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Contents
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G
OPPROBRIUM AND PERSECUTION
HASHISH USERS IN URBAN GREECE
Lambros Comitas
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
PART ONE. THE COMPOSITE LIFE HISTORY
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
By way of prologue - historical milieu
The local scene - early years 11
Hashish - actors and patterns 28
War and civil war - history brought forward 50
The local scene - later years 60
Hashish - effects on the person
71
Hashish - consequences of the law
89
Hashish - familial relations 126
By way of epilogue - looking back 161
1
PART TWO. THE SURVEY
X
XI
XII
XIII
Introduction 179
Description of the sample
182
Attitudinal measures 198
Findings
A. Scores on the modernization scale 201
B. Scores on the hashish scale
--C. Correlation analysis: selected sociodemographic
variables with survey scales and subscales --D. The effect of selected sociodemographic variables
on survey scales and subscales
--E. Discriminant and misclassification analyses
---
Appendix
References
-----
PREFACE
What follows is the final comprehensive report submitted by the Research
Institute for the Study of Man (RISM) to the National Institute on Drug Abuse in
fulfillment of Contract 271-76-3303 on Òanthropological research with Greek hashish
users.Ó This contract called for a thorough investigation of basic sociological questions
related to hashish use in Greece which were not addressed in a prior, primarily clinical
study of Greek hashish users (HSM-42-70-98). Specifically, RISM was asked to identify
those social, cultural, and subcultural factors which enhance or inhibit the use of hashish
and to provide Òsome idea of use and non-use of hashish in the general population of
Greece from which the clinical sample of chronic users was drawn.Ó In a later contract
modification, RISM was also asked to explore the effect and consequences of drug laws
on the lives of hashish users particularly as these laws became increasingly more
stringent.
To reach these objectives, synchronic and diachronic an
cal research was planned and implemented in several separate sites in Greece with each
site theoretically rep
ing a point on a con
um of hashish use. For each study site, the extent of hashish use was determined as were
the key factors related to local use/non-use and the specific historical context in which
these factors are em
ded. At each study site, one in the capital city of Athens and three in the department of
Thessaly, an appropriate combination of the fol
ing methods and techniques were utilized to generate relevant data Ñ participantobservation, formal and in
mal interviews, household surveys, attitudinal surveys, geneologies of hashish users and
non-users, cog
tive networks through the CATIJ sociometric, mapping, archival probes, analysis of
police records and, most significantly, full life histories of selected users and non-users.
Project research carried out at the study sites, particularly in the more rural sites
of Thessaly, confirmed the impression held by Greek analysts of the drug scene that
hashish use was not extensive in Greece at the time of the study and that the few pockets
of relatively high densities of users were to be found only in the large coastal cities.
Furthermore, this research established with reasonable certainty that the number of Greek
users at that time was relatively small and rel
ly stable and that confirmed users of the substance were most often from the working
class.
Confirmation that Greek hashish users were clustered in urban locales made the
Athenian project data particularly important for analytic purposes. It was in this urban
setting rather than in the villages and towns of the interior that patterns of hashish use
could be ef
ly discerned, that social relationships fundamental to these patterns could be revealed and
that the legal and social consequences of hash
ish could be traced. For this compelling reason and because the clinical sample of the
prior study was drawn completely from the Greater Athens area, the final report focuses
on and is organized around the Athenian data. In this opinion, this focus permits an
effective and efficient presentation of data related to the central issues of Greek hashish
use.
The report itself is divided into two distinct but conceptually linked partsÑthe first
based completely on qualitative data and the second devoted exclusively to an analysis of
quantitative measures. In essence, Part One is a composite life history of the urban
hashish user, a form of presentation that relies completely on the actual words of hashish
users and non-users to explore the context and meaning of hashish use in Greece. This
composite life history, or more accurately, this social history of modern Greece from the
per
tive of working-class users and non-users, is a pro
al use of autobiographical materials in drug research developed especially for this project.
Life histories were collected from eighty urban dwelling hashish users and nonusing controls. These voluminous materials formed the data pool for the construction of
the composite life history. All eighty respondents lived in several contiguous
neighborhoods along the western boundary of Old Athens, neighborhoods that lie almost
in the shadow of the Acropolis. Among the selected re
dents were a number of older individuals, ethnic Greeks from Turkish Asia Minor, who
came to these once desolate Athenian locales over a half century ago. Victims of
GreeceÕs defeat by Turkey in 1922 and refugees because of the resultant forced
exchange of populations between the two countries, a significant number of these old re
dents were born and reared in a particular region of Asia Minor where ethnic Greeks
were in the minority. His
cal data would indicate that the sociodemographic characteristics of that region at that
time were more conducive to the propagation of hashish use than those of other regions
in Asia Minor where ethnic Greeks and other Europeans were to have been found in
substantial numbers as, for example, in the cosmopolitan city of Smyrna circa 1910.
A surprisingly large number of hashish-using respondents, almost all born in
Athens, were found to be offspring or otherwise related or connected to old Asia Minor
refugees of the first type. In addition to an often common refugee background, many
hashish-using respondents were found to hold similar jobs as porters, carters, food
vendors and butchers in the central food markets and slaughterhouses of Athens. During
all periods but particularly during lean years of war and occupation, these bustling
centers of aggregation offered ample opportunity for illicit trade and for forbidden
activities like hashish smoking and hashish dealing to those so motivated. Over time, as
the life histories demonstrate, hashish smokers, never very large in num
ber and largely ignored by the authorities during the early decades of this century, were
subjected to increasingly stringent sanctions for their illegal usage. Careful analysis of
the life histories indicates that changes in the drug laws had less to do with any imagined
escalation of a Greek hashish or drug ÒproblemÓ than the ideological repercussions that
followed the drastic political and socioeconomic turbulences that have long buffeted the
Greek state and society. Even a casual reading of these life his
ries makes this direct re
ship abundantly clear. As a consequence, it became obvious that hashish use, hashish
users and the con
es of hashish use in Greece could only be incompletely comprehended if not viewed and
examined in the context of shifting political, social, and ideological pressures.
Given the nature of the data base, one efficient way of accomplishing this holistic
goal is through a controlled and system
OPPROBRIUM AND PERSECUTION
HASHISH USERS IN URBAN GREECE
Lambros Comitas
f
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
PART ONE. THE COMPOSITE LIFE HISTORY
I
II
By way of prologue - historical milieu
The local scene - early years 11
1
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
Hashish - actors and patterns 28
War and civil war - history brought forward 50
The local scene - later years 60
Hashish - effects on the person
71
Hashish - consequences of the law
89
Hashish - familial relations 126
By way of epilogue - looking back 161
PART TWO. THE SURVEY
X
XI
XII
XIII
Introduction 179
Description of the sample
182
Attitudinal measures 198
Findings
A. Scores on the modernization scale 201
B. Scores on the hashish scale
--C. Correlation analysis: selected sociodemographic
variables with survey scales and subscales --D. The effect of selected sociodemographic variables
on survey scales and subscales
--E. Discriminant and misclassification analyses
---
Appendix
References
-----
PREFACE
What follows is the final comprehensive report submitted by the Research
Institute for the Study of Man (RISM) to the National Institute on Drug Abuse in
fulfillment of Contract 271-76-3303 on Òanthropological research with Greek hashish
users.Ó This contract called for a thorough investigation of basic sociological questions
related to hashish use in Greece which were not addressed in a prior, primarily clinical
study of Greek hashish users (HSM-42-70-98). Specifically, RISM was asked to identify
those social, cultural, and subcultural factors which enhance or inhibit the use of hashish
and to provide Òsome idea of use and non-use of hashish in the general population of
Greece from which the clinical sample of chronic users was drawn.Ó In a later contract
modification, RISM was also asked to explore the effect and consequences of drug laws
on the lives of hashish users particularly as these laws became increasingly more
stringent.
To reach these objectives, synchronic and diachronic an
cal research was planned and implemented in several separate sites in Greece with each
site theoretically rep
ing a point on a con
um of hashish use. For each study site, the extent of hashish use was determined as were
the key factors related to local use/non-use and the specific historical context in which
these factors are em
ded. At each study site, one in the capital city of Athens and three in the department of
Thessaly, an appropriate combination of the fol
ing methods and techniques were utilized to generate relevant data Ñ participantobservation, formal and in
mal interviews, household surveys, attitudinal surveys, geneologies of hashish users and
non-users, cog
tive networks through the CATIJ sociometric, mapping, archival probes, analysis of
police records and, most significantly, full life histories of selected users and non-users.
Project research carried out at the study sites, particularly in the more rural sites
of Thessaly, confirmed the impression held by Greek analysts of the drug scene that
hashish use was not extensive in Greece at the time of the study and that the few pockets
of relatively high densities of users were to be found only in the large coastal cities.
Furthermore, this research established with reasonable certainty that the number of Greek
users at that time was relatively small and rel
ly stable and that confirmed users of the substance were most often from the working
class.
Confirmation that Greek hashish users were clustered in urban locales made the
Athenian project data particularly important for analytic purposes. It was in this urban
setting rather than in the villages and towns of the interior that patterns of hashish use
could be ef
ly discerned, that social relationships fundamental to these patterns could be revealed and
that the legal and social consequences of hash
ish could be traced. For this compelling reason and because the clinical sample of the
prior study was drawn completely from the Greater Athens area, the final report focuses
on and is organized around the Athenian data. In this opinion, this focus permits an
effective and efficient presentation of data related to the central issues of Greek hashish
use.
The report itself is divided into two distinct but conceptually linked partsÑthe first
based completely on qualitative data and the second devoted exclusively to an analysis of
quantitative measures. In essence, Part One is a composite life history of the urban
hashish user, a form of presentation that relies completely on the actual words of hashish
users and non-users to explore the context and meaning of hashish use in Greece. This
composite life history, or more accurately, this social history of modern Greece from the
per
tive of working-class users and non-users, is a pro
al use of autobiographical materials in drug research developed especially for this project.
Life histories were collected from eighty urban dwelling hashish users and nonusing controls. These voluminous materials formed the data pool for the construction of
the composite life history. All eighty respondents lived in several contiguous
neighborhoods along the western boundary of Old Athens, neighborhoods that lie almost
in the shadow of the Acropolis. Among the selected re
dents were a number of older individuals, ethnic Greeks from Turkish Asia Minor, who
came to these once desolate Athenian locales over a half century ago. Victims of
GreeceÕs defeat by Turkey in 1922 and refugees because of the resultant forced
exchange of populations between the two countries, a significant number of these old re
dents were born and reared in a particular region of Asia Minor where ethnic Greeks
were in the minority. His
cal data would indicate that the sociodemographic characteristics of that region at that
time were more conducive to the propagation of hashish use than those of other regions
in Asia Minor where ethnic Greeks and other Europeans were to have been found in
substantial numbers as, for example, in the cosmopolitan city of Smyrna circa 1910.
A surprisingly large number of hashish-using respondents, almost all born in
Athens, were found to be offspring or otherwise related or connected to old Asia Minor
refugees of the first type. In addition to an often common refugee background, many
hashish-using respondents were found to hold similar jobs as porters, carters, food
vendors and butchers in the central food markets and slaughterhouses of Athens. During
all periods but particularly during lean years of war and occupation, these bustling
centers of aggregation offered ample opportunity for illicit trade and for forbidden
activities like hashish smoking and hashish dealing to those so motivated. Over time, as
the life histories demonstrate, hashish smokers, never very large in num
ber and largely ignored by the authorities during the early decades of this century, were
subjected to increasingly stringent sanctions for their illegal usage. Careful analysis of
the life histories indicates that changes in the drug laws had less to do with any imagined
escalation of a Greek hashish or drug ÒproblemÓ than the ideological repercussions that
followed the drastic political and socioeconomic turbulences that have long buffeted the
Greek state and society. Even a casual reading of these life his
ries makes this direct re
ship abundantly clear. As a consequence, it became obvious that hashish use, hashish
users and the con
es of hashish use in Greece could only be incompletely comprehended if not viewed and
examined in the context of shifting political, social, and ideological pressures.
Given the nature of the data base, one efficient way of accomplishing this holistic
goal is through a controlled and systemÀ
atic presentation of the views of the actors themselves. The composite life history that
follows, therefore, attempts to fashion a chronological, contextualized, holistic, and
accurate picture of hashish phenomena in urban Greece through the word images of
hashish users and their non-using social counterparts. The practice of hashish in modern
Greece is debated by those most affected and that debate is carried through the contexts
of connected issuesÑhow hashish was diffused into the country, the in
ence of the Asia Minor refugees, the trauma of refugee resettlement, the urbanization of
Greater Athens and attendant problems, the ambiance of the work place, the jails and
their effect, and the paradoxes of the law. These and other issues are traced through time
beginning with the Ca
phe of Õ22, the rise of fascism in the 1930s, the Albanian War, World War II, the
German occupation of Greece, the bloody civil war of the post-war period and, finally,
the ColonelsÕ Junta of 1967.
For the composite life history, portions of twenty-six individual histories were
used, twelve of hashish users and fourteen of non-users. These selections were
systematically culled from the pool of eighty full life histories. All life histories were tape
recorded, transcribed from tape to Greek language text, translated and transcribed into
English language text, coded (a scheme was develoed which included seven major
headings, eighty-seven major categories and over four hundred sub-categories) and,
finally, filed by category and subcategory. Se
tion of actual passages for inclusion and the order in which these passages were to be
presented remained my responsibility as the principal in
tor. Choice was based on relevance of passage with reference to the overall organization
of the manuscript, thematic value of the passage, factual accuracy, rep
ness, and coherence of language. After passage selection, the principal investigator trans
ed all selections anew in order to assure consistency and accuracy and to avoid stylistic
dis
nance that almost inevitably occurs with the con
joined product of several translators of varying competence. Whenever necessary, side
notes provide the reader with factual detail concerning references to little known
historical facts or the elliptical comments by respondents.
Every caution was taken to preserve confidentiality and to assure respondent
anonymity. All names have been changed except those of historical personages and
public figures mentioned by respondents. [One convention has been employed
throughout: each respondent who uses hashish can be identified as such by the fact that
he is given only a pseudonymous first name; each non-using respondent can be identified
as such by the fact that he is given the prefix KyrÕ, a Greek contraction for Mister, plus a
pseudonymous first name].
The second part of this report is devoted to a description and analysis of a survey
carried out in the Athenian study site by the project. Designed to probe respondentsÕs
attitudes about key areas of Greek life and culture as well as their attitudes and
knowledge about hashish, the un
ing purpose of the survey was to provide results that would help determine whether
hashish users, small in number but nonetheless a heavily sanctioned population in
Greece, differ sig
ly in their sociodemographics or in their attitudes and beliefs from non-users of similar
socioeconomic status. This survey complements an earlier, more inclusive, quantitative
probe designed to compare returned Greek migrants from Germany with nonmigrants
carried out in Athens by the project. The results of that first survey were sub
ted to the National Institute on Drug Abuse as a report entitled ÒSocial and Attitudinal
Context for the Hashish Study: A Comparison of Returned Migrants and Stable
Population in AthensÓ and was authored by H. Russell Bernard and Lambros Comitas.
This survey was also summarized in the international journal Current Anthropology
under the title ÒGreek Return Migration.Ó
*
*
*
The project was carried out under the auspices of the Research Institute for the
Study of Man whose director, Dr. Vera Rubin, gave unstinting professional support to the
project and provided open access to the superior facilities of that research or
tion. Field research in Greece was under the active sponsorship of the Department of
Psychiatry, University of Athens and its chairman, Professor Costas Stefanis.
In Athens, the project relied primarily on excellent personnel provided by the
Department of Psychiatry. Demitra Madianou was the senior field researcher. Her
primary responsibility was the collection of the life histories, a task in which she was
assisted by Daphne Fessa, Angeliki Kounalaki, Eriketi Mihalopoulou and Efthimia
Mitsou. Dr. Costas Ballas carried out archival and field research. Secretarial assistance in
Athens was provided by Amalia Malamatenaki.
In the department of Thessaly, community level field research was carried out by
Dr. Costas Ballas, Demitra Madianou, Daphne Fessa and Efthimia Mitsou.
Survey instruments were designed by Professor H. Russell Bernard, Department
of An
gy, University of Florida and by the principal investigator. The surveys were carried out
by Demitra Madianou and Angeliki Kounalaki with part-time assistants.
In New York City, graduate students from the Joint Program in Applied
Anthropology, Teachers College, Columbia University, were responsible for the
following: Eleni Papagaroufali for first-stage translation of Greek texts to English; Costas
Gounis for first-stage translation during the final phase of report preparation; Robert
Dieterich and Ronald Miller for coding the translated life histories and for locating and
reviewing pertinent de
cal, sociological, ethnomusiological and historical manuscripts and publications; Barbara
Frankfurt for typing of English language texts.
Jeffrey Markowitz, Research Analyst, School of Public Health, Columbia
University, prepared the initial statistical analysis which serves as the basis for Part Two
of this report.
At the Research Institute for the Study of Man, in New York, June Anderson
coordinated the complex, cross-national administration of the project; Florence Rivera
Tai typed much of the first draft of the report and handled the finances of the project; and
Yvonne Darby assisted in all phases of the final preparation of the report.
New York, NY
Lambros Comitas
Principal Investigator