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Cultural Landscapes as Symbols of
National Identity-Protection or Change?
The Shifting Aspects of Landscape Identity
Ana KUÈAN
SUMMARY
The problem of landscape identity is particularly present in the view of the current
changes in rural land-use patterns, where, as a consequence, the identities of
traditional rural societies seem threatened. The problem lies in the perception of
spatial identity as a physical phenomenon, while in reality it is an ever evolving
relationship. The social conception of the national space is shaped within the
processes of communication, and tends inevitably towards uniformity, regardless
of its actual geographical diversity. Specific landscapes within national space
emerge as representative of the whole, usually appearing as symbolic places or
as conceptualized landscape types composed of various and distinct landscape
features. Following the survey of historical relations between the generation of
national consciousness and space, the research continued with the analysis of
pictorial presentations of landscapes in tourist and political advertisments and
with a public opinion survey. The results show that national identity is defined
not only by symbolic places but also by special landscape types and that the
popular conception of national space does not exist as an absolute: It changes in
different time periods and adopts various meanings among particular social strata
or groups depending on the context of its use. The study confirmed the existence
of a motif that is no longer linked to a precisely specified place and thus loses the
particularities of a concrete location. No longer linked to a specific geographic
location, it assumes the role of the representative of the whole in the conception.
Thus the concept in all its forms does not necessarily relate directly to the
contemporary physical reality of the environment.
KEY WORDS
identity, landscape, social conception
E-mail: [email protected]
Department of Landscape Architecture
Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana. Slovenia
Received: December 23, 1998
AGRICULTURAE CONSPECTUS SCIENTIFICUS, Vol. 64, No. 4, 1999 (259-268)
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PREGLEDNI RAD
Kulturni krajobrazi kao simboli
nacionalnog identiteta-oèuvati ili mijenjati?
Promjenljivi aspekti identiteta krajobraza
Ana KUÈAN
SAŽETAK
Pitanje identiteta krajobraza je posebno prisutno u vidu stalnih promjena u seoskim
oblicima korištenja zemljišta, gdje kao posljedica, identiteti tradicionalnih ruralnih
društava, izgledaju ugroženi. Problem je u percepciji prostornog identiteta kao fizièkog
fenomena, dok se zaista radi o stalnoj interakciji. Društveno poimanje nacionalnog
prostora se oblikuje unutar procesa komunikacije, i neumitno vodi ka uniformnosti, bez
obzira na realnu geografsku raznolikost. Unutar nacionalnog prostora, posebni krajobrazi
izviru poput predstavnika cjeline i obièno podsjeæaju na simbolièka mjesta ili na
konceptualizirane tipove krajobraza sastavljene od razlièitih i prepoznatljivih krajobraznih
oblika. Nadovezujuæi se na pregled povijesnih odnosa izmeðu generacije nacionalne
svijesti i prostora, istraživanja se nastavljaju analizom slikovitog prikaza karajobraza u
turistièkim i politièkim reklamama i ispitivanjem javnog mnijenja. Rezultati pokazuju da
se nacionalni identitet definira ne samo simbolièkim mjestima veæ i posebnim tipovima
krajobraza, i da popularna koncepcija nacionalnog prostora ne postoji kao apsolut: ovisno
o kontekstu u kojem se upotrebljava, koncepcija nacionalnog prostora se mijenja u
razlièitim vremenskim periodima, pa joj razlièiti društveni slojevi ili grupe, pridaju razlièito
znaèenje. Ovim radom se potvrðuje postojanje motiva koji više nije vezan za sasvim
odreðeno mjesto, pa se stoga gube specifiènosti konkretne lokacije. Kako više nije vezan
uz specifiènu geografsku lokaciju, on u koncepciji preuzima na sebe ulogu predstavnika
cjeline. Stoga se koncept u svim svojim oblicima ne odnosi uvijek direktno na suvremenu
fizièku stvarnost okoliša.
KLJUÈNE RIJEÈI
identitet, krajobraz, društveni koncept
E-mail: [email protected]
Oddelek za krajinsko arhitekturo
Biotehniška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani
Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
Primljeno: 23. prosinca 1998.
ACS, Agric. conspec. sci. Vol. 64, No. 4, 1999 (259-268)
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AS SYMBOLS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY - PROTECTION OR CHANGE?
LANDSCAPE IDENTITY
In landscape planning and design we constantly
encounter the need to define the identity of the
landscape. Due to the modernization of agricultural
production, and, in Slovenia in particular, due to the
deagrarization processes, rural landscapes face physical
alterations. Also the socio-economic change that has
recently transformed the so-called “East-European”
countries, combined with the eventual integration in
European Union, will cause large restructuring of
landscape configuration, mostly in the form and
allocation of land-use. These facts brought about some
fears that common agricultural politics will surpass and
neglect regional differences and uniform the
environment, resulting in the loss of couleur locale and
consequently the identity of the place. The reason that
landscape identity became the core of professional
attention is the scope of the envisioned change.
Although aware of the fact that landscapes change
constantly, the society considers them as unchangeable
— it is normal that we consider our environment as more
enduring than ourselves, which helps build the
impression of permanence and stability (Lowenthal
1994), especially in the case of traditional rural
landscapes. Until recently, their changing has been slow,
almost unnoticeable, and therefore they stood as a
secure factor of group identity.
PRESERVATION OR CHANGE?
What immediately comes to light in the professional
context is precisely the problem of the erroneous
perception of spatial identity as unchangeable; it is dealt
with as a physical phenomenon, a given situation in
space, while in reality it involves ever new relationships.
Landscapes are the results of reciprocal interaction
between the space and the individuals and the society,
who change the space and inscribe their history on it
through their action. So, even when we collectively
acknowledge some change in the landscape, we only
do so to read in it the past we remember and desire.
Despite that the problem obviously lies in the attitude
of the society to the space, we too often treat landscape
identity as a condition. The psychological and
sociological findings regarding the collective placeattachment have already revealed that this identification
is about belonging to what the physical components
symbolize and not to themselves as such (Lenz-Romeiss
1970). The landscape planning thus needs to seek for
more precise answers to the question of how to protect
and preserve, if it is possible at all, the image of the
cultural landscape at a time when the ways of using the
land and the relations to the space are changing
fundamentally. Will this development indeed mean a
loss of identity or will it bring qualitative change?
THE SOCIAL CONCEPTION OF THE NATIONAL SPACE
To look for the answers, we first have to define what is
the identity of the landscape and how it evolves. The
study, conducted at the Departmen of Landscape
Architecture, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana
(Kuèan 1996), focused on seeking those components,
which define Slovene landscapes as “Slovene” ones,
through the analysis of landscape images in the social
conception. It presents and evaluates several factors that
influenced the formation of landscape identity in the
social conception. Therefore, it relies on the basic
assumption that the national identity as a special form
of group identity is established in the spiritual sphere
of a nation, yet also embodied, outside it in the field of
physis, in space as a totality of natural circumstances,
human activity, and the social value system; that is, in
the landscape.
As records of human intervention in space, landscapes
can be the carriers of collective identity and historical
memory (Smith 1991, Daniels 1993, Cosgrove and
Daniels 1988). But, being utilitarian, they do not hold
direct messages; symbolic meanings are subsequently
attached to them. Landscape features act as message
carriers only after they have entered the systems of
communication between the society as a producer and
the individual as a consumer and, as such, form the
social conceptions of space.
Illustration 1. Diagram of cyclical interactions between the individual, the society and the landscape showing the
formation of conceptual categories.
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This process is repetitive, and because the attribution
of meaning is relative according to diverse interests in
the processes of perception and assessment, the
activation of mythical properties in the process of imagecreation is unavoidable. Thus the conception does not
necessarily match the spatial reality.
We should probably add here that the study did not
seek the absolute landscape identity for Slovenia,
describable by geographical data, but rather attempted
to understand how the social conception of space was
formed, and how it was linked to the national identity.
Until the middle of the 19th century, the awareness of
the landscape existed primarily at the local level, and
people identified themselves with an area. It is generally
accepted that the national consciousness began to
develop at that time, and spread only gradually from
narrow intellectual circles to the population in general.
In Slovenia, a thesis exists that - as Vodopivec (1996:10)
puts it - “national consciousness pushed out and finally
replaced the provincial consciousness and the feeling of
the regional belonging.” Vodopivec himself does not
agree, however, and believes that it is possible to prove
that all the feelings of belonging continued to live side
by side.
Relative to the perception of national identity in
Slovenia, the question particularly arises of whether,
given the well-known geographical diversity of Slovene
territory, there is a possibility (and suitability) for the
existence of a single conception, stable in time and in
harmony with space, a symbol towards which the
concept of “national unity” tends to by definition.
Braudel (1988: 38) in his L’identité de la France
characterizes France with the statement “France is
variety”, and critically assesses the creation of one image,
one formula, one myth as a powerful but in the long
term futile endeavor. The same could be said of Slovenia,
where geographical diversity is objectively present and
clearly visible in a much smaller space which, in
comparison, barely corresponds to a single French
region. In any case, the variety is not only apparent but
also corresponds to concrete reality. Thus, the present
study was accompanied by a doubt that only one
singular mental image of the Slovene landscape existed;
however, it was encouraged by observations that exactly
this type of conception had formed in our everyday life
and was exploited by individual economic and political
interests. There is also the question of how such a
singular image affects the relationship of the society and
its individuals to the space, and thereby the diversity of
the Slovene landscape reality.
HYPOTHESIS AND GOALS
The hypothesis of the study assumes that:
• the national identity is not bound merely to the
territory determined by borders;
• a social conception exists that corresponds to an ideal
landscape type;
• the social conception is not absolute: it depends on
the familiarity with a space, on the intention with
which we call it into our consciousness, and on the
period; that is, on the value system currently
prevailing in the society.
The following goals for the study logically emerged from
these assumptions:
• to discover what are the components of a specific
social conception of the national space,
• to discover the ways by which the components
acquire their identification role, and
• to ascertain the relationship between the physical and
symbolic factors that determine it.
To answer these questions, the study tackled the problem
in three complementary ways.
THE RESEARCH MODEL
The study assembled a symbolic picture of the national
space from landscape scenes linked to the conception
of Slovene identity that circulates in the systems of social
communication. The choice of visual material is
supported by the fact that we primarily perceive
landscapes visually. Because the depictions of landscapes
themselves infer a choice within a value system, that is,
symbolic assessments and the collection of signs are
incorporated. Given the nature of the problem, the
research comprised three parts, each investigating a part
of the hypothesis.
The first part involved historical review, first of the
evolution of the Slovene ethnic identity and later of the
Slovene national identity, and a search for their links
with individual parts, places, and landscape features of
the “home space.” It examined how particular areas
entered social consciousness, and considered landscape
descriptions in the works of literature and painting that
reveal how artists and other promoters of Slovene
nationhood tried to express the Slovene character of
particular spaces.
The second part, the analysis of pictorial advertising
material, was aimed at discerning the components of
visual language associated with Slovene nationhood in
tourist, commercial, and political propaganda between
1945 and 1995. Pictograms were “invented” to enable
generalization and comparison of the images of the
landscapes and their components. To each image a
location was determined on the map of Slovenia, which
showed the percentage of the territory included in the
conception and value hierarchy between the areas.
The third part was a public opinion survey to confirm
the immediate recognition of these components by the
general public. As opposed to a general social
conception, it provides a collection of rather personal
opinions about the characteristics of the Slovene landscape. The goal of this part of the study was to discover
whether there were differences in the conceptions of
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CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AS SYMBOLS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY - PROTECTION OR CHANGE?
individual groups within the society relative to their social standing or the
location of their residence, and whether there were differences as regards
the intention of the conceptions, that is, differences between the spatial
conception that is supposedly transmitted between generations, a kind of
“fatherland education,” and the conception used to establish and maintain
one’s self-image in relation to other people. The questions were combined
with photographic representations of various Slovene landscapes.
Given the subject of discussion, and in order to achieve the greatest possible
validity, it made sense to carry out a public opinion survey on the basis of
a representative sample whose structure would reflect that of the
population. The representative sample was determined by the Center for
the Research of Public Opinion and Mass Communications at the Faculty
of Social Sciences, which also carried out the survey. In composing the
survey, the attention was primarily devoted to the problem of how to best
describe the landscape space of Slovenia without imposing our own
conceptions on those surveyed. Therefore, the questionnaire retains the
three levels of landscape unit size classes- place, motif, component—and
asks about them with both photographs and text. The space is described
by using carefully chosen spatial units that can act both as individual units
and as general phenomena, depending on the context of conceptualization.
The survey asked about motif at two levels: about the characteristics or
selected components of the space which in various combinations formed
landscape patterns and about the landscape types or broader landscape
patterns with which we can describe the diversity of the Slovene space.
In contrast to the other two parts of the research, the survey, through
recognizing the characteristics and significance of the landscape units that
build the conception of Slovenia in the perception and assessment of
individuals, was aimed at discovering more intimate layers of the placeattachment of the population to the place they live.
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Illustration 2. The creation of
pictograms for the description of
landscape motifs.
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Ana KUÈAN
RESULTS
The Changeability of the Conception-A Shifting Identity
While the first part of the research was rather informative, both the second
and the third part questioned the existence of various conceptions of the same
concept: they intended to discover whether differences exist in the conception
of a Slovene space relative to its use. Following the research model about
varying conceptions of the same concept (Roth and Frisby 1986), it is also
possible to conclude that within one social group in the same time period
there are many perceptions of the same object, depending on its use. If it is
the perception that defines the identification (recognition) of space or the
identification of an individual or a certain community with the space they
inhabit, and the perception itself is also conditioned by the use (Canter 1977),
then very probably there are differences in the meanings of individual parts
of space, either in the places or in the landscape types and individual
components. The reason probably lies in the use of the conception, that is in
the purpose the concept is activated for. First is certainlyan individual’s personal
assessment one’s desire to convey a particular perception within a certain
community (more precisely, to transmit values between generations, that is,
the “fatherland education”), that makes it possible to maintain the continuity
aspect of group identity. Second is the communication of one’s self-image to
the outside world (specifically, establishing one’s identity by comparison with
other groups in other spaces - the differentiation aspect).
Results from the analysis of the propaganda material proved that the conception
of the space is relative to the time-dynamics: the analysis revealed time periods,
which differ by the part of the territory included in a particular related
conception, and by motifs, that is by specific aggregations of individual
landscape components that can be encountered in various spatial contexts,
which define the periods in terms of contents. Some of these motifs are present
Illustration 3. Some most
frequent motifs describing
Slovene landscapes
Illustration 4. Comparison between personal, “fatherland education”,
and presentational conception.
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CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AS SYMBOLS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY - PROTECTION OR CHANGE?
in all of the detected periods, and as such they act as
connectors providing continuity, while the others pile
differently in different periods. Some of the later
appear more often than the others, and only in specific
contexts of meaning. This is most expressive in the
pictorial language of political propaganda.
The results clearly showed the differences in the size
classes of landscape units: “the national” identifies
conceptually with entire regions and areas, as well as
with concrete places or even with individual landscape
features, i.e. selected landscape components. The
conception binds all of them indiscriminately into some
sort of a spatial collage; therefore, in the conception,
even geographically distant landscape features can
form one image, unrelated to size and position.
The research confirmed, that some forms of the
conception act as a prototype, a landscape motif(s)
without clear connections to a certain place (or
locality), thus creating the general landscape image of
Slovenia. The social conception is, therefore, also an
ideological construct: it seems independent of the
changes which reformed landscapes in the course of
history; it neglects geographical diversities, and often
becomes an object of manipulation. Especially, when
particular social groups use commonly acknowledged
symbols to generalize its own system of values over
the entire nation.
Illustration 5. Maps of Slovenia showing the
distribution of locations of the pictorial
representations of landscapes included in
advertising material in different time periods
Despite some formal elements of continuity, the social
conception of space in Slovenia also demonstrates
some shifts in meaning in different time periods. Recent
political propaganda pushes the conception back into
the frame of the era when the idea of national identity
was established in the 19th century. Today, however,
the formal elements carry a different meaning: they
do no represent liberal progressive ideas as they did
as the symbols of establishing national identity within
the Austro-Hungarian empire, but a rather nostalgic,
traditionalistic, even conservative point of view. In the
continuity within the media image, the only exception
is presented by the period following Word War II, when
the spirit of building a new society prevailed, and the
spirit of technology and progress became evident in
the landscape conceptions, even on tourist posters.
Then, industrialization was an external sign that
Yugoslavia - which at the time Slovenia was a part was capable of overcoming economic backwardness
and guaranteeing progress. The healthy and idyllic rural
world depicted by some popular painters was then not
suitable for the “official” presentation of the country;
furthermore, the spatial components, which denoted
the former social order, were disappearing. However,
in parallel with the pictorial material, through which
Slovenia presented itself in the framework of the then
new Yugoslavia (from 1945 on), the places which
remained were those that ideologically acceptable
positive factors and personalities linked to the national
identity and the struggle for its existence. Although not
always against it, Slovenia did not entirely consent to
the “Yugoslav” concept: It still searched for and
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Ana KUÈAN
Illustrations 6.
Pictorial depictions of
the current attitude of
the conception of
national space in three
different time periods:
a)
b)
c)
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the painting Rodna
gruda Native soil,
by Maksim Gaspari,
a pre-World War II
postcard,
a tourist “propaganda”
from 1949: Turizem izvrševalcem petletke.
Tourism – to the
executors of the
Five-Year Plan.
election poster from
parliamentary
elections in 1992:
Vrnili bomo sloveniji
dušo, srce in nasmeh.
We will give back
the soul, the heart
and the smile to
Slovenia.
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES AS SYMBOLS OF NATIONAL IDENTITY - PROTECTION OR CHANGE?
established its own identity within the multinational
state. For this purpose, the geographic characteristics
of its territory offered Slovenia numerous easily
discernible identification components, and it looked for
others within its heritage. This heritage comprised the
rural idyll and the spatial components that guaranteed
Slovenia’s existence.
CONCLUSION
The results, rendered by all the three parts of the
investigation, including the results of the questionnaire,
must therefore be read in two ways:
• AS PHENOMENA - characteristics, samples
• AS EXPLANATION - circumstances, values
In the Slovene national conception, landscapes certainly
play an important role as the carriers of identity. The
results confirmed the original hypotheses about
landscape components and patterns as the carriers of
national spatial identity, as well as that the forming of
a conception involves permanent interweaving of the
relationship between physical and symbolic factors.
The results from all three parts of the study have
indisputably confirmed the introductory hypothesis that
the national identity is not only tied to the territory
defined by borders but to other spatial units as well. It
is not only a matter of being attached to places to which
special importance is attributed in the system of social
values. The national identity is also tied to a certain social
conception of space, built from selected landscape types
and individual spatial components. The deliberately
chosen systematic cross-sections of the study show the
chronological sequence of the formation of the
conception and its verification in the conceptions of the
modern public. Thus, it also discloses the mutual linkage
of closed working units and their flowing into a whole.
The results also showed that neither the landscape types
nor the individual landscape components in the sense
of national identification are absolute categories, but
rather that their role within the social conception of the
space is changing. The continuity of the nation’s
identification with space is certainly based primarily on
certain “sacred places of the nation.” Thus, special
landscape types and motifs appear in the continuity
conception which at the same time determine
differentiation with respect to others. In the Slovene
space, it is primarily the mountain landscape type linked
to the cultural (agrarian) landscape that is most often
reflected in the image of populated mountain valleys.
The second element of the social conception of the space
is the domestic landscape with its typical components:
fields-meadows, vineyards, “kozolci,” and small churches
on elevations. The place most frequently chosen as
representative is Bled, which combines the most typical
characteristics of both.
Although we are aware of its diversity, once we cross
the reference threshold of “Slovene,” we refer to
Slovenia as a homogenous territory from the landscape
point of view. As we have seen, the landscape type
representing it is a kind of a spatial collage rather than
a homogenous conception. There is an ideal conception,
somewhat removed from reality, with which we Slovenes
as a group identify ourselves. It is probably the question
of a cultural mythos through which the exceptionality
of the Slovene space is confirmed. This links us to
ourselves from the past (continuity), and at the same
time distinguishes us from others, even from those who
are similar (differentiation).
This, of course, refers to the currently predominant
conception. We have seen now one and then another
significance layer come to the fore. In any case, there is
certainly a gap between principles and practice: 50%
of the population still lives in a predominantly rural
space but only 6% lives from it. In this sense the
“newcomers” are transforming rural landscapes into a
space that is attractive for living in accordance with their
somewhat idealized view of the countryside. The new
communication technologies offer almost everyone the
advantages that the modern way of life and work
demands, thus enabling a very high quality of life in
rural environments. In this way, the rural landscapes in
Slovenia are being slowly transformed into a “modern
Arcadia” (Marušiè 1995), tending toward a uniform
environment in the physical and cultural sense. This is,
however, precisely that the origin of many spatial
conflicts.
The ideal conception is undoubtedly also the result of
the picture conveyed by the media and other ideological
apparatuses, reflecting and simultaneously impacting the
value system. While, within the value system, there are
differences between the principle values and those by
which we orient ourselves in practice as individuals or
as a society, the manipulation of the spatial identity,
which occurs on the national level, can be counterproductive. Creating an unrealistic image of space and
becoming infatuated with it can blur the vision and blind
us to serious problems in the environment. Therefore,
it makes no sense to limit the spatial identity only to
the components established as national symbols during
the periods of endeavors for nationhood. The knowledge
about the processes of establishing the social conception
of space, provided by the present study, is certainly
useful information. But only further studies will be able
to provide more precise answers to the questions
whether the development will indeed mean a loss of
identity or will it bring qualitative change. The
countryside - and not only in Slovenia - stands on the
threshold of major changes, as much in the sense of
social as of spatial restructuring: the laws of the European
and world markets have already brought much faster
changes than those we witnessed in the not so distant
past. Assuming that the need for the preservation of the
patterns of land-use is demonstrated, even if only
because of the principle of protecting our cultural and
natural heritage, it will not be possible without
substantial financial support from the state. Here it is
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Ana KUÈAN
very important to know the socially established value
system - the system of principle definitions, which
society forms in relation to the space in which it lives
and their disharmony with the prevailing behavior.
In spite of the universal models for managing the
physical environment, it could be possible to preserve
the spatial identity in this respect as well. One of the
hindering factors in Slovenia is certainly the physical
space; other factors undoubtedly include cultural
differences based on historical memory. Neither the real
space nor the social conception of it are constant but
depend upon the times—they emerge and complement
each other in the course of constant change. From this
we can conclude that any form of inclusion in the world
integration processes will not mean a loss of identity
but rather its qualitative change only.
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