal agent
The adult is 9-16 mm long; body is black, antennae and legs are red-brown (orange). The
elyta are normally light-brown, elongate, parallel and rounded at the apex. The sides of the
pronotum are rounded. Its back is narrower than its front. It is covered with dense spots and
small hairs; The antennae are thin and go behind the base of the pronotum. Larva: 16-19 mm
long, the head is 2.8-3 mm wide; whole body is hairy; head is round and narrowed at the front
with a big whitish spot; The clypeus narrows towards the apex. It is white on the base and
reddish (yellowish-red) on the apex; there are two small spikes at the rear. Pupa: The body is
11-17 mm long, the abdomen is 3-5 mm wide; The antennae are clasped to the body; The
pronotum is widened in the middle, narrowed to the front and to the back, covered by sparse bristles; The top of the abdomen has a pair of long urogomphal outgrowths. Mainly infest
recently dead or highly stressed trees but also healthy trees.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
Repetitio of damage of the same trees during several consecutive years causing their death.
infestation results in significant loss of vigour and of wood marketability.
Control
Control measures include forestry and sanitary measures (improving of the resistance of forests,
cutting and elimination of all infested trees; cutting of „trapping trees“ followed by their treatment), as well as treatments with chemical and biological preparations.
Index
28
Thaumetopoea pityocampa
Index
28
Thaumetopoea pityocampa
Thaumetopoea pityocampa
pine processionary moth (Engl.), Pinienprozessionsspinner (Deut.), processionnaire du pin
(Franc.), processionaria dei pini (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species All species of Pinus (Scots pine, black pine) and Cedrus native in the Mediterranean (seldom
common larch, Douglas-fir).
Symptoms
conspicuous silken nests (up to 0,5m in size, containing hundreds of caterpillars); egg masses
laid on the low branches of trees; needles of twigs close to the silken nest; these partially
eaten twigs remain on the tree with their brown and yellowing needles (1-2 instar). During
the winter, defoliation increases and the white nests stand out plainly.
Causal agent
The larvae: five instars (differences in head capsule size).full-grown caterpillar is about 40
mm in length. first-instar caterpillar dull apple-green later densely covered with hairs and
dark, light on the underside. Adult: white-grey; a hairy thorax; on the head a characteristic
comb-like edge with 4 spikes; male with double combed antennae; hindwings are white, greyfringed, with a characteristic dark spot in the anal region. egg masses from 4 to 5 cm; covered
with the scales of the female anal tuft, which mimics the pine shoots. pupate in the soil. Attention: touching the caterpillars may result in heavy allergic reactions! Common pest in the
Mediterranean area; it appears occasionally in Central Europe, does not, however, cause much
damage there, since the temperature sums are usually not sufficient for the development. The
caterpillars hibernate in the nests (shelter from the cold); in spring, they migrate from the trees
in form of a procession in order to pupate in the soil. After a dormancy, which may last from a
few months up to 4 years, the moths hatch. In summer, copulation and deposition of eggs take
place at the base of pine needles. About one month later, the caterpillars hatch, skin twice and
begin with the building of a winter nest.
Possibilities of errors
Hardly any, when winter nests are present.
Effects
Heavy losses of needles up to total defoliation; a single total defoliation is hardly damaging,
significant losses occur in volume growth.
Control
In case of massive attacks use Bacillus thuringiensis – components before the winter nests
are built, or spray biotechnical skinning inhibitors or insecticides; collect the nests (protective
clothing). Chemical control treatments are mainly applied by ULV aerial spraying with rotary
atomizers, with petroleum oil or vegetable oils as solvents.
Index
29
Thaumetopoea processionea
Index
29
Thaumetopoea processionea
Thaumetopoea processionea
oak processionary moth (Engl.), Eichenprozessionsspinner (Deut.), processionnaire du chene
(Franc.), Processionaria della quercia (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Oaks, mainly turkey oak (Quercus cerris,); seldom on birches, hornbeams, chestnuts, Corylus,
beeches.
Symptoms
Larvae feeding on leaves; webs on young leaves; on older leaves only the veins remain.
Silk nests on the stem and in crotches; processions of hairy grey-yellow caterpillars on
the trunk.
Causal agent
Adults grey with wingspan 25-30mm (can fly a long distance); egg deposition usually on
young twigs of single standing older oaks forming regular plaques of about 100 to 200 eggs.
caterpillar: densely covered with hairs with red-brown reflecting spots and growth to 50 mm;
gathering places of young, bright-colored beads are loosely spun leaves or branches; older
caterpillars make silk nests; almost only feeding on leaves of oaks. Attention: hairs of the
caterpillars are poisonous for humans and may cause allergic reactions or inflammations.
Mass propagation from time to time
Possibilities of errors
Other insects feeding on leaves (e.g. cockchafers) or caterpillars, e.g. of Gypsy Moth.
Effects
Crown thinning or single total defoliation, usually without dangerous effects, repeated defoliation may lead to the death of the tree or secondary damages.
Control
Blocking of the affected areas, spraying with insectides or Mechanical removal because of
health and hygiene reasons; forecast for the appearance of caterpillars of the oak processionary moth in the following year is based on the egg masses found on such in the treetops.
Preventive measures: No planting of oaks species near places with a lot people.
Index
30
Tomicus destruens
Tomicus destruens (Tomicus piniperda)
Pine shoot beetle (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Pine species (Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Pinus pinaster, Pinus brutia, Pinus canariensis, Pinus
nigra, Pinus radiate).
Symptoms
In early summer, resin cones appear on the shoots of affected pines; by August, the infected
shoots are a reddish color; fallen and tunnelled shoots on the ground; dieback; abnormal leaf
fall; larval galleries; boring.
Causal agent
the adult beetles are dark-brown head, thorax and elytra; have red-yellow antennal clubs with
three rows of hairs; adults hibernate in the shoots or under the bark from fall until spring when
they begin to actively colonize the shoots (maturing feeding); able to colonize healthy trees at
high population densities, but prefers already weakened trees; The larva is a typical scolytid
larva: a legless, whitish grub with a curved body and a brown head capsule; larval galleries are
horizontal; 1-2 generations per year have been observed; The pupa is white and resembles the
adult insect in size and general form widespread in the pine forests of the entire Mediterranean
area; associated with blue-stain fungi.
Possibilities of errors
Physically very similar to Tomicus piniperda and some still question the claim that they are
actually two distinct species. It has been claimed that the adult beetles of T. destruens can be
distinguished by their red-yellow antennal clubs with three rows of hairs.
Effects
Stem attacks by weakened trees cause the death of the trees within a few months; growth
losses may be caused by extensive shoot-feeding; deterioration of timber quality may occur
due to beetle-vectored blue-staining of saw logs and pulpwood.
Control
Preventative measures: removal of trees which are stressed due to other factors and therefore
vulnerable to infection; snow-breaks and wind-falls should be cleared up of suitable host material; rapid transportation (i.e. before beetle flight in spring) of saw logs and pulpwood from
the forest to the industry, where it is barked or submerged in water immediately; removal of
attacked trees.
Index
31
Tomicus spp.
(Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)
Tomicus spp.
(Tomicus piniperda & Tomicus minor)
pine shoot beetle (Engl.), Waldgärtner (Deut.), hylésine du pin; blastophage (Franc.), mielofilo
(Ital.), borov strženar (Slowen.)
Host species Pine species (seldom on spruce and larch).
Symptoms
Shoots turn brown and are shed later on; they are mined as a cause of maturation feeding of the
beetles; typical egg galleries under the bark of pine logs or trees; dieback; boring (entry holes;
drillings, exuding resin droplets on the bark); fallen and tunnelled shoots on the ground.
Causal agent
Commen pine shoot beetle (Tomicus piniperda): imago 3,5-5mm; no teeth, but characteristic
furrow on the tail. Gallery: straight vertical tunnel with one arm, up to 15cm long.
Lesser pine shoot beetle (Tomicus minor): imago 3,5-4,5mm; usually slightly lighter (more
reddish) than Tomicus piniperda and without furrow on the tail. Egg gallery two-armed, wingformed, transverse tunnels in bark and sapwood. The larva is for both a typical scolytid larva:
a legless, whitish grub with a curved body and a brown head capsule; associated with bluestain fungi; Especially on weakened trees (dying, standing pines) and stored not yet dried out
trunks and; by high population density goes on healthy trees; 1genaration pro year plus sister
hood; During regeneration and maturation feeding, the beetles undermine healthy shoots.
Possibilities of errors
Young beetles feeding on the shoots may be mistaken for dieback caused by fungi or damages
by Squirrels (if shoots fall down); watch for mined shoots! Commen pine shoot beetle (Tomicus
piniperda) can be mistaken for Tomicus destruens.
Effects
Abnormal branching. Galleries one the stem in the phloem cause death of the tree, as with
other bark beetles; deterioration of timber quality may occur due to beetle-vectored bluestaining of saw logs and pulpwood; growth losses may be caused by extensive shoot-feeding.
Control
Immediate removal of attacked trees; Preventative measures: removal of trees which are
stressed due to other factors and therefore vulnerable to infection; snow-breaks and wind-falls
should be cleared up of suitable host material; rapid transportation (i.e. before beetle flight
in spring) of saw logs and pulpwood from the forest to the industry, where it is barked or
submerged in water immediately.
Index
32
Tortrix viridana
Tortrix viridana
european oak leaf roller (Engl.), Eichenwickler (Deut.), chape verte, tordeuse verte du chêne
(Franc.), tortrice delle querce, tortrice verde, tortrice verde delle querce, verdaiola (Ital.), zeleni
hrastov zavijač (Slowen.)
host species main food plants palearctic oaks (quercus), both deciduous and evergreen. other deciduous
trees (hornbeam, chestnut, hazelnut, maple, and poplar), juniperus, raspberry.
Symptoms
amaged assimilative organs, including complete defoliation (starting von the top); leaves:
necrotic areas, yellowed or dead, rolled-up or folded with developing larvae within, damaged
near the mid-vein and on the extended leaves, and the larvae also eat the outer margins.
Causal agent
Adult: Small, wingspan is approximately 18 to 23 mm. The forewings are rectangular, and the
colour can vary from pale-green (mostly in the males) to uniform straw-yellow (mostly in
the females). The hindwings and abdomen are pale-grey, the head is yellowish or greenish,
and the corpus is greenish. Larva: eight pairs of legs; 12 to 20 mm long, colour from grey and
grey-yellow to yellow; dark head; brown or grey scutellum; two dark stains on the abdomen;
the whole corpus is covered by black to brown tubercles with relatively long hairs. developing
larvae feed in rolled-up or folded leaves; infested leaves are joined together by the silk the
larvae spin; Pupa: Initially green or dark-brown, then black, with a chestnut abdomen and
8 to 10 mm long.
Possibilities of errors
The adult of T. viridana is similar to Earias chlorana [Earias clorana]; the forewings of E. clorana
are a different shape to those of T.. The image of the damage in tree crowns (defoliation) is
often similar to that caused by geometrid moths, such as Operophtera brumata, Erannis defoliaria, Lymantria dispar or adults of Melolontha spp..
Effects
Result of defoliation is a change in tree condition and vitality; reduced tree growth; Defoliation
also contributes to an enhancement of tree susceptibility to frost damage and European oak
leaf roller is assoiated with other insects (xylophagous).
Control
intervention is usually not necessary because the oak can sprout again after infestation; biological control method is the application of bioinsecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis;
insecticide traps; pheromone traps.
Index
33
Viscum album ssp. album
Viscum album ssp. album
mistletoe (Engl.), Laubholzmistel (Deut.), Vischio delle latifo glie (Franc.), Gui des feuillus
(Ital.), Bela omela (Slowen.)
Host species Linden, willow, poplar, maple, locust, birch, poplar, and other tree and shrub species.
Symptoms
Dense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on
branches
Causal agent
Mistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe grwoth into the host
plant and develops a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish
leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to
four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer
branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous
yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.
Possibilities of errors
Outward form does not differ from Viscum album ssp. album, V. album ssp. Abietis and V. album
ssp. Austriacum; Viscum album ssp. album has other berries slime, difference in host plants.
Loranthus europaeus on oaks (no leaves in winter), witches’ brooms.
Effects
Robs the tree of water and nutrients, leads to weakening, reduced growth, in severe cases to
death of trees; devaluation of the wood in the stem through holes caused by haustorium.
Control
Removal of mistletoes in time (as suckers are formed, cutting deeply into the healthy tissue
is necessary), wrapping of the attacked parts with black plastic (stops assimilation of the
mistletoes).
Index
34
Viscum album ssp. abieti
Viscum album ssp. abieti
mistletoe (Engl.), Tannenmistel (Deut.), Gui du sapin (Franc.), Vischio dell’abete (Ital.), Bela
omela (Slowen.)
Host species Silver fir.
Symptoms
Dense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on
branches.
Causal agent
Mistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe growth into the host
plant and developes a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish
leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to
four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer
branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous
yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.
Possibilities of errors
Outward form does not differ from Viscum album ssp. album, V. album ssp. Abietis and V. album
ssp. Austriacum; Viscum album ssp. album has other berries slime, difference in host plants.
Loranthus europaeus on oaks (no leaves in winter), witches’ brooms.
Effects
Robs the tree of water and nutrients, leads to weakening, reduced growth, in severe cases to
death of trees; devaluation of the wood in the stem through holes caused by haustorium.
Control
Removal of mistletoes in time (as suckers are formed, cutting deeply into the healthy tissue
is necessary), wrapping of the attacked parts with black plastic (stops assimilation of the
mistletoes).
Index
35
Viscum album ssp. austriacum
Viscum album ssp. austriacum
mistletoe (Engl.), Föhrenmistel (Deut.), gui blanc (Franc.), Gui du pin (Ital.), Bela omela
(Slowen.)
Host species
Pine species (Pinus sylvestris, P. nigra, P. mugo ssp uncinata), seldom on spruce.
Symptoms
Dense green shrubby structures sitting usually on the stem in upper crown parts or on
branches.
Causal agent
Mistletoe (Viscum album): semi-parasite/Xylem-parasit, the mistletoe grwoth into the host
plant and develops a connection to the water and assimilate system; with evergreen longish
leaves on forked twigs, white berries; distribution of seeds by birds; one seed can contain up to
four nuclei; germinate as a light-and heat-loving plants particularly well on the young outer
branches in the upper crown; growth is slow; in the fifth year the plant develops inconspicuous
yellow-green flowers; better chance of survival in already weakened trees.
Possibilities of errors
Outward form does not differ from Viscum album ssp. album, V. album ssp. Abietis and V. album
ssp. Austriacum; Viscum album ssp. album has other berries slime, difference in host plants.
Loranthus europaeus on oaks (no leaves in winter), witches’ brooms.
Effects
Robs the tree of water and nutrients, leads to weakening, reduced growth, in severe cases to
death of trees; devaluation of the wood in the stem through holes caused by haustorium.
Control
Removal of mistletoes in time (as suckers are formed, cutting deeply into the healthy tissue
is necessary), wrapping of the attacked parts with black plastic (stops assimilation of the
mistletoes).
Index
36
Armillaria spp.
Index
36
Armillaria spp.
Armillaria spp.
Honey fungus (Engl.), Hallimasch (Deut.), Armillaire, agent de pourriture des racines (Franc.),
? (Ital.), Bela trohnoba korenin (Slowen.)
Host species
Nearly all tree species.
Symptoms
White rot, resin or sap flow of the lower stem region, often also from the basis of branches,
cracks in the stem, white mycelial fans underneath the stem bark, black strands of mycelium
a few millimeters thick, yellowish discoloration of the needles or leaves, dieback of the crown.
Causal agent
Armillaria mellea and other species, fruiting bodies honey-yellow to brownish, stalked, with
gills, sized 5-15 cm in diameter. Commonly attacking trees weakened by various abiotic
stresses.
Possibilities of errors
Pholiota squarrosa and other root rot fungi.
Effects
White rot, root rot, cambial damage, death of the trees.
Control
Care for the appropriate site conditions, avoid damage to roots. Foster mixed stands, as effects
are more severe in monoculture. Remove old stumps carefully, change soil before replanting,
if possible.
Index
37
Chalara fraxinea
Chalara fraxinea
Hymenoscyphus pseudoalbidus (asexual stage)
Ash dieback (Engl.), Eschentriebsterben (Deut.), Flétrissement du frêne (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
Jesenov ožig (Slowen.)
Host species
Fraxinus angustifolia, Fraxinus excelsior.
Symptoms
Wilt, premature leave fall, necrosis on shoots and leaf stalks, cancer, wood discoloration.
Causal agent
Chalara fraxinea, asexual spores, produced in < 1 cm large white fruiting bodies, which
develop on leaf stalks and in ground litter of last year‘s fallen leafs. Spores are wind distributed.
Possibilities of errors
Cancer caused by the fungus Nectria galligena, cancer caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas
syringae subsp. savastanoi pv. fraxini, wilting or leaf and branch dieback caused by late frost
events, crown degeneration due to abiotic reasons (e.g. drought).
Effects
Dieback of branches, decrease in crown density, shrub like foliage, substitute shoots and water
sprouts, seedling die in 2-3 years, adult trees decline more slowly.
Control
Direct control is not possible; measures like fungicide application or removal of infectious material are inadequate. Planting ash species is not advised, natural rejuvenation preferred. In mixed
stands heavily infested ashes should be removed and accompanying species fostered. Thinning
of lightly infested ash stand should be continued, and marking carried out during summer.
Crown density of valuable trees should be observed during summer (July), if decreased by
> 80% the trees should be cut down in the following winter. Timber needs to be removed
from the forest during winter to minimize loss of timber quality due to rot fungi and to hinder
the reproduction of Leperisinus spp. Road and occupational safety issues have to be considered
in the case of crown dieback.
Index
38
Chrysomyxa abietis
Chrysomyxa abietis
Chrysomyxa – spruce needle rust (Engl.), Fichtennadelrost (Deut.), Rouille annulaire des
aiguilles de l‘épicéa (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Smrekova rja (Slowen.)
Host species Spruces, several species.
Symptoms
Current shoots needles show several yellow bands. During the summer dark, orange-red
bulging spore-bearing structures appear in the bands, releasing no spore dust when touched.
Causal agent
This rust species, capable of attacking spruces everywhere, does not depend on two different
host plants, contrary to the Alpine Needle Rust of Spruce (Chrysomyxa rhododendri) which
requires Rhododendron species in the vicinity of spruces. Chrysomyxa abietis prefers low
altitudes and humid stands. The disease spreads in rainy springs.
Possibilities of errors
Green spruce aphid, other Chrysomyxa species, nutrient insufficiency (manganese, iron).
Effects
Needle discoloration, loss of needles, reduction of increment. Young plants may die after
several heavy infestations.
Control
Thin dense forests to lower humidity; In Christmas tree cultures systemic fungicides before bud
burst, non systemic fungicides in spring (several applications).
Index
39
Cryphonectria parasitica
Index
39
Cryphonectria parasitica
Cryphonectria parasitica
Chestnut Blight (Engl.), Kastanienrindenkrebs (Deut.), Chancre de l‘écorce du châtaignier
(Franc.), ? (Ital.), Kostanjev rak (Slowen.)
Host species sweet chestnut, rarely oaks.
Symptoms
Dying twigs, yellowing of leaves and dieback of trees of all ages. Bark surface showing reddishbrown boat-shaped necroses which spread on the stem and branches up to several meters,
with orange or red spore pustules. Below: intense production of epicormic shoots. Wilted leaves
remain on the dead tree over the winter. Stems show longitudinal cracks and cankers.
Causal agent
Cryphonectria parasitica is the most wide-spread and fatal disease of edible chestnuts.
It appears almost everywhere in Europe, only strongly isolated stands are not yet infected. The
disease spreads via spores infecting trees by wind, rain and insects.
Possibilities of errors
Usually none: at the most Cryptodiaporthe - canker of Sweet Chestnut.
Effects
Almost always lethal.
Control
Pruning or coppicing diseased trees, wound sealing with wound paint containing fungicides;
All infectious material should be carefully removed and burned. Biotechnical application of
strains of the same species with reduced aggressiveness (hypovirulent strains). Trees with
less aggressive form of the disease should remain in the stand, to allow substitution of the
aggressive form.
Index
40
Sphaeropsis sapinea
Sphaeropsis sapinea (syn. Diplodia pinea)
Sphaeropsis - Blight of Conifers (Engl.), Diplodia Kieferntriebsterben (Deut.), Dépérissement
des pousses du pins dû à Sphaeropsis (Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Various pine species , more rarely other conifers.
Symptoms
Dieback of shoots, twigs and branches. Yellow to red-brown discoloration of needles. Later
on bleaching of the needles, which remain attached to the dry twigs for a long time. On the
bark black, roundish fruiting bodies up to 1 to 2 mm in size (Sphaeropsis sapinea) or disk-like
fruiting bodies up to 2 to 3 mm , showing a yellow or orange surface when wet (Cenangium
ferruginosum).
Causal agent
Sphaeropsis sapinea is an important dieback fungus of Austrian black pine in continental and
mediterranean climates, especially when exceptionally high precipitation during spring is followed by a dry and hot summer. Sphaeropsis sapinea infects needles at the time of flushing
and branches upon hail damaged. In the case of Cenangium ferruginosum a dependence on
this special climatic condition is not so clear, but drought stress is supposed to be the main
predisposing factor.
Possibilities of errors
Salt injury: parts of the crown facing the road with yellowish to brownish discoloration.
Attacks of bark beetles on the stem: pale green, later on yellow-brown discoloration of the
whole crown. Other fungal diseases, herbicide injuries, frost, drought.
Effects
Paving the way for secondary pests. Pines may die within a few months.
Control
Hygienic measures, removal of dead crown material; balanced water supply.
Index
41
Eutypella parasitica
Eutypella parasitica
Eutypella canker of maple (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Javorov rak (Slowen.)
Host species All maple species.
Symptoms
The canker is of elliptical shape, with a flat or sunken centre, often retaining the dead bark and
surrounded by thick callus. White to beige mycelium can be observed under the bark at the
canker margin, the fungus produces spores in tiny, black fruiting bodies that develop in the
centers of cankers.
Causal agent
Spore of Eutypella parasitica are released from the fruiting body, infect wounds or dead branch
on trunks and with time a canker is developed.
Possibilities of errors
Nectria maple cancer, Kretzschmaria deusta, Botryosphaeria dothidea.
Effects
Eutypella parasitica girdls the trunk and causes tree mortality especially in young trees,
older trees may continue grow for > 10 more years upon infection. Infected maple commonly
amount to 3-5 % in a stand, but up to 50 % are possible.
Control
Prune infected branches & cut off infected part of stem, at least 40 cm above and below the
canker, remove infected material. Report any finding to the phytosanitary service. Natural
spread is slow, generation time is long (several years), which means there is a good chance
for eradication. Monitor surrounding trees for symptoms, fell and remove the effected trees.
Index
42
Gibberella circinata
Gibberella circinata
Pitch canker (Engl.), ? (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Borov smolasti rak (Slowen.)
Host species Pinus radiata, Pinus halepensis, Pinus pinea, Pinus nigra, Pinus sylvestris and Pseudotsuga
menziesii.
Symptoms
No symptons on seeds can be seen (labor test is needed). Infected seedlings collapse. Resinosis shows on stem. Necrosis appear on bark, stem and on the root system above the ground.
Dying effects of the shouts are showing. Cancer symptoms are growing on stem. Wilt symptoms
(rot the roots of the seedlings). Discoloration of the needles.
Causal agent
In Europea the risk area for Gibberella circinata lies in the Mediterranean. The fungal is natural
spread through wind and insekts. Widespread through the human (seeds etc.). The infections
happens by the use of wounds on the bark.
Possibilities of errors
Resinosis is often a symptom of Pucciniales. Shoot dying can be a symptom of Sphaeropsis
sapinea. Excrescenceon on stem can be caused by Crumenulpsis sororia. Pseudotsuga menziesii
shows dying effects after Frost or/and infections from Potebinmyces coniferarum or Phytophtora
ramorum.
Effects
Infections on root system and the lower level of the bole are lethal. Infection on the treetop is
lethal too but with e slower effect.
Control
Euopean agency 18.06.2007 (2007/433/EG): Obligation of yearly surveys for an early
detection of an appearance. In suspicious cases it is to report to the official plant protection
service and to send a probe of the material in. Pseudotsuga menziesii`s seeds from North America are to be phytosanitary inspected and for a labortest a probe has to be send in.
Index
43
Herpotrichia juniperi
Herpotrichia juniperi
Brown felt blight (Engl.), schwarzer Schneeschimmel (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Pajčevinasta
črnoba iglavcev (Slowen.)
Host species Picea species, Pinus cembra, Pinus mugo, Abies alba, Juniperus communis L..
Symptoms
Fungal threads form a brown-black compact felt who covers single shouts to small trees.
Black, round fruiting bodies grow on infected, dead needle.
Causal agent
Herpotrichia juniper appears in 900m – 2000m N.N. The disease developing starts with
temperature at -5°C and only under the snow. Therefore most damage is caused in areas with
plenty and long-lasting snow like the foothills of the Alps. The fungal infects mostly young and
weak trees or the lower level of old tree branches.
Possibilities of errors
Herpotrichia juniper can be differed from Herpotrichia coulteri only when the spores are
observed mocroskopic.
Effects
Dying of the infected branches. When the whole tree (seedling) is infected, Herpotrichia juniper
is lethal.
Control
Infected plant or parts should be cut and burned in the whole vegetation period. High ground
vegetation should be cleared to minimize the infection risk. Control with fungicide would
have to be done several times in the year and over a long time.
Index
44
Heterobasidion annosum
Index
44
Heterobasidion annosum
Heterobasidion annosum (Heterobasidion spp.)
Red Rot (Engl.), Kiefern-Wurzelschwamm, Ackersterbe (Deut.), coeur rouge de l‘epicea
(Franc.), ? (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species mainly affects species of Pinus, but it also affects a wide range of other conifers in Europe.
Symptoms
root decay in all hosts, discoloration of bark. Profuse resin excretion on the roots and at the
base of the stem. External symptoms only appear at an advanced stage of decay and include
reduced growth, defoliation of the crown, and resin exudations on the stem.
Young trees: all needles turning yellow green, then red, finally brown. On the stem base
below the bark white, thin fan-shaped mycelium, no strands. Old trees: stem base typically
bottle-shaped, mostly sunken on one side, in cross section reddish rot, heart-and springwood.
Wind-thrown trees with decayed roots or open gaps in the stand often indicate the presence
of Heterobasidion root rot in the forest. In the field, Heterobasidion root rot can only be clearly
identified with assurance by the presence of basidiocarps (flat, thin, but very tough, 5-40 cm in
size, tubes whitish, very fine pores, outside black to brown and bumpy).
Causal agent
Heterobasidion annosum is a wide spread fungual from North Asia, North America, almost
everywhere in Euopean, Australia and New Zeland.
Possibilities of errors
Heterobasidion insulare can look very similar to H. annosum spp.. The disease can be mistaken
for damage by honey fungus or other rot fungi.
Effects
Tthe heart wood intensive rots. Decrease of the stability of the tree. Conifers rich in resin (pines):
quick decline of roots, infection mostly deadly, no primary rot; conifers poor in resin (spruces):
quick decline only with young plants, otherwise only stem rot for a long time.
Control
Control by performing cuttings during the seasons (cold winter or hot summer) when the risk
of spore infection is low or absent. Cut surface of fresh stumps can be treated with a protectant
to prevent infection. Extraction of infected stumps before regeneration essentially reduces the
risk of infection in the next generation. Favouring the regeneration of resistant tree species
close to decayed stumps.
Index
45
Meria laricis
Meria laricis
Larch needle cast (Engl.), Lärchennadelschütte (Deut.), Méria du mélèze (Franc.), ? (Ital.),
? (Slowen.)
Host species Larix decidua, Larix kaempferi.
Symptoms
Needels are getting yellow-brown and falling begins early starting from the lower level to
the crown.
Causal agent
The fungual overwinter in the fallen needles on the ground. A rainy spring advances the nwey
infection in the next year. The infection goes only on the needles.
Possibilities of errors
Similar symptoms are caused by the fungual Mycosphaerella laricina and the insects Coleophora
laricell, Taeniothrips laricivorus, Sacchiphantes viridis und Adelges laricis.
Effects
For young trees can a infection be lethal. Older trees can shoot normally in the following
year. But the loss of needles weakens the defense for secondary agent. It is not yet known, if
Meria-needle cast is able to stress trees to become susceptible to secondary agent (BWF).
Control
Forestry: Larix not in areas with high air moisture. Larix should be grown in mixture (beech).
In tree nursery yearly change of the seeds bed.
Index
46
Mycosphaerella dearnessii
Mycosphaerella dearnessii
Brown spot needle blight (Engl.), Lecanosticta – Kiefernnadelbräune (Deut.), tache brune des
aiguilles du pin (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rjavenje borovih iglic (Slowen.)
Host species Various Pinus species
Symptoms
First symptom is that the needle becomes small yellow, yellow-brown spots who are getting
bigger with time. Younger needles completely or partly yellow discoloured (typically the distal
half of the needle only), frequently shortened, with blackish brown bands, from which greenish
masses of spores are extruded (hand lens), never reddish shades in the bands. The necrotic area
of the needle dies and it comes to abnormal leaf fall and fungal growth.
Causal agent
In Europe up to now only asexual fruiting structures have been observed. The spores are formed during the summer months and they infect new needles under moist weather conditions.
The spreading of the thermophilic species is comparatively slow since the temperature optima
for the infection (30°C in daytime and 21°C in the night) are hardly reached in Central Europe.
Possibilities of errors
Lophodermella needle cast (Lophodermella sulcigena), also only the distal half of the needle
yellow. Mychosphaerella pini shows the same symptoms but with red coloring around the banding. First symptoms oft mistake for insects bites.
Effects
Loss of increment; crown thinning, slight shoot and twig dieback, disposition to other damaging factors; a serious danger only to young plants. Tree will die after a long time with strong
defoliation (BWF).
Control
Quarantine-Organism
In case of suspicion the pest control authorities must be informed! Remove and burn all infected plants as soon as possible! By seeding enough space between the seedlings should
be kept. Brown spot needle blight is easily suppressed by applications of bordeaux mixture,
chlorothalonil, benomyl, copper hydroxide and captafol in nurseries, seed orchards, and plantations of longleaf pine and scots pine. Seedlings should be sprayed at 10- to 30-day intervals
depending on the amount of rainfall, from the beginning of spring through late summer.
It is also recommended to make a final spray just prior to planting. This will ensure protection
during establishment of seedlings in the field.
Index
47
Mycosphaerella pini
Mycosphaerella pini
Red band needle blight, Dothistroma needle blight (Engl.), Dothistroma - Kiefernschütte
(Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Rdeč pegavost (obrobljenost) borovih iglic (Slowen.)
Host species Different species of pines, especially common on Austrian pines (Pinus nigra).
Symptoms
Living needles of different age with small yellow, yellow-brown spots who are getting bigger
with time are the first symptom. The needles become yellowed with one to several brown
bands up to one mm broad, later with black shining dots in the bands; frequently, above all
in Austrian pines, orange to salmon red shades in the bands. necrotic areas, abnormal colours,
abnormal leaf fall, fungal growth.
Causal agent
The needle fungus overwinters on infected needles, which remain hanging on the tree or
fall to the ground. In the spring from about March / April, the pine needles are infected by
ascospores or conidia, which have arisen during the winter and early spring. This disease can
be observed mainly in warmer regions with dry summers at low altitudes. Infection however
takes place under moist conditions (fog, rain). The spore bearing structures of the asexual stage
(Dothistroma) show up in the bands after a few months.
Possibilities of errors
The disease can be mistaken for Brown spot-disease (Lecanosticta-needle cast) and the first
symptom for damage by needle sucking insects.
Effects
Increment losses; crown thinning, slight shoot dieback; disposition to other damaging factors.
Endangering the lives of young plants only.
Control
Application of fungicides only in nurseries with young plants or gardens; avoidance of dense
and moist stands and light deficiency. Avoiding of too close planting. Forest nursery not in
adjacency of old Pinus populations.The type of tree plantedshould be carfully selected. Some
pine species are much more susceptible than others and some show resistance to infection
upon maturity.
Index
48
Neonectria coccinea
Neonectria coccinea
beech bark canker (Engl.), Buchenrindennekrose (Deut.), ? (Franc.), Nécrose de l‘écorce du
hêtre, maladie des suintements du hêtre (Ital.), ? (Slowen.)
Host species Deciduous trees; Nectria coccinea mainly on beech and maple.
Symptoms
Patches of dying bark on the stem. Areas become dry, partly sunken, the outer bark breaking
off. Sometimes sap flow close to the dying parts. Commonly high numbers of red, pinhead
sized fruiting bodies. Early yellow coloring and falling of the leaves, shoot’s dying. Red, pinhead
big and round fruiting bodies growth on the borde to the wound or in dead bark parts.
Causal agent
The fungual causes bark necrosis, resulting in callus reaction of varying proportions around the
borders of the necrosis. Nectria coccinea on beech is frequently the consequence of infestation
by the wooly aphid (Cryptococcus fagisuga) or Phytophtera.
Possibilities of errors
Other bark invading pathogenic microfungi, above all after injuries. Damage by bark invading
or Phytophtera. Spruce degeneration, dry, sunburn.
Effects
Sap in the tree is perturbed. Perennial heavy attacks may cause the decline of the tree.
High numbers and wide infected area of bark cankers reduce the vitality (predisposition for
secondary pathogens) and can lead to death of the tree.
Control
Avoid all kinds of injuries, control of wooly aphids, assessment of the residual wall thickness,
disinfection of pruning tools. Disease is not contagious. Trees with strong resin extraction
should be cut early to avoid further wood devaluation.
Index
49
Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi
Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi
Dutch elm disease (Engl.), Holländische Ulmenkrankheit, Ulmensterben (Deut.), Graphiose
de l‘orme, ou maladie hollandaise de l‘orme (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Odmiranje brestov holandska
brestova bolezen (Slowen.)
Host species Elm species.
Symptoms
From the middle of June wilting and curling of green leaves, primarily affecting singular outer branches; discoloration light-green to shining yellow, later on brown; feeding damages
in crotches of young shoots; cross section showing dark, dotty discoloration in the sapwood,
brownish-black longitudinal stripes in the wood below the bark and plugged vessels. In the
beginning death of single shoots and twigs, later on of branches and parts of the crown;
frequent attacks of bark beetles on the stem and thick branches (orc-holes, bark-shedding
and feeding patterns).
Causal agent
The Ascomycete Ophiostoma novo-ulmi - secretion of wilt toxins and thyllosis (plugged
vessels) leading to wilting symptoms and finally to death of plant parts distal to the infection
place; Vector Transmission: bark beetles (Elm bark beetles) carry the spores of the fungus to
healthy trees. There it comes to a new infection of the tree during the maturation feeding on
shoots and crotches. A new infection rarely accurses through root adhesion.
Possibilities of errors
None, possibly drought damage.
Effects
Endangering the life of the elm in Europa; almost led to its entire disappearance. The fungus
disrupts the metabolic- and water transport (typical vascular wilt disease). The disease is lethal.
Control
Curative measures only useful for worth preserving individual tress. Hygiene measures to be
used are clear-cutting of infected branches and stem injections with systemic fungicides (little
success rate). Cutting and disposal of infected trees and weakened trees (nesting tree for elm
bark beetle).WSL.
Index
50
Phacidium infestans
Phacidium infestans
White snow blight (Engl.), Schneeschütte, weißer Schneepilz (Deut.), pourriture des neiges
des conifères (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Borova snežna plesen (Slowen.)
Host species Swiss Pine (Pinus cembra), Pinus sylvestris.
Symptoms
Under the snow are the needle swollen and olive-gray. After the melting of the snow the
needles dry out quickly and turn brown. The needles fade during the summer und are more
brittle. Death needles are hanging in clusters from the branches. In early summer dark gray
to black fruiting bodies can be found under the epidermis, who becomes more visible with
progressing fading (magnifying glass). Usually you can find dying of the bark und buds of
infected branches.
Causal agent
The infected death needle fall easely and can be spread by wind, animals and the human.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
Dying of infected needles, branches, bark and bugs.
Control
Cutting of infected branches and needles should be done short after the smelting of the snow.
New trees should be plant with enough space between them. Chemical control for Phacidium
infestans is only useful in the beginning of an infection of few branches to prevent further
spread. It must be applied in the autumn as prevention and for several years repeated till the
tree growth half of his tree crown out of the snow.
Index
51
Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii
Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii
Swiss needle cast (Engl.), russige Douglasienschütte (Deut.), ? (Franc.), ? (Ital.), Sajasti osip
duglazije (Slowen.)
Host species Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii).
Symptoms
During the summer one-year and older needles show in patches, yellowish to brownish discoloration. In autumn and winter increased spill-brown needles of all years. The losses by thirdyear old needles are usually strongest. Needles are irregular and jagged. On the underside of a
sitting or fallen needles arranged in numerous longitudinal stripes small black dots, the fruiting
bodies of the fungus. In extreme cases, they form a dark, crusty layer. Infected needles can
remain attached to the twigs for a long time, mostly shed only after 2-3 years.
Causal agent
Common weak parasite of Douglas fir, often a consequence of or associated with frost damage,
sometimes only following stand density (light deficiency, high air humidity). Reinfection of
mostly young needles by spores which a spread by wind and rain. The susceptibility of Douglas
fir needles increases after a disturbance of the water balance. The disease sometimes occurred
epidemic in the last past decades.
Possibilities of errors
Effects
By normal infestation is no serious danger for the tree (infected needle is still able to assimilate).
Heavy infestation results in significantly reduced Growth.
Control
No curative measures recommended. Preventive measures: hygienic: thinning of plants, use of
chemical compounds only in cultures or young stands, which are heavily infested: fungicide
treatment as a prevention for the next season (repeated application). Proper c.