Download Troublesome T`s of Tuning

The University of Miami
Frost School of Music
The Troublesome T’s of Tuning Wind Instruments
by
Brian C. Wuttke
A PAPER
submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for
MED647
Coral Gables, Florida
26th of November, 2007
For many instrumental music teachers, tuning the winds in the ensemble, and
keeping them in tune may be the most daunting musical task their job requires. This is
supported by the large number of articles that have appeared in music education
publications. Comments received from judges and critics at festivals citing intonation as
the most common concern is a likely reason for sustained interest in this subject (Pottle,
1962; Price, 2006). A recent study found that students who received first-division ratings
at solo and ensemble performances were among the most accurate tuners in the sample
population (Yarbrough, Morrison & Karrick, 1997). Although there seems to be high
interest in improving intonation performance of wind instrumentalists, few researchers
have scientifically examined methods of improving tuning skills, and fewer still on
dealing with improving tuning skills in a group setting. A logical assumption as to the
reason this problem exists may lie in the fact that the subject of intonation requires
specific details associated with extra-musical subject areas such as physics, psychoacoustics, mathematics, and a keen understanding of the technology needed to extrapolate
results from raw data.
Therefore, this brief survey of research categorizes “the
troublesome T’s of tuning” in relation to: (1) Timbre, (2) Technique and Training, (3)
Temperature and Tendencies, (4) Tradition of Temperament and (5) Technology.
Timbre
The general assumption that good tone production and characteristic tone quality
are required of individual players before good intonation can occur (Kohut, 1996) seems
to be supported by research. Timbre has been found to significantly affect woodwind
students’ abilities to detect intonational deviations in listening tasks, and these students
are significantly better at detecting intonation deviations involving unlike timbral
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combinations than they are in duets involving like timbral combinations (Ely, 1992).
Results from studies measuring the effect of tone color indicate that musicians associate
“bright” tone with sharp and “dark” with flat intonation. As a strobe tuner will reveal, this
may not always be true in practice. Ultimately, tone quality is a factor affecting both the
perception and performance of pitch. Teachers desiring to increase student ability to
discriminate differences in pitch should be aware of the apparent influence of tone quality
on pitch perception (Worthy, 2000).
Technique and Training
The idea that intonation can be improved through training seems logical.
Common practice suggests techniques such as teaching students beat elimination,
vocalization techniques and working with tuners can improve musician tuning skills.
Again, research seems to support this notion. Aural, visual and “conventional” tuning
methods produce significant improvement in intonation discrimination with no one
method producing significantly superior results to any other. In an early study measuring
this concept, the aural method consisted of: (1) practicing while using an electronic pitch
reference, (2) comparing played tones with reference tones, and (3) perception and
performance using the beat elimination method. The visual method used a strobe tuner to
detect intonation tendencies indicating needed correction to student performers. The
“conventional” method presented concepts related to good intonation which allowed for
student and instructor to identify pitch deficiencies in performance. All three methods
were conducted through private, not group instruction (Graves, 1963). Of the three
methods, teaching tuning skills through the process of beat elimination is an important
area of focus. Beginning students can then be trained how to eliminate beats from
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mismatched pitches. Furthermore, most beginning wind students can use this strategy to
match unison and harmonized pitches on their instruments to achieve correct intonation
(Miles, 1972).
An important component of teaching students tuning skills is that, until the time a
student is ready for college, the ability to perform in tune does not correlate with the
ability to detect intonation deficiencies in performance. In other words, students can
perceive intonation deficiencies independent of their ability to recreate good intonation in
performance. This likely has to do with the performer being able to conceptualize,
perceive, and understand what needs to be done to improve intonation prior to having the
physical ability to improve intonation (Ely, 1992). One way to jump-start the process of
manipulating pitch may be through vocalization, or the practice of singing exercises
before playing them on an instrument. In a survey of research by Jon Nichols (1987)
pertaining to vocalization, he found that “singing can significantly improve tuning skills
for elementary (Elliott, 1974) and secondary students (Harris, 1977), but that it had little
effect among university (Smith, 1984) wind players.” This seems to corroborate Ely’s
findings (1992) that the “training effect” may plateau at the college level.
While the trainability may plateau, the propensity for certain errors in pitch may
not. Findings from a recent study indicate that students can match isolated pitches more
accurately than pitches within a melodic context. Although this skill seems to improve
with experience, wind players tend to err towards the sharp direction (Morrison, 2000).
The error towards sharpness supports a landmark study that found private instruction
significantly affected high school wind players perception of mismatched pitches as well
as their ability to tune accurately. High school wind players tend to err towards the sharp
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direction regardless of years of experience, participation in private instruction, or the
direction of mistuning (Yarbrough, Morrison & Karrick, 1997).
Temperature and Tendencies
While most instrumental music teachers realize that tuning to a predetermined
pitch, either “Bb” or “A”, is important in establishing uniformity of pitch in the ensemble,
it is often taken for granted how much these tuning pitches have fluctuated over time.
Instrument manufacturers and musicians have long realized that the first step in
establishing pitch uniformity in the ensemble was recognizing a set tuning standard.
Throughout history the pitch “A” has often been used as the tuning standard and it has
fluctuated considerably. Some pipe organs manufactured in 1500 A.D. are centered at
“A”=505.8 Hz. From the late 16th through 17th centuries, this tuning standard gradually
decreased to “A”=393.2 Hz in order to accommodate instruments representative of that
time. However, from the early 18th century, “A” tended to increase, varying from 415429 Hz. In the 19th century, as the orchestra assumed greater importance, wind
instruments were improved through a variety of technological advances. One method for
producing exciting effects was raising the pitch of the sounds. By the end of the century,
some wind bands were performing at a tuning frequency of “A”=457 Hz. Although a
preliminary attempt to fix “A”=440 Hz was proposed by a “Congress of Physicists” held
at Stuttgart in 1834, “A”=440 Hz at 72° was not recognized internationally until 1939. A
standard of tuning is essential in order to circumvent tuning complications that would
occur in the ensemble if instruments manufactured to different standards were used. For
example, a clarinet manufactured to “A”=440 Hz at 72° will have its barrel pushed in
considerably at 72° whereas a clarinet manufactured to “A”=442 Hz at 72° will have its
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barrel pulled. Even greater discrepancies, especially for throat tones, will arise as
tradition dictates that clarinets are often tuned completely closed to concert “Bb” or “A”
(Kent, 1959).
In spite of recognizing a set tuning standard, other factors such as temperature
extremes can cause diametrically opposed pitch discrepancies in even the best wind
instruments. The next logical step for the instrumental music teacher in establishing pitch
uniformity in wind instruments is perceiving how extreme temperatures affect pitch. As a
general rule, pitch tends to rise incrementally in wind instruments as room temperature
increases. This increase is not the same among different wind instruments (Table 1). To
compound this problem, pitch tends to fall incrementally in keyboard percussion
instruments as room temperature increases. To compensate for discrepancies of pitch at
extreme high temperatures, the director could raise the tuning standard “A”=442 Hz at
higher temperatures (+80°), but then must accept the discrepancies between wind and
non-wind instruments (Kent, 1959; Pottle, 1962). Therefore it is advisable to maintain the
tuning standard of “A”=440 Hz whenever possible (Garofalo, 1996).
Perhaps the most perplexing problem facing wind instrumentalists is maintaining
pitch uniformity at extreme dynamic levels. Not understanding these tendencies can
confound an instrumental music teacher trying to solve tuning problems in varying
degrees of loudness. Therefore, the third step in dealing with pitch uniformity is for the
director to understand how varying degrees of loudness affects wind instruments. In
general, tones from single reed instruments fall flat as loudness increases whereas brass
instruments and flutes sound increasingly sharp when played louder, with flute pitch
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deviations being most noticeable (Table 2). In some cases, deviations due to dynamic
change can be as much as 25 cents (Pottle, 1961).
Tradition of Temperament
The assumption that the modern tuning system of equal temperament is the best
because of its’ widespread acceptance is misleading. Intonation practices, like style and
dynamic interpretation, is based upon periodic trends. The present system of equaltemperament has gained wide acceptance as a musical pitch standard only recently.
Although piano tuners knew of the concept of equal temperament as early as the late
Renaissance period, J.S. Bach preferred an extended meantone system for tuning
keyboards. This system still allowed for some pure thirds and fifths in certain keys.
Therefore, contrary to popular belief, Bach’s music for “The Well-Tempered Clavier” is
not synonymous with equal temperament (Duffin, 2007).
Understanding that performing some period music using equal temperament as
the only approach to tuning defies the intent of certain composers who may have
embraced other temperaments prevalent to their time. For example, on some manuscripts
to composition pupil Thomas Attwood, we know W. A. Mozart was aware of the system
of meantone temperament by the descriptions he wrote regarding the difference between
the “mezzi tuoni grande” (large half tones) and “mezzi tuoini piccolo” (small half tones).
Duffin provides a vivid example realizing the relevancy of this knowledge in a passage
from Mozart’ G minor Quintet (K. 516) where the first violin has an identical passage in
measure 92 and 93 differentiated only by the use of an enharmonic F# in measure 93
instead of the Gb used in measure 92 (Figure 1). Modern pedagogue Arnold Steinhardt
suggests the “F# in bar 93 should be played ever so slightly higher than the Gb in the
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previous measure,” contrary to what Mozart might expect (Duffin, 2007). A harmonic
analysis supports Mozart in that the Gb is part of a fully diminished seventh chord in
which the diminished 7th should be raised to balance the tri-tone from the minor third,
whereas the F# is the major 3rd of a Dominant 7th chord in which the major third should
be lowered for a pure third.
A recent study found that advanced wind instrumentalists tend to deviate less
from equal temperament than Pythagorean and just-diatonic systems when performing
with a recorded excerpt containing equal tempered melodic and harmonic content. The
greatest deviation in pitch occurs with the intervals of thirds and sixths rather than
fourths, fifths and octaves (Karrick, 1998). This supports how perplexing it can be for
contemporary musicians when making decisions about tuning. In modern wind
performance, a flexible approach incorporating a variety of intonation systems should be
realized. For music containing beats longer in duration than one second and in the
absence of keyboard percussion instruments, just intonation should be used. In other
words, tuning all of the pitches and intervals until the combined sound is beatless. When
keyboard instruments are present, it is advisable for the performers to listen and adjust to
the equal-tempered system of tuning present in the fixed pitch instruments (Colnott,
2002).
Technology
With the acceptance of digital technology, testing for pitch deviation of tuning
practices and preferences is increasingly measurable. Computer-based training programs
are significantly effective in helping undergraduate college music education majors make
judgments about equal tempered and just-diatonic systems of harmonic intonation
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(Dalby, 1992). Improvements in instrument manufacturing may be less noticed but are
important nonetheless. Electronic tuners can assist the director by providing a stable pitch
reference regardless of adverse environmental factors. Petersen tuners, once relegated
solely to the spinning dials much like the strobo-Conn have made several noteworthy
developments in digital tuner technology. The StroboFlip is geared towards individual
players, can fit in an instrument case, and features a digital display that emulates the
spinning dials. This obviously has several advantages over traditional electronic tuners in
that emulating the strobe tuner can also assist the student in reinforcing good tone
production.
Another innovative technology that makes use of the compact disc player is the
Tuning Partner Intonation CD. Thirty-seven chromatic reference pitches in 4 octaves with
enhanced overtones provide a solid stimulus for students who need to practice long tones.
The tracks on the CD may also be used as a drone for tuning wind instruments in group
settings. Another relatively new device manufactured by the Yamaha Corporation, the
Harmony Director 200, provides immediate aural feedback of harmonic content in a
variety of programmable temperaments for directors and students to use in private and
group settings.
Assuming that each student has a quality instrument, or at the very least, a quality
mouthpiece and/or reed and ligature combination, much can be done to improve
ensemble intonation. Based upon the findings presented in this survey, instrumental
music teachers should:
1. Provide opportunities for students to practice tuning skills in heterogeneous as
well as homogenous instrumental ensembles.
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2. Demonstrate the relationship between good tone quality and pitch. For example,
performing on a wind instrument with a Strobe tuner can visually demonstrate
how timbral considerations affect pitch.
3. Use a variety of approaches such as Aural (beat awareness and elimination),
Visual (identifying instrument pitch tendencies with a tuner) and Conceptual
(practicing “conventional” wisdom) designs to introduce and reinforce tuning
concepts with students.
4. Organize daily singing sessions of melodic and harmonic studies since they can
have a significant impact on improving pitch discrimination skills for elementary
and secondary wind instrumentalists.
5. Provide numerous opportunities for teaching tuning skills in young wind
instrumentalists as learning tends to plateau by college.
6. Encourage private instruction as it significantly affects high school wind players
perception of mismatched pitches as well as their ability to tune accurately.
7. Constantly encourage good tuning practices in all students because student
perceptions of pitch deviation may precede their ability to accurately match pitch
on their instrument.
8. Provide an environment with a stable temperature (72°), warm-up adequately, and
be able to respond with adequate instructions for students as to how to adjust their
instruments in adverse temperatures (+80°).
9. Adequately prepare the conducting score by indicating where extreme dynamics
affect pitch. Complete a harmonic analysis on the score to identify pitch
tendencies of notes relevant to temperament and style period.
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10. Investigate new technologies that can assist in providing accurate models of
temperament and/or training of wind instrumentalists in regards to pitch.
Research dealing with wind instrument intonation is essential for improving the
quality of instruction in regards to pitch. With the widespread acceptance of equal
temperament in popular music, it might be interesting to measure preferences of different
temperaments in musicians and non-musicians. Of course, this might only be relevant in
terms of ensemble makeup and musical style. To assist wind instrument teachers, it
would be of great benefit to identify successful instrumental teachers and record the
frequency of their “best practices” in regards to teaching intonation skills in group
settings. An area of great concern would be mandating the reporting of room temperature
in all studies involving pitch discrimination or tuning whenever performance on wind
instruments is required. Since wind instrument pitch has been shown to deviate in
extreme temperatures, this would help alleviate falsely skewed results. Finally, a
continued effort to measure methods of teaching harmonic intonation skills to wind
instrumentalists in group settings is important in that (1) many students are unable to
obtain private lessons and (2) there is a surprising deficit of research in this domain.
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TABLE 1 (Pottle, 1962)
TABLE 2 (Pottle, 1962)
FIGURE 1 (Duffin, 2007)
REFERENCES
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Dalby, B. F. (1992). A computer-based training program for developing harmonic
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Duffin, R. W. (2007) How Equal Temperament Ruined Harmony (and Why You Should
Care). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.
Ely, M. C. (1992). Effects of timbre on college woodwind players’ intonational
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Fabrizio, A. C. (1994). A Guide to the Understanding and Correction of Intonation
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Garofalo, R. J. (1996) Improving Intonation in Band and Orchestra Performance. Ft.
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Graves, W. L. (1965). A comparison of three methods for improving intonation in the
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Karrick, B. (1998). An examination of the intonation tendencies of wind instrumentalists
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Kent, E. L. (1959). The Effect of Temperature on the Tuning Standards of Wind
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