Download Structural-Heritage

Structural Heritage in Indian – evolution & advanced techniques
S. Rama Krishna Pisipaty
Professor & Geo-archaeologist
SCSVMV University, Enathur, Kanchipupram – 631561. India.
Email – [email protected]
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Abstract
Environment and natural deposits have an important role in the development of architectural
as well as crafts activities in any region. Constructional style, though vary from region to
region, Indian subcontinent is very unique from the very beginning. A distinguishing factor
of the style as a whole is the way in which the two principal materials, stone and brick, are
used. They are used to make up building elements using technological processes that have
evolved over many centuries to create a distinctive style of architecture. Some observations
on evolution of structures as well as constructional technological heritage for religious
practices in India are subject matter for the present discussion.
Keywords
Vedic fire alters, Buddhist stupa, Rock cut & structural temple.
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Introduction
Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of
recognizable building activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities. Literature is
also providing ample information about the constructional activities in the region. The relics
of ancient architecture have appeared with their aura of artistic classiness and exquisite
beauty throughout region. Early art and architecture in the region under discussion were
concerned predominantly religious themes. Many of these were made possible through the
patronage of wealthy merchants, guilds and some royal donations. Techno-aesthetic
appearance of the monuments built under the hegemony of grate rulers such as the Mauraya,
Chalukya, Pandya, Pallavas, Vijayanagara, Nayakas, Hosala, etc. has an unimaginable and
more advanced.
In India various styles or schools of art were developed under the hegemony of the different
rulers. The style of arts developed in different periods are known as on the name of the rules
such as - the Mauryan Art, Sunga and Kanva Art, Satavahana Art, Kushana Art, Gupta Art,
Pala-Sena Art, Rajput Art, Pallava Art, Rashtrakuta Art, Chola Art, The Chalukya and
Hoyasala Art, etc.
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Among India's ancient architectural remains belonging to religious activities are considered
for the present paper. Those constructions were constructed for various activities related to
the rituals of their religious faith. Construction of Fire alters on elevated platforms in
different shapes are early structures in chorological order for ritual practices (Kak, S. 2000;
2002). After evolution of Buddhism, the most characteristic structures are the construction of
stupas, chaityas, viharas, and temples. During Early Historical period (a few centuries after
the present era), temple architecture of high standard had developed in almost all regions. The
distinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of
geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities.
Religious architectures related to Buddhism are consisted of viharas, monasteries, stupas and
chaitya halls. Viharas or monasteries were the places where the Buddhist monks lived. The
relics of Buddha were placed in the Stupas. Chaitya were halls where the Buddhistsworshipped. Stupas were therefore sacred to the Buddhists. The most famous among the
ancient India stupas were the Sanchi, Amaravati and Sarnath.
It may be noted that the art and architecture of India touched new height during the Gupta
period in the northern side whereas Pallavas on the southern part. During epoch, the role of
Buddhism gradually declined and the consequent changes took place in the character of
sculptural monuments. The images of Buddha and Boddhistavas were strictly canonized, and
sculptures of Hindu Gods became widespread. Temple for the worship of Vishnu and Siva
were built with royal patronage. But these temples were not in the form of caves cut into the
hills as at Ajanta and Ellora. On the other band they were built of materials like brick and
stone. Several temples of the Gupta age have survived: the most famous among those was the
one discovered at Deogarh near Jhansi on the northern part of India. It was probably
affected in the sixth century CE. Another temple was the Martand temple of Kashmir,
probably affected in the eighth century CE.
South India too made remarkable contributions in art and architecture. Cave temples were
affected under the patronage of the Pallava rulers. The seven rock-cut pagodas of
Mahabalipuram and brick build with lime mortar structural temple of Kailasanath at
Kanchipuram, both in Tamail Nadu are regarded as the best early specimens of the Dravidian
style of Indian architecture. However, to the Cholas belongs the credit of developing the
Dravidian style to greater perfection. Their most remarkable achievements are the great Saiva
temple at the capital city of Tanjore. The Rashtrakutas too developed the art of cave temple
and their remarkable achievement was the erection of the great Kailashnath temple. It is a
fine massive structure built of solid rock.
The Indian contribution to the fine arts was primarily in sculpture. The attainment of the
Gupta age in the realm of sculptural productions was remarkable. The plastic remains of this
age are striking because of the serenity displayed therein. The carvings on the temple of
Deogarh are also brilliant examples of Gupta sculptural art.
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Chronology of religious structure’s development
In order to study the religious structural evolution in the region, it is necessary to understand
the chronological order of development of religious faiths in the region. Early societies were
realized the importance of nature and started to practice to worship nature and offering
natural products through fire (agni). For offering, they started to construct fire alters in
different forms. Gradually, after evolution of Buddhist practices, symbolism has appeared in
the religious practices such as votive stupas, etc. Worship in complete human form has
appeared in the later stages with different religious faiths in the region. Accordingly,
variation in constructing structures for various rituals has also appeared. It may be noted that
there are three different stages in the development of constructions in religious structures (Fig
I) of the region under consideration. First stage structures has been appeared for ritual
practices of the Vedic thoughts i.e. nature worship and fire scarifies.
Fig 1 Evolution of religious structures
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IIIrd stage - Structural temples
Various forms of fire alter for different rituals have been constructed on an elevated platform
called as vedi (Fig 2, 2a ) for offerings (Renou, Louis. 1998(rp)). Geometrical design
called vastu mandala are gradually adopted in the architecture of structures. Vastu means the
dwelling structure and Mandala means circle, a form without beginning and end and the
square - perfect for its symmetry. The circle had already been extensively used by the
Buddhists in their Stupas. It may also appear in the later Vedic, mandala as a spiritual and
ritual symbol in Indian religions, representing the universe. The basic form of most later
vedic mandala is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point. Temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from cardinality and mathematical principles,
well scientific besides central beliefs have gradually developed by the end of the last
millennium BCE/a few centuries after the beginning of present era.
Fig 2 Vedic fire alter, in the shape of flying bird (Alaja citi)
https://tamilandvedas.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/eagle-shaped-yagna-kunda.jpg
Fig 2a Vedic fire alter, in the shape of tortoise (kurma citi)
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In between these two stages, it may considered that the structures of stupa (heap in Sanskrit)
of Buddhism (Fig 3, 3a, 4). It is a hemispherical structure containing relics, the remains of
Buddha or his followers, constructed in different important places related to Buddhism. It
may be true that early stupas were built with non-durable materials such as wood, or even as
just burial mounds, however, some later stupas seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds.
Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are typical examples of stupas that were shaped in
stone imitating the previous wooden parts.
Fig 3 Rock cut and semi-brick construction of Maha Chaitya (stupa) at Bojjannakonda, A.P.
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Fig 3a Evolution of Stupa structures
Fig 4 Dhamek stupa, Saranath, U.P.
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Cave Architecture
The cave architecture (Fig 5) in India is believed to have begun in the third century BCE.
These caves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence.
Initially the caves were excavated in the western India. Some examples of this type of cave
structure are Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.
Rock Cut
The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art (Soundara
Rajan, K.V. 1998). Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious
communities. In the beginning, remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in
areas such as Bihar in the east and Maharashtra in the west. Chaityas and viharas are those
rock-cut structures that were hewn out for Buddhist and Jain monks. Chaityas were places of
worship whereas viharas were residence of monks. The Rathas at Mahabalipuram on
southern part of India are yet another great specimen of rock-cut architecture in ancient India.
Fig 5 Undavalli Caves, Andhra Pradesh
Temple Architecture
In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions (Stella
Kramrisch. 1976). After Agama tradition in the ritual practices, the temple complex (Fig 7) is
compared with human (vastupurasha). The distinct architectural style of temple construction
in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic
diversities (Fig 6). Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types or regional
styles such as Nagara (north India), Vesara (central India) and Dravida (south India). This
classification is based on different architectural styles, employed in the construction of the
temples.
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Fig 6 Structural Temples, south India
Fig 6a Sketch of structural temple (vastupurasha - Agama sastra based)
Regional styles in Temple Architecture
Architectural developments belonging to different periods of history, bear the stamp of
respective periods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of
extensive town planning, the beginnings of religious architecture can be traced much back to
the advent of Buddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent
buildings came up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great
Stupa, chaitayas and the rock-cut caves. Though the regional variations have appeared in the
constructional style, religious structures have flourished across the region.
With the establishment of kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school of architecture
began to flourish and developed Dravidian style. This last style came to be cultivated by the
kings of the Pallava dynasty, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Vijayanagara Kings and by the
Nayaks of Madura. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers were the rock-cut
temples of Mahabalipuram and the structural temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola, Hoyasala
and Vijayanagar rulers also developed the temple architecture in Dravida style. The temples
at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architectural excellence of the South
Indian rulers.
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In north India, there developed a new and different style of architecture. This was called as
the Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers built a magnificent temple
complex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim rulers, there developed a new
architectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neither
strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided into
two main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture.
It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of colonization of
India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic
architecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The colonial
architecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as post
offices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings.
Construction Technologies
During the early stages i.e. Vedic period, structures constructed to perform various rituals in
different sizes and shapes (Kak, S. 2000). On highly elevated brick built platforms (Fig I, Ist
stage) were constructed for fire alters. The fire alters may be constructed either in different
geometrical forms or animal shapes. Simple square or circle forms are appeared in the daily
rituals where as complex huge structures for large scale sacrifices to a specific purpose. The
second category of structures has appeared more prominent and specific. Elaborate
description has found in the later vedic literature (sulvasutras) (Sen, S.N. & A.K. Bag. 1983).
The shape of the alter specifically describes that the altar is symbolically built with gayatri
(24 syllables), usnih (breath, 28 syllables), pankti (mind, 40 syllables), tristubh (ear, 44
syllables), jagati (48 syllables) and generative breath. Perfect angles and measurements have
appeared in the construction of these structures. It is indicating that the symmetrical and
mathematical calculations in the construction of the structures of this period. Well fired
molded bricks in different shapes and sizes is further indicating the molding and firing
technologies of that period. Number of bricks in the construction of alter and measurements
of specific alters are prescribed in the literature. The gayatri altar's height is to the knees, the
tristubh's to the navel and the jagati's to a man's height. The vedic fire altar is made of 396
(360 + 36) special bricks (yajusmati), and of 10,800 ordinary bricks (lokamprna) (ŚBM
10.3.1 ; 10.4.3.14-20).
Platform based semi circular solid huge brick built structures (Fig I, IInd stage) were found
during early Buddhism. After Buddha, founder of Buddhism, his followers were constructed
huge structures for religious activities such as stupas. It is a commemorative monument
usually housing sacred relics associated with the Buddha or other saintly persons of Buddhist
faith. It is a mound-like or hemispherical solid brick built structure used as a place of
meditation. Most of them are not only more elaborative and complex structures but also
constructed with aesthetic and esthetic values. Stupas were originally built to house the
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earthly remains of the historical Buddha and his associates and are almost invariably found at
sites sacred to Buddhism.
By the end of the last millennium BCE, evolved the idea of complete human form of worship
followed by the structures construction in different architecture and materials have been
appeared in the entire region (Fig I, IIIrd stage). In general, architecture design follows a
geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala as per the Vastu sastra and/or agamana
sastra. The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components
of the plan. Mandala means circle; Purusha - human form, universal essence at the core of
tradition while Vastu means the dwelling structure. The design lays out a temple in a
symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from cardinality and mathematical principles,
well scientific besides central beliefs. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a
temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of mandala
circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic
product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earth and other things
observed in daily life like moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow and so on. The square is
divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is
conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central
square(s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated to the main/Brahman and are called Brahma
padas.
It is interesting to note that having acquired magical and theological properties, the VastuPurusha-Mandala was fit to be the basis of temple construction, with many permutations and
combinations being used to achieve the final form. Very simply, the central square could be
used for the garba-griha, while the surrounding grid formed the pradakshina-path and outer
wall, and so on. By increasing in complexity this system of proportion could spawn the most
complex of forms with their basic unit remaining the square. It was by manipulation of this
basic grid that the Indian architect created the greatest temples of India.
Technical advancement has appeared in the construction these structures. In the selection of
place for construction of structures has itself indicating more scientific applications and
advanced technologies (Kamika Agama; Dash, N. & G. D. Vasudev. 1998). Different planes
for construction of different structures are given in the Agama texts. Ground plan,
construction technologies, selection of raw material, transportation and erecting techniques of
huge stones and pillars; carving technologies, preparation of multi coloured with natural
pigments in paintings, etc., have been appeared with advanced technologies in the
construction of structures in the region with aesthetic and esthetical values.
Concluding remarks
The article dealt with the structural continuity for ritual practices between postHarappa/Vedic and/or pre-Buddhist upto medieval architecture of India which are
reminiscent of Agama ideas (The Agamas are a collection of Sanskrit and Tamil (written in
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Grantha script and Tamil script) scriptures chiefly constituting the methods of temple
construction and creation of murti, worship means of deities, philosophical doctrines,
meditative practices, etc. developed in later Vedic period for religious practices). It
summarized evidence related to the Vedic ideas of sacred geometry and its transformation
into the classical Hindu temple form through Buddhist stupas. Further, connections that tie
the details of the temple form and its iconography to fundamental Vedic ideas related to
transformation. Vedic structural remains though not appeared in the archaeological
excavations or construction form, elaborate description has appeared in the literature. may be
due to the tradition adopted that new structure for each sacrifice or restricted multiple use.
According to the vedic tradition, there is not reuse or preserve the structure. After the
completion of sacrifice, demolish the structure and vacate the place is the common practice
from the very beginning.
It was followed by regional styles based on the Agamas and later a new style of architecture
that developed as a result of colonization of India. This style of architecture came to be called
as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenic architecture combined the features of Agama, Islamic
and western elements.
References
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New Delhi.
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy (1992 (rp)). Essays in Early Indian Architecture. (ed) Michael
W. Meister. Indira Kalakendra and Oxford University Press. Delhi: 3.
Renou, Louis. (1998(rp)). The Vedic house. Essays in Early Indian Architecture. (ed)
Michael W. Meister. Indira Kalakendra and Oxford University Press. Delhi: 34, 143-161.
Dash, N. & G. D. Vasudev. (1998). Vāstu, Astrology, and Architecture: Papers Presented at
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Sen, S.N. and A.K. Bag. (1983). The Sulbasutras. Indian National Science Academy. New
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