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Midterm work
NA3C0006 Christina
In-service Adult Learners’ English Learning Strategies in Taiwan
ChianYi Ju, Shu-Te University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
Reference:
Exploring a new role for teachers: promoting learner autonomy
Nae-Dong Yang
Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures,
National Taiwan University, Taipei, 10764 Taiwan,
ROC
Literature
Review
(synthesize,
interpret and
critique prior
literature,
introduce the
research
background,
the references
include
relevant,
the reviewed
"In-service Adult Learners’ English
Learning Strategies in Taiwan"
" Exploring a new role for teachers:
promoting learner autonomy"
In this article, there are three aspects in the
literature review, 'Language Learning Strategies',
'Explicit Grammar Instruction', and 'The present
Study'. In the first part 'Language Learning
'strategies', it combines both summary and
synthesis, It interpret the background of language
learning strategies and cite some researchers'
definition such as
Bialystok (1978) defined language learning
strategies as optional means for exploiting available
information to improve competence in a second
language.
Stern (1983) thought that strategy is best reserved
In this article, there are two aspects in the
literature review, 'New roles and new perspectives for
teachers', ' The teacher's role in developing students'
learning strategies', it synthesize and interpret prior
literature.
(Nunan, 1993).Teachers are changing their traditional
roles and moving to new ones. They become active
participants, monitors, consultants and guides when
they work closely with their students' language
learning and help students develop better techniques
for learning.
(Wenden, 1991)They transform themselves into
helpers and facilitators
references
were not
current)
for general tendencies or overall characteristics of
the approach employed by the learners, leaving
techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of
observable learning behavior.
Chamot (1987) defined learning strategies as
techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that
students take in order to facilitate the learning and
recall of both linguistic and content area
information.
(Rubin, 1987). learning strategies are strategies
which contribute to the development of the
language system which the learner constructs and
affects learning directly.
O’Malley & Chamot (1990) proposed that learning
strategies are the special thoughts or behaviors that
individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or
retain new information.
Oxford (1990) defined learning strategies as specific
action taken by the learning to make learning easier,
faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more
effective, and more transferable to new situation.
(Ellis, 1994) learning strategies consist of mental or
behavioral activity related to some specific stage in
the overall process of language acquisition or
language use.
MacIntyre (1994) defined language learning
strategies as the techniques and tricks that learners
use to make the language easier to master.
Then, it has critical comment "From the
(Oxford, 1990, p. 8).when they offer suggestions and
guidance in the use of learning strategies, defined as
"actions taken by the learner to make learning easier,
faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more
effective, and more transferable to new situations''.
As Chamot et al. (1993) suggested, it is important for
teachers to show a strongly positive attitude toward
strategy instruction and provide a convincing rationale
for strategy use
(O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; Wenden, 1991).Teachers
should take learners' interests and maturity levels into
consideration when designing strategy assistance and
deciding on the length of time spent on explicit
strategy instruction.
(Oxford, 1990, 1996)The teacher must tailor strategy
guidance to the level of the class and interweave
strategy assistance uniformly into lesson plans.
(Rubin, 1975)Since Rubin's characterization of the
good language learner,
numerous studies have identi®ed and classi®ed
language learning strategies and have discussed
methods for developing students' language learning
strategies (Chamot and Kupper, 1989; O'Malley et al.,
1985a,b; Oxford, 1990, 1993, 1996).
Oxford, for example, has developed the Strategy
Inventory for Language Learning (found in
Oxford, 1990; see also Bedell and Oxford, 1996, and
Oxford and Burry-Stock, 1995) to assess learners'
strategy use in six categories: (a) memory strategies,
definitions above, it is clear that there is no
agreement about what language learning strategies
are. Some defined it as the elements that language
learning included, but some defined it as the
purpose the learners use to learn the language.
The second part is 'Explicit Grammar
Instruction', It compare the studies of some
researchers have agreed that grammar should not be
taught because it should be acquired naturally with
those proposed that grammar should be taught.
Burgess& Etherington’s study (2002) showed that
“Over 60% of respondents agreed that grammar
could be viewed as a framework or a basic system
for the rest of the language.
In Celce-Murcia’s (1991) study, he claimed that
“grammar is the resource for creating meaning
through text and for negotiating socially motivated
communication.”
Batstone (1994) defined grammar as “a formal
framework, a set of categories and forms which
helps us to see language as structured and
systematic.”
In Piaget’s (1973) view, an individual who is capable
of production and creativity should discover or
reconstruct by rediscovering”.
Vygotsky (1978) proposed the ZDP theory and it
suggests the individual’s ability was constructed by
problem solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers”.
(b) cognitive strategies, (c) compensation strategies,
(d) metacognitive strategies, (e) affective strategies
and (f) social strategies.
most studies have found that successful language
learners used more learning strategies, and more
facilitative ones, than did poor learners, although the
number of strategies was less important than the relevance of the strategies to the given language task
(Bialystok, 1979; Chamot and Kupper, 1989; Naiman et
al., 1978; Oxford, 1990, 1993; Rubin, 1975, 1987).
Researchers have identi®ed learners' preconceived
beliefs, or metacognitive knowledge, about language
learning as a major in¯uence on the way they use learning strategies to develop second language competence
(Horwitz, 1987, 1988; Wenden, 1986, 1987a). Yang
(1992)
Teachers should use persuasive communication to
change learners' beliefs and attitudes (Wenden, 1991).
Teachers should encourage students' ``cognitive
restructuring'' (Schmeck, 1988) and raise
metacognitive awareness by asking students to discuss
their beliefs and expectations about language learning.
In addition, teachers have a role in explicit strategy
instruction, as indicated by a variety of research
studies (see Chamot et al., 1993, for a study in Russian,
Spanish and Japanese language classes; O'Malley et al.,
1985b, regarding ESL classes; Yang, 1996, concerning
EFL classes).
Justify
RQ's/purposes
or define
research
issues
Krashen (1982,1985) proposed the similar opinion
on that. He claimed that the only way for students to
acquire grammar is to get exposure naturally to
comprehensible input in the target language.
Ellis (1994, 2001) also suggested that the
consciousness raising tasks appear to be an effective
type of classroom activity.
Norris and Orgeta (2000) believed that explicit
types of instruction are more effective than implicit
types, and the instruction effects are durable.
In Larsen-Freeman’s (2003) view, explicit teaching
can speed up the learning of these features or
pattern by making them more salient, encouraging
students to allocate attention to them.
Researchers have offered various suggestions about
how teachers should conduct strategy training: include
multiple kinds of strategies (Wenden and Rubin,
1987); take into account affective issues such as
motivation, beliefs and attitudes (Oxford et al., 1990);
conduct strategy training oneself rather than having it
done by outside researchers, and be fully trained
before conducting it (Chamot, et al. 1993; Chamot and
KuÈ pper, 1989; Rubin et al., 1988); interweave
strategy training within regular language instruction
over a long duration (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990;
Oxford, 1990; Wenden, 1987b); provide complete
strategy training in which students learn not only how
to apply learning strategies but also why strategies are
useful (Oxford et al., 1990) and follow a clear sequence
of steps such as identifying and assessing students'
current strategies, preparing students for strategy
instruction, providing formal strategy instruction
(explanation, modeling, practice and integration) and
evaluating the success of the instruction (Hosenfeld et
al., 1981;O'Malley and Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990;
Weinstein and Underwood, 1985).
The last part is 'The Present Study', based on the
front two parts, it leads logically to the research
questions.
1. How frequent do the adult students in this study
use language learning strategies?
Based on the front two parts, it leads logically to the
language learning project.
The instructor designed the language learning project
as a major component in a second language acquisition
course, an elective course meeting 3 hours per week.
proposed
2. What are the most and the least used language
learning strategies?
3. What is the relationship between language
learning strategies used and their English
proficiency level?
4. Does the explicit grammar instruction make any
improvements in mastery the English language?
The instructor adopted the sequence shown above
(diagnosis, preparation, instruction and evaluation) as
the basis of the project. Students were told they
needed to write a proposal for their language learning
projects, keep a weekly diary and evaluate their
learning at the semester's end. The course has now
been offered each year for 4 years.
Research
method
There were two phases in the present study. In the
first phase, a total of 184 students participated
and completed the Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL) and the Personal background
Information Questionnaire.
In the second phase, a total of 79 students out of the
184 in the phase 1 attended a four hour explicit
grammar instruction course per week. All the
participants received 2 tests respectively before and
after receiving the instruction, and completed an
English-self-assessment chart.
During these 4 years, 40 students have enrolled in the
course and participated in the language learning
project. Among them, 18 were males and 22 were
females. The majority (32) were English majors, but
others came from departments of sociology, politics,
library science, physics and mathematics.
About 40% designed their learning projects to relate to
the language courses they were currently taking at the
university or at the Language Testing and Teaching
Center located on campus, while approximately
60% were doing self-study based on their own
learning plan.
Research
finding
Teaching and learning are designed activities. With
the understanding about students, teachers can
arrange the environment, design the curriculum and
teaching materials, and delivery them to students.
The research reported here has attempted to
discover and strategies adult students possess when
learning English so that teachers can design an
The course raised students' awareness of language
learning strategies, improved students' use of
strategies, taught students how to assess their own
language proficiency, set goals, and evaluate
progress, and enabled students to experience greater
overall autonomy in learning. Throughout the effort,
the instructor's role was to facilitate the structure,
effective English learning instruction. The purpose
was fulfilled in the study. With the success for
adults’ English learning result in Taiwan,
researchers and teachers should aware of the
importance
Significance of First, the role of grammar instruction seems
study
important to those participants at any stages of
receiving explicit grammar instruction. That would
represent how students strongly rely on a formal
instruction in English classes. Second, the perception
of general grammar knowledge held by students at
different stages was increased significantly, either
on pronunciation, word order within sentences, or
the tenses of verbs. Thirdly, the reinforcement of
general grammar knowledge raised the conscious
learning within the students and also enhanced the
uses of learning strategies and English proficiency
performance.
process, beliefs and strategies necessary for learner
autonomy to become a reality.
First, because of their initially unrealistic beliefs about
language learning, students tended to set overly
ambitious goals in the beginning. Teachers could also
present related information on language proficiency to
help students set realistic goals. Second, students'
initial use of learning strategies was sometimes related
to inaccurate beliefs. By providing information and
helping change students' misconceptions through
lectures, debates, panel discussions and reading
materials, teachers can encourage effective strategy
use and promote learner autonomy. Third, some
students lacked self-discipline and needed support
from each other and the teacher. Teachers cannot
force, beg or threaten students into learning, but
must instead provide structured formats, such as peer
support groups. Fourth, many students were studying
their chosen language without a language
teacher or language class. Some of these students
experienced difficulties with the concept of
self-assessment, and this was exacerbated by the
absence of self-assessment materials.