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WOODWIND DOUBLING ON FOLK, ETHNIC, AND PERIOD INSTRUMENTS IN
FILM AND THEATER MUSIC: CASE STUDIES AND A PRACTICAL MANUAL
by
BRET PIMENTEL
(Under the Direction of Dwight Manning)
ABSTRACT
Woodwind doubling is the practice of playing instruments from more than one woodwind
family. In musical theater and film music, woodwind doublers are valuable for their ability to
produce the sounds of a varied woodwind section for a fraction of the cost of hiring a specialist
musician to play each instrument.
Since the 1990‟s, composers and orchestrators in musical theater and film scoring have
shown increased interest in instrumental sounds from outside the traditional symphony orchestra.
Many have featured folk, ethnic, or period instruments as solo instruments, bringing authentic
sounds to scenes set in faraway locations or historical periods, giving an exotic flair to fictional
locales, or simply adding new colors to the usual palette of instrumental sounds.
Composers of film and theater scores have used ethnic woodwinds, in particular, in their
scoring. To meet the demand for ethnic woodwind sounds, many prominent woodwind doublers
on Broadway and in Hollywood have adopted these instruments, in addition to their usual arrays
of modern Western instruments.
Eight folk, ethnic, and period woodwinds recently employed in film and theater scoring
have been selected for study in this document: bamboo flutes (especially the Indian bansuri and
flutes used by some flutists in Irish traditional music), the Chinese dizi, the Armenian duduk, the
Native American flute, the panflutes of Romania and South America, the pennywhistle, the
recorder, and the Japanese shakuhachi.
For each instrument, a representative example of use in theater or film music has been
selected and transcribed from a commercial audio recording. Each transcription is discussed with
emphasis on demands placed upon the ethnic woodwind musician. Additional discussion of each
instrument includes suggestions for purchasing instruments, fingering charts, description of
playing technique, description of instrument-specific performance practices, discussion of
various sizes and/or keys of each instrument, discussion of instrument-specific notation
practices, annotated bibliographies of available pedagogical materials, lists of representative
recordings (including authentic ethnic music and other music), and information on relevant
organizations and associations of professional or amateur musicians.
INDEX WORDS:
woodwinds, woodwind doubling, folk instruments, ethnic instruments,
period instruments, film music, theater music, bamboo flute, dizi, di-dze,
di-tzu, di, duduk, doudouk, Native American flute, Lakota flute, panflute,
pan flute, panpipes, pan pipes, pennywhistle, tinwhistle, Irish whistle,
recorder, shakuhachi
WOODWIND DOUBLING ON FOLK, ETHNIC, AND PERIOD INSTRUMENTS IN
FILM AND THEATER MUSIC: CASE STUDIES AND A PRACTICAL MANUAL
by
BRET PIMENTEL
B.M., Brigham Young University, 2003
M.M., Indiana University, 2005
A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
ATHENS, GEORGIA
2009
© 2009
Bret Pimentel
All Rights Reserved
WOODWIND DOUBLING ON FOLK, ETHNIC, AND PERIOD INSTRUMENTS IN
FILM AND THEATER MUSIC: CASE STUDIES AND A PRACTICAL MANUAL
by
BRET PIMENTEL
Electronic Version Approved:
Maureen Grasso
Dean of the Graduate School
The University of Georgia
May 2009
Major Professor:
Dwight Manning
Committee:
Kenneth Fischer
Angela Jones-Reus
Leonard Ball
Stephen Valdez
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank:
Dr. Dwight Manning for his constant, patient, and outstanding guidance, and for quietly
going well beyond the call of duty as a teacher and advisor on occasions too numerous to count,
Dr. Kenneth Fischer, Ms. Angela Jones-Reus, Dr. Leonard Ball, and Dr. Stephen Valdez,
for providing instruction, assistance, knowledge, experience, and a sterling example of collegial
cooperation and support,
Dr. William Davis and Dr. D. Ray McClellan, for exceptional instruction,
Dr. and Mrs. Ronald and Sarah Pimentel, for the kind of encouragement, generosity,
example, and (of course) love that can be expected only from the finest of parents and can never
possibly hope to be repaid,
And Leslie, who makes it all worthwhile.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER
1.
Introduction ....................................................................................................................1
2.
Discussion of Individual Instruments ..........................................................................16
a. Bamboo flutes..............................................................................................16
b. Dizi ..............................................................................................................32
c. Duduk ..........................................................................................................46
d. Native American Flute ................................................................................58
e. Panflute ........................................................................................................71
f. Pennywhistle ...............................................................................................82
g. Recorder ......................................................................................................99
h. Shakuhachi ................................................................................................116
3.
Conclusions and Future Research ..............................................................................134
v
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1: Selected ethnic woodwinds used in recent film scores ..................................................... 2
Table 2: Selected ethnic woodwinds used in recent Broadway musical theater scores.................. 3
Table 3: List of instruments for inclusion in the study ................................................................... 5
Table 4: Examples of flutes in the Western, Irish, Indian, and Chinese traditions, comparing the
pitch nomenclature of each system ................................................................................... 18
Table 5: Fingerings for basic scale, bansuri in E or Irish flute in D ............................................. 22
Table 6: Fingerings for expanded chromatic scale, bansuri in E or Irish flute in D ..................... 23
Table 7: Fingerings for basic scale, dizi in D ............................................................................... 36
Table 8: Fingerings for expanded chromatic scale, dizi in D ....................................................... 37
Table 9: Fingerings for basic scale, duduk in A ........................................................................... 51
Table 10: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, duduk in A .................................................. 51
Table 11: Fingerings for basic scale, five- or six-holed Native American flute in F-sharp ......... 61
Table 12: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, six-holed Native American flute in F-sharp 62
Table 13: Romanian 20-pipe panflute configuration, top view with lowest note at the right. ..... 72
Table 14: Zampoña malta configuration, top view ....................................................................... 77
Table 15: Fingerings for basic scale, pennywhistle in D .............................................................. 87
Table 16: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, pennywhistle in D ....................................... 88
Table 17: Recorder fingerings for chromatic scale ..................................................................... 107
Table 18: Common sizes of shakuhachi, and their lowest basic pitches .................................... 117
vi
Table 19: Fingerings for basic 1.8 shakuhachi scale .................................................................. 120
Table 20: Fingerings for expanded chromatic 1.8 shakuhachi scale .......................................... 122
Table 21: List of suggested instruments for future study ........................................................... 136
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1: A bamboo flute. Embouchure hole is at the left. ........................................................... 16
Figure 2: A dizi. ............................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 3: A duduk.. ....................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4: A Native American flute. .............................................................................................. 59
Figure 5: A Romanian-style panflute. ........................................................................................... 73
Figure 6: A pennywhistle, of the plastic-mouthpiece type. .......................................................... 83
Figure 7: A modern Baroque-style alto recorder. ....................................................................... 101
Figure 8: A shakuhachi. .............................................................................................................. 118
viii
LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES
Page
Example 1: Excerpts using bamboo flute in Broadway-style show Miss Saigon (1989) ............. 28
Example 2: Excerpt using dizi in film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000)........................ 42
Example 3: Excerpt using duduk in film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the
Wardrobe (2005) ............................................................................................................... 54
Example 4: Excerpts using Native American flute in film Pocahontas (1995) ........................... 66
Example 5: Excerpt using panflute in film The Alamo (2004) ..................................................... 79
Example 6: Excerpts using pennywhistle in film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the
Ring (2001) ....................................................................................................................... 93
Example 7: Excerpt using recorder in Broadway show Spamalot (2004) .................................. 111
Example 8: Excerpts using shakuhachi in film Jurassic Park (1993) ........................................ 126
ix
Chapter 1: Introduction
Woodwind doubling is the practice of playing instruments from more than one woodwind
family. Though woodwind doubling in Western music began at least as early as the fifteenth
century, there has been a surge in this practice since the early twentieth century.1 Phil Thompson
names three primary settings in which contemporary woodwind doublers have used their skills:
jazz or dance bands, musical theater pit orchestras, and score recording for film.2
In musical theater and film music, woodwind doublers are valuable for their ability to
produce the sounds of a varied woodwind section for a fraction of the cost of hiring a specialist
musician to play each instrument. A small section of woodwind doublers also takes up far less
space in an orchestra pit than a full orchestral woodwind section and saxophone section. While
the practice of woodwind doubling at a high level is a demanding discipline, it can lead to
increased employability for woodwind players, as well as enhanced income (doublers often earn
more for a performance than their colleagues who play a single instrument) and widely varied
musical experiences.
Since the 1990‟s, composers and orchestrators in musical theater and film scoring have
shown increased interest in instrumental sounds from outside the traditional symphony orchestra.
Many have featured folk, ethnic, or period instruments as solo instruments, bringing authentic
1
Phil Atterbury Thompson, “A historical survey of woodwind doubling and a form/style analysis of four
works for doubler and wind ensemble, a lecture recital together with three recitals of selected works by W. A.
Mozart, A. Glazounov, P. Tate, A. Szalowski, A. Copland and others,” (D.M.A diss., University of North Texas,
1993), 1, 14.
2
Ibid., 14.
1
sounds to scenes set in faraway locations or historical periods, giving an exotic flair to fictional
locales, or simply adding new colors to the usual palette of instrumental sounds.
Composers of film and theater scores have used ethnic woodwinds, in particular, in their
scoring.3 A few examples are provided in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1: Selected ethnic woodwinds used in recent film scores
Instrument
Used in films:
Duduk (double reed instrument native to
Armenia)
The Passion of the Christ (2004)
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch,
and the Wardrobe (2005)
Munich (2005)
Syriana (2005)
The Kite Runner (2007)
Pennywhistle (duct flute native to the British
Isles)
Titanic (1997)
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the
Ring (2001)
Road to Perdition (2002)
The Rookie (2002)
The Alamo (2004)
Shakuhachi (end-blown bamboo flute native to
Japan)
Legends of the Fall (1994)
The Mask of Zorro (1998)
Pearl Harbor (2001)
The Last Samurai (2003)
3
For brevity, the term “ethnic woodwinds” is used in this document to indicate ethnic, folk, period, or other
woodwinds that do not fall within the five families of major, modern Western woodwinds: flute, oboe, clarinet,
bassoon, and saxophone.
2
Table 2: Selected ethnic woodwinds used in recent Broadway musical theater scores
Instrument
Used in Broadway or Broadway-style
musicals:
Bamboo transverse flutes (native to various
Miss Saigon (1989)
musical traditions, including those of India and Aida (2000)
China)
Flower Drum Song (2002 revival)
Tarzan (2006)
Panflutes (sets of endblown flutes, native to
various musical traditions, including those of
Romania and several South American nations)
The Secret Garden (1991)
The Lion King (1997)
Recorder (duct flute important in the
Renaissance and Baroque periods of Western
music)
You’re a Good Man, Charlie Brown (1999
revival)
Wicked (2003)
Spamalot (2005)
Les Miserables (2006 revival)
To meet the demand for ethnic woodwind sounds, many prominent woodwind doublers
on Broadway and in Hollywood have adopted these instruments in addition to their usual arrays
of modern Western instruments. A few notable examples are David Weiss (credits include The
Alamo and The Lion King), Chris Bleth (The Kite Runner, The Chronicles of Narnia), Pedro
Eustache (The Passion of the Christ), and Tony Hinnigan (Titanic).4
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study is to examine case studies of eight ethnic woodwind
instruments and situations in which they are used, and to provide a practical overview of each
instrument written with the perspective of the woodwind doubler in mind. In addition, an array
of published references are catalogued and annotated for each instrument.
4
http://davidweissflute.net; http://chrisbleth.com; http://pedroflute.com; http://tonyhinnigan.com.
3
Need for the study
While the history and practices of woodwind doubling on the major, modern Western
woodwinds have been thoroughly examined in other texts, the phenomenon of doubling on
ethnic woodwinds remains largely unexplored.5 This study benefits scholarly research of
woodwind doubling by documenting this current trend.
Additionally, this study provides a resource for woodwind players: an introduction to
selected ethnic woodwind instruments, with practical information related to the playing of these
instruments. Some of these instruments have pedagogical resources readily available, while
others have few or inadequate English-language resources. This study seeks to uncover available
English-language resources for each instrument and compile important pedagogical information
in a single volume.
The information included for each instrument is general enough in nature to bear broad
application, but the inclusion of specific case studies for each instrument provides practical
insight into the work of an ethnic-woodwinds doubler.
Method
Eight representative instruments have been selected for study. Instruments of the
woodwind family (mouthblown flutes and reed instruments) have been considered. Other factors
considered in making the selection included:
5
For example, see theses/dissertations by Dennis Brian McLaughlin (Columbia University, 1985),
Kimberly Anne Bain (Bowling Green State University, 1989), Phil Atterbury Thompson (University of North Texas,
1993), and Ed Joffe (City University of New York, 2006), listed in the bibliography on page 11.
4
1. Perceived frequency of use in recent film and theater music, based on observation of
film scores and musical theater soundtrack recordings, as well as anecdotal evidence
gathered from various sources.
2. Overall diversity of the final group of instruments. Instruments will be selected to
represent several subcategories of the woodwind family (transverse flutes, duct flutes,
reeds, etc.), and to represent a variety of musical traditions.
A listing of selected instruments is provided in Table 3.
Table 3: List of instruments for inclusion in the study
Instrument
Type
Associated musical tradition
Bamboo flutes (general
category including, for
example, the Indian bansuri)
Transverse flute
Indian and Far Eastern; also
various folk traditions in
Western music
Dizi
Transverse flute with mirliton
(vibrating membrane)
Chinese
Duduk
Double reed
Armenian
Native American flute (Lakota Duct flute
style)
Native American
Panflute
Endblown flute
Romanian, South American
Pennywhistle
Duct flute
British (especially Irish), South
African
Recorder
Duct flute
Western Renaissance and
Baroque periods
Shakuhachi
Endblown flute
Japanese
Representative passages from film and theater music have been selected to showcase the
characteristic sound of each instrument in a commercial context such as the score of a popular
movie or Broadway musical, and to enhance and illustrate discussion of the technique and
performance practice of each instrument. The musical examples have been transcribed.
5
Discussion of the technique and performance practice of each instrument is based on
information compiled from published texts and other media. Discussion is conducted from the
perspective of a woodwind doubler, and includes (but is not limited to):
1. Annotation of transcribed score sample, with emphasis on demands placed upon the
ethnic woodwind musician
2. Suggestions for purchasing hard-to-find ethnic instruments
3. Fingering charts
4. Description of playing technique
5. Description of instrument-specific performance practices
6. Discussion of various sizes and/or keys of each instrument, where applicable
7. Discussion of instrument-specific notation practices
8. Annotated bibliographies of available pedagogical materials
9. Lists of representative recordings (including authentic folk, ethnic, or period music and
other music)
10. Information on relevant organizations and associations of professional or amateur
musicians
Literature Review
Because woodwind doubling in the twentieth century traditionally has included only
modern Western woodwinds, few sources dedicated to woodwind doubling make mention of
ethnic instruments. Chris Vadala‟s column “Tips on Doubling” in Saxophone Journal includes
some discussion of bamboo transverse flutes, shakuhachi, pennywhistle, and recorder in issues
6
from 1994 and 1995.6 Sources devoted to specific modern Western woodwinds or to specific
musical genres occasionally address closely-related ethnic woodwinds; examples include an
article on the dizi from Flutist Quarterly and one on using ethnic woodwinds in jazz from the
“Creative Jazz Improvisation” column in Saxophone Journal.7
Increasingly, texts on scoring for commercial music written since 1990 (especially books
on film scoring) include discussion of ethnic instruments.8 While these passages are likely to
focus on ethnic percussion instruments or stringed instruments, some make mention of ethnic
woodwinds, especially pennywhistles and bamboo or wooden flutes.
There are hundreds of resources available that address specific ethnic woodwinds; these
are of varying degrees of practical usefulness to the woodwind doubler. Many resources, if not
most, are ethnomusicological, organological, or historical in nature; while they are of value in
academic study of ethnic woodwinds, they may have limited application in terms of learning to
play these instruments. Some instruments have method books or other pedagogical resources
available, and most can be studied aurally through imitation of commercially-available
recordings. Some of the instruments that are popular with amateur musicians have related
method books that are unsuitable for professional-level woodwind doublers due to
oversimplified pedagogy. Among the pedagogical sources that are of appropriate quality and
6
Chris Vadala, “Tips on Doubling: The Other Flutes,” Saxophone Journal (November/December 1994):
28-31; “Tips on Doubling: Responses from Readers,” Saxophone Journal (March/April 1995): 22-25.
7
Charles DeLaney, “DIZI! Sounds from Ancient China,” Flutist Quarterly 12, no. 4 (Fall 1987): 33-34;
David Pope, “Creative Jazz Improvisation: World Music Doubling for Jazz Improvisers,” Saxophone Journal
(March/April 2008): 20-21.
8
For example: Fred Karlin and Rayburn Wright, On the Track: A Guide to Contemporary Film Scoring
(New York: Schirmer, 1990): 280; Richard Davis, Complete Guide to Film Scoring: The Art and Business of
Writing Music for Movies and TV (Boston: Berklee Press, 1999): 172-173; Sonny Kompanek, From Score to
Screen: Sequencers, Scores, and Second Thoughts: The New Film Scoring Process (New York: Schirmer Trade
Books, 2004): 61.
7
content for professional woodwind musicians, many are hard to find or unavailable in the desired
language (this document deals only with English-language texts).
Transverse bamboo flutes are found in many musical traditions, and are in some cases
made without any particular tradition in mind. The Indian bansuri tradition has a small number
of pedagogical works available in English, including those by B. K. Chaturvedi (which also
addresses the shahnai), Lyon Leifer (which is based on the teaching of Devendra Murdeshwar,
and includes an audio recording), and S. Krishnaswami.9 As most bamboo flutes are diatonic,
simple-system instruments (having six fingered toneholes, which, opened in sequence, produce a
major scale), materials geared toward the Irish flute tradition, such as the exhaustive manual by
Grey Larsen, may also be applicable.10
The Chinese dizi, also a transverse bamboo flute, will be treated separately because it
uses a mirliton (vibrating membrane) that sets it apart from other bamboo flutes. The dizi
tradition is well established in China and many pedagogical materials are available in the
Chinese language. Texts by Marsha Lynne Baxter and Charles DeLaney are relevant to
woodwind doublers due to their viewpoint of Western classically-trained musicians approaching
the dizi.11 Dissertations by Frederick Cheungkong Lau and Li Ming and an article by Alan
Thrasher present a less West-centric approach.12
9
B. K. Chaturvedi, How to Play Flute and Shahnai (New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books, 1988); Lyon
Leifer, How to Play the Bansuri: A Manual for Self-instruction Based on the Teaching of Devendra Murdeshwar
(Glenview, IL: Rasa Music Company, 1997); S. Krishnaswami, “Musical Instruments of India,” Asian Music 2, no.
2 (1971): 31-42.
10
Grey Larsen, The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle (Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications,
2003).
11
Marsha Lynne Baxter, “The Chinese Dizi, the Native American Courting Flute, and the Andean
Panpipes: An Investigation of Pedagogy and Musical Practice” (D.Ed. diss., Columbia University, 2001); Charles
DeLaney, “DIZI! Sounds from Ancient China,” Flutist Quarterly 12, no. 4 (Fall 1987): 33-34.
12
Frederick Cheungkong Lau, “Music and Musicians of the Traditional Chinese Dizi in the People‟s
Republic of China” (D.M.A. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991); Li Ming, “Di-zi: The History
8
Few resources are available in print for the duduk. An exception is John Vartan‟s tutor;
also somewhat relevant is Andy Nercessian‟s book, which contains information on technique and
performance practice scattered throughout a primarily ethnomusicological text.13 A video
method is available on DVD through dudukonline.com, a US-based instrument dealer.14
The best source for Native American flute playing information is the influential Carlos
Nakai and James DeMars book, which codifies aspects of the aural tradition of this instrument.15
The Baxter dissertation also includes useful information. Several beginning methods are
available, though they may be overly simple for professional woodwind doublers. These are by
Jeffrey K. Ball and Bruce A. Whitten, Odell Borg, and Henry R. Hermann.16
Two panflute methods dealing with the Romanian tradition are by Valeriu Apan and
Costel Puscoiu.17 Materials that address the South American (particularly Andean) tradition
include a book by Alvaro Graña and an instructional video by members of the group Sukay.18 A
dissertation by Apan gives a thorough overview of both Romanian and South American
traditions, as well as other, lesser-known panflutes of the world; it discusses virtually every
aspect of the panflute: history, technique, repertoire, and organology.19
and Performance Practice of the Chinese Bamboo Transverse Flute” (D.M. diss., Florida State University, 1995);
Alan Thrasher, “The Transverse Flute in Traditional Chinese Music,” Asian Music 10, no. 1 (1978): 92-114.
13
John Vartan, The Armenian Duduk: An Instructional Book for Beginners, ed. Ara Topouzian (West
Bloomfield, MI: American Recording Productions, 2000); Andy Nercessian, The Duduk and National Identity in
Armenia (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2001).
14
Learn the Art of Duduk Playing (Pasadena, CA: dudukonline.com, n.d.), video recording.
15
R. Carlos Nakai and James DeMars, The Art of the Native American Flute (Phoenix: Canyon Records
Productions, 1996).
16
Jeffrey K. Ball and Bruce A. Whitten, Trailhead of the American Indian Courting Flute (Lafayette, CO:
Red Feather Music, 2001); Odell Borg, Introduction to the Native American Style Flute (N.p.: High Spirits, n.d.);
Henry R. Hermann, Enjoying the Native American-Style Flute (Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph, 2004).
17
Valeriu Apan, How to Play Romanian Panpipe, 2nd edition (Santa Monica, CA: Fuge Imaginea Press,
1995); Costel Puscoiu, You Can Teach Yourself Pan Flute (Pacific, MO: Mel Bay, 1997).
18
Alvaro Graña, How to Make and Play Pan-Pipes (Coventry, England: Condor Books, 1995); How to
Play Flutes of the Andes: Taught by Sukay (Woodstock, NY: Homespun Tapes, 1987). Video recording.
19
Valeriu Apan, “The Panpipe (Nai) in Contemporary Romanian Folk Music” (Ph.D. diss., University of
California, Los Angeles, 1994).
9
The pennywhistle‟s tradition and pedagogy in music of the British Isles are well
documented. Some excellent resources are those by L. E. McCullough and the aforementioned
book by Larsen; many more methods are available, most geared toward beginners who may have
no musical background.20 The pennywhistle‟s use in South African music is less thoroughly
documented; a book chapter by Lara Allen is a good starting point.21
The recorder also has a well-established pedagogical tradition and has been written about
extensively. Among the many published methods, some fine examples include texts by Anthony
Rowland-Jones, Walter van Hauwe, and Daniel Waitzman.22 For information on historical
performance practice, good sources are period writings such as that by Jacques Hotteterre, or
modern treatises like those by Hans-Martin Linde, Rowland-Jones, and Kenneth Wollitz.23
Twentieth-century extended techniques are discussed by Eve O‟Kelly and Niall O‟Loughlin.24
The shakuhachi methods by Christopher Blasdel and Kamisango Yuko, Masayuki Koga,
and Tom W. Deaver are excellent starting points for exploring the complexities of the
instrument‟s technique.25 For woodwind doublers, it may be useful to be conversant in an
20
L. E. McCullough, The Complete Irish Tinwhistle Tutor (Pittsburgh: Silver Spear Publications, 1976);
“Style in Traditional Irish Music,” Ethnomusicology 21, no. 1 (1977): 85-97.
21
Lara Allen, “Kwela: The Structure and Sound of Pennywhistle Music,” In Composing the Music of
Africa: Composition, Interpretation, and Realisation, ed. Malcolm Floyd, Ashgate Studies in Ethnomusicology
(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1999).
22
Anthony Roland-Jones, Recorder Technique (London: Oxford University Press, 1959); Walter van
Hauwe, The Modern Recorder Player (London: Schott, 1984); Daniel Waitzman, The Art of Playing the Recorder
(New York: AMS Press, 1978).
23
Jacques Hotteterre le Romain, Principles of the Flute, Recorder, & Oboe, trans. David Lasocki (New
York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968); Hans-Martin Linde, The Recorder Player’s Handbook, trans. Richard Deveson
(London: Schott, 1991); Kenneth Wollitz, The Recorder Book (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982).
24
Eve O‟Kelly, The Recorder Today, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Niall O‟Loughlin,
“The Recorder in 20th-Century Music,” Early Music 10, no. 1 (1982): 36-37.
25
Christopher Blasdel and Kamisango Yuko, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning; Learning to Play
(Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo Sha, 1988); Masayuki Koga, Shakuhachi: Japanese Bamboo Flute (Navarro, CA:
Japanese Music Institute of America, 1978); Tom W. Deaver, Ichiyo Shakuhachi Manual (Nagano Ken, Japan: n.p.,
1976).
10
approach to scoring for the instrument in Western notation, such as that suggested by Jeffrey
Lependorf.26
Organization
This document consists of the following chapters:
1. Introduction. This chapter includes an introduction, purpose of the study, need for the
study, method, literature review, and organization.
2. Discussion of individual instruments
a. Bamboo transverse flutes
b. Dizi
c. Duduk
d. Native American flute
e. Panflute
f. Pennywhistle
g. Recorder
h. Shakuhachi
3. Conclusions and future research
26
Jeffrey Lependorf, “Contemporary Notation for the Shakuhachi: A Primer for Composers,” Perspectives
of New Music 27, no. 2 (1989): 232-51.
11
Bibliography
Woodwind doubling
Bain, Kimberly Anne. “The saxophonist‟s perspective on woodwind doubling: its history and
current trends.” M.M. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1989.
This is a brief history of woodwind doubling, with appendices of “selected material” for
study of each woodwind instrument family.
Filas, Thomas. “The Art of Doubling.” Woodwind Anthology: A Compendium of Woodwind
Articles from The Instrumentalist, Vol. 2. Northfield, Illinois: Instrumentalist, 1992: 735736.
Filas discusses fundamental issues of playing multiple instruments, woodwind or
otherwise.
Holgate, Max. “Some Thoughts on Multi-Instrumentalism.” The School Musician (October
1984): 18-20.
Holgate argues in favor of multi-instrumentalism, mostly focusing on the benefits and
challenges of woodwind doubling.
Joffe, Edward. “Woodwind doubling: A historical survey and examination of performance
problems and practices between saxophones, clarinets and flutes.” D.M.A. diss., The City
University of New York, 2006.
This work discusses the history of woodwind doubling from 1300 to 2005, and includes a
pedagogical approach to woodwind doubling and discussion of musical excerpts (mostly from
musical theater).
Kennedy, Shannon. “Flute as a Double.” Flute Talk (April 2006): 22-23.
This short article is a basic introduction to woodwind doubling, not particularly geared
toward flute.
McLaughlin, Dennis Brian. “An Investigation of Performance Problems Confronted by Multiplewoodwind Specialists.” Ed.D diss., Columbia University, 1985.
This work is based on a survey of fourteen professional woodwind doublers with varied
“primary” instruments. Chapters discuss issues of transferring ability from each of the five major
woodwinds to each of the four others. Appendices include recommended recordings, literature,
and pedagogical materials, problematic fingerings, and selection of instruments.
12
Reimer, Bennett. “Woodwind Doubling: Mind over Matter.” Woodwind Anthology: A
Compendium of Woodwind Articles from The Instrumentalist, Vol. 2. Northfield, Illinois:
Instrumentalist, 1992: 706-707.
Reimer addresses physical and mental challenges inherent in woodwind doubling.
Ricker, Ramon. “Doubling in the Studios: An Interview with George Marge.” Woodwind
Anthology: A Compendium of Woodwind Articles from The Instrumentalist, Vol. 2.
Northfield, Illinois: Instrumentalist, 1992: 827-829.
This interview provides a look into the life of a New York City studio doubler, including
advice for aspiring woodwind doublers and studio musicians.
Rossi, Michael. “Doubling His Standards: Chris Vadala on Woodwind Doubling.” Jazz
Educators Journal (March 2000): 90-93.
This article reports on an interview with Chris Vadala, part of which deals with practicing
and performing on flute-clarinet-saxophone doubles.
Simon, Richard. “Woodwind Doublers in the L. A. Studios.” Windplayer 62 (2001): 20-29.
This article is derived from interviews with Los Angeles woodwind doublers active in
film and television scoring.
Swoboda, John. “Woodwind Doubling.” NACWPI Journal (Summer 1991): 29-30.
Swoboda shares brief thoughts on problems of doubling flute/piccolo, clarinet,
oboe/English horn, and saxophones.
Thompson, Phil Atterbury. “A historical survey of woodwind doubling and a form/style analysis
of four works for doubler and wind ensemble, a lecture recital together with three recitals
of selected works by W. A. Mozart, A. Glazounov, P. Tate, A. Szalowski, A. Copland
and others.” D.M.A diss., University of North Texas, 1993.
This dissertation includes a survey of woodwind doubling in the fifteenth through
twentieth centuries.
Vadala, Chris. “Tips on Doubling.” Saxophone Journal. Recurring column, selected issues 19942000.
This column features brief articles on doubling issues, geared toward saxophonists.
13
Folk, ethnic, and period woodwinds
Carlin, Dan, Sr. Music in Film and Video Productions. Stoneham, MA: Focal Press, 1991.
Carlin mentions the use of specialist musicians for ethnic instrument sounds in film
scoring, and specifically names the pennywhistle.
Davis, Richard. Complete Guide to Film Scoring: The Art and Business of Writing Music for
Movies and TV. Boston: Berklee Press, 1999.
This text includes a chapter entitled “Ethnic and Period Music,” which specifically
mentions panflute, pennywhistle, and wooden flute.
Karlin, Fred, and Rayburn Wright. On the Track: A Guide to Contemporary Film Scoring. New
York: Schirmer Books, 1990.
Karlin and Wright mention ethnic woodwinds under the heading of “Fresh Sounds,”
including an anecdote about “woodwind guys” being called upon to play the Japanese sho, a
mouth organ, for the Henry Mancini score to the film Wait Until Dark.
Kompanek, Sonny. From Score to Screen: Sequencers, Scores, and Second Thoughts: The New
Film Scoring Process. New York: Schirmer Trade Books, 2004.
This text includes brief discussion of ethnic instruments in film scoring.
MacDonald, Laurence E. The Invisible Art of Film Music: A Comprehensive History. New York:
Ardsley House, 1998.
This substantial work discusses thousands of film scores, including numerous mentions
of ethnic woodwinds.
Pope, David. “Creative Jazz Improvisation: World Music Doubling for Jazz Improvisers.”
Saxophone Journal (March/April 2008): 20-21.
Pope offers practical suggestions for the use of ethnic woodwinds in jazz improvisation,
including tips on purchasing instruments.
Skiles, Marlin. Music Scoring for TV & Motion Pictures. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab Books,
1976.
In this book, an interview with film composer Quincy Jones reveals Jones‟s distaste for
ethnic instruments used “to replace quality,” and includes a mention of the (presumably fictional)
“three-tit bassoon from Malaya.”
14
Vadala, Chris. “Tips on Doubling: The Other Flutes.” Saxophone Journal (November/December
1994): 28-31.
This column discusses woodwind doublers using ethnic woodwinds, and mentions some
specific musicians and situations.
________. “Tips on Doubling: Responses from Readers.” Saxophone Journal (March/April
1995): 22-25.
This column is a continuation of discussion from the November/December 1994 column.
15
Chapter 2: Discussion of Individual Instruments
a. Bamboo Flutes
Bamboo transverse flutes are associated with many cultures. Among these perhaps the
best known are the Chinese dizi (which will be discussed in a separate section) and the Indian
bansuri. Bamboo flutes have also become a popular alternative to wooden flutes in Irish
traditional music, for reasons of artistic expression and perhaps for the somewhat lower cost of
bamboo instruments. Additionally, some modern flute makers produce bamboo flutes that are not
necessarily attached to a specific musical tradition. Some flute makers successfully substitute
other materials, such as delrin or even PVC plumbing pipe; information in this section applies
equally to instruments made from these materials.
Figure 1: A bamboo flute. Embouchure hole is at the left.
The instruments that will be considered here are transverse flutes using simple-system
fingering, that is, six fingered toneholes which, when opened in sequence, produce a major scale.
These instruments also share the characteristic of an embouchure hole with a relatively shallow
chimney. Wooden flutes, having thicker walls, have deeper chimneys; the modern Western flute
has a chimney that is artificially deepened by adding a riser beneath the lip plate. The shallow
chimney gives bamboo instruments a distinctive sound, perhaps less complex in harmonic
content than deeper-chimneyed flutes.
16
Pitch designations for bamboo flutes may be confusing to modern Western flutists. Irishstyle flutes are named for their lowest pitch (with six toneholes closed), so a flute with D as its
lowest pitch is a “D” flute. The bansuri and dizi traditions both use the convention of naming
flutes for the pitch produced with the first three toneholes closed. A flute with D as its lowest
(six-hole) note produces a G with three toneholes closed; thus, a flute with a six-hole note of D is
a D flute in Irish music and a G flute in Indian or Chinese music. As an additional complication,
modern Western flutes of any size produce a six-hole note notated as D, regardless of actual
sounding pitch. For example, the modern Western alto flute‟s equivalent to a six-hole note is
notated as D but sounds a G. Thus the fingerings of the modern Western flute in C most closely
parallel the Irish flute in D, or the bansuri in G, so Western musicians will be likely to regard
either of these instruments as playing at “concert” pitch, whereas all modern Western woodwinds
that play at concert pitch are said to be in C.
17
Table 4: Examples of flutes in the Western classical, Irish, Indian, and Chinese traditions,
comparing the pitch nomenclature of each system. This comparison assumes that all the listed
flutes are notated using the Western convention of keeping the same fingering for a notated
pitch, regardless of the size of the instrument; this is not necessarily standardized practice for all
non-Western flutes.
Six-finger
pitch
(notated)
Six-finger
pitch
(sounding)
Western
nomenclature
Irish flute
nomenclature (6hole note)
Bansuri or dizi
nomenclature (3hole note)
Western
flute
D
D
C
D
G
Western
alto flute
D
G
G
A
D
Irish flute
in D
D
D
C
D
G
Irish flute
in E-flat
D
E-flat
D-flat
E-flat
A-flat
Bansuri or D
dizi in G
D
C
D
G
Bansuri or D
dizi in F
C
B-flat
C
F
The sound and playability of a bamboo flute are affected by its bore diameter and the size
of its toneholes. Flutes with narrower bores tend to be softer and play easily in the high register,
while larger-bore flutes are louder and favor the lowest octave. Instruments with toneholes of
non-uniform size may suffer from uneven tone from one note to the next; instruments with
uniform tonehole size may require the holes to be spaced farther apart, making the reach more
difficult. Smaller toneholes may allow for more cross-fingerings, while large-holed flutes are
better suited to half-holing. For theater and film music, it may be possible to use different types
of bamboo flutes more or less interchangeably; practical considerations such as instrument
availability, key, and pitch may trump strict authenticity in some cases.
18
Much of the tone production technique of the modern Western flute can be applied to
playing bamboo transverse flutes. Western flutists will take to bamboo instruments easily.
Relaxed but upright posture is essential to good tone production.1 The lower lip contacts
the edge of the embouchure hole, and covers it to some extent; the amount of coverage affects
pitch and tone and a suitable position must be determined by trial and error for each instrument. 2
The embouchure must be relaxed enough to be somewhat mobile—continually adjusting for
register changes, dynamics, and adjustments of tone—but sufficiently strong to maintain a small
aperture in the lips.3 This small aperture will produce a narrow, focused airstream, which is
crucial for control of all aspects of flute playing.4 The upper lip plays a role in this; B. K.
Chaturvedi indicates that air is “thrown with the upper lip in such a way that it directly goes into
the main hole.”5
Because bamboo flutes are essentially cylindrical, their acoustical nature causes them to
be somewhat flat when overblown to higher octaves. Some skilled flute makers use pieces of
bamboo with a slight taper at either end, which may minimize the problem. In many cases,
however, bamboo flutes will require some embouchure adjustment to keep the upper octaves in
tune with the lower.
Most modern players of bamboo transverse flutes use the left hand closest to the
embouchure, matching the technique of the modern Western instrument. Flutes with inline holes
and a symmetrical embouchure hole can technically be played with either the left or right hand
1
Grey Larsen, The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle (Pacific, MO: Mel Bay Publications,
2003), 81. Larsen‟s book deals with the Irish flute tradition, which typically uses 19 th-century wooden flutes (or
modern replicas). Because many flutists in Irish traditional music have accepted bamboo flutes as a suitable
substitute for wooden instruments, material from Larsen‟s book applies here.
2
B. K. Chaturvedi, How to Play Flute and Shahnai (New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books, 1988), 12;
Larsen, 102.
3
Erik Sampson, Erik the Flutemaker Presents Bamboo Sax 101 (Davie, FL: Erik the Flutemaker, n.d.).
4
Chaturvedi, 34; Larsen, 98-99.
5
Chaturvedi, 12.
19
closest to the embouchure; Chaturvedi‟s bansuri tutor recommends the player use their dominant
hand farthest from the embouchure.6 Western musicians will of course be most comfortable with
the left hand closest; further discussion here will assume this.
Flutes that have no thumbhole (including most simple-system instruments) may be
played with the thumbs of each hand supporting the instrument. This method is preferred by
bansuri players.7 Instruments with a left-hand thumbhole require the flute to be supported at the
base of the left index finger, in the manner of the modern Western flute, in order to keep the
thumb free to move. For six-holed flutes, the little fingers may rest on the flute to provide
additional stability.8 This use of the right little finger will feel especially familiar to Western
flutists, who use that instrument‟s little finger D-sharp key as a stabilizing point.
The pads of the fingers are used to close the toneholes.9 The fingers must be kept relaxed
for freedom of movement; Chaturvedi points out that variations in finger pressure may also
affect tone.10 Half-holing may be used to obtain a chromatic scale.11 Leifer suggests that, for
half-holing, the fingers should be rolled slightly upward to uncover the lower part of a tonehole,
except for the left hand first finger, for which the fingertip should be lifted to uncover the side of
the hole closest to the player. He also suggests that firmer air support may be necessary for halfholed notes to better match their otherwise weaker tone quality to the stronger notes.12 Some
cross-fingerings may be available, especially for flutes with small toneholes, but these fingerings
will vary from instrument to instrument. For flutes with large toneholes, some traditions open
6
Chaturvedi, 34.
Chaturvedi, 12; Lyon Leifer, How to Play the Bansuri: A Manual for Self-instruction Based on the
Teaching of Devendra Murdeshwar (Glenview, IL: Rasa Music Company, 1997), 15.
8
Leifer, 20.
9
Sampson.
10
Chaturvedi, 34, 36.
11
Chaturvedi, 15.
12
Leifer, 53.
7
20
only one tonehole at a time, closing all toneholes beneath the open one; this system will be
unfamiliar to Western woodwind players but may be adopted selectively to improve pitch or tone
of some notes.13
Simple-system flutes are best suited to playing in one or two major keys (or closelyrelated keys). For example, a flute that sounds a D with six holes covered will play a D major
scale as its basic scale, and can also play without much difficulty in G major, requiring only one
cross-fingered or half-holed fingering to produce the C-natural. B and E natural minor are thus
also available, as well as E and A Dorian scales, and so forth. Bamboo flute players often have
instruments available in a variety of sizes, allowing easier playing in a greater number of keys.14
Many bansuri have an additional tonehole, which may be closed with the right little
finger, or, if the tonehole is placed on the underside of the flute, may be closed by pressing
against the knee when playing in a seated position. This tonehole provides an extra half-step of
low range; it may also be used an octave higher to provide an alternative to the open fingering
and ease some passages played across the break. For flutists unused to a seven-hole instrument,
the seventh hole may simply be ignored and the familiar six-hole fingerings used.
13
14
Chaturvedi, 14.
Chaturvedi, 11; Leifer, 1.
21
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
Irish
Bansuri
Table 5: Fingerings for basic scale, bansuri in E or Irish flute in D15
15
Based on Larsen, 454-455; Leifer, 16.
22
N/A
Irish
Bansuri
Irish
Bansuri
Table 6: Fingerings for expanded chromatic scale, bansuri in E or Irish flute in D16
Irish
Bansuri
(bansuri
only)
16
Based on Larsen, 454-455; Leifer, 16.
23
Bansuri
Irish
Irish
Bansuri
(bansuri
only)
Bansuri are usually narrow-bore flutes with large toneholes. They are associated with the
virtuosic flute-playing tradition of Hindustani raga music.17 They are made in a wide range of
sizes, identified by the pitch produced when the top three toneholes are covered.18 The large E
flute (E4 being the pitch produced with three toneholes covered) is the most common instrument
used in traditional music.19 The toneholes are traditionally numbered from one to seven, starting
from the bell end of the instrument.20
17
Leifer, 23.
Ibid., 1.
19
Ibid., 2. Pitch indications given in this text are based on the “Scientific Pitch Notation” system used by
the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.
20
Chaturvedi, 12.
18
24
Large flutes, such as the bansuri in E favored for concert playing, may require some
adjustment of normal hand position in order to reach all the toneholes with the fingers,
particularly the right hand little finger hole if present. For these larger flutes, the curved fingers
favored for Western flute playing may need to be straightened somewhat for additional reach.21
In some cases, the fingers and hands must be trained for flexibility and extension; Leifer‟s
bansuri tutor offers slow trill exercises for this purpose.22 For the right hand in particular, some
rotation of the wrist or even raising of the elbow may be required to attain a comfortable and
agile playing position.23
Some techniques characteristic to the bansuri tradition are glissandi between notes
(accomplished by rolling fingers to open or close tone holes), the use of microtones
(accomplished by partial covering of toneholes), and andolan, a microtone tremolo.24
Raga music is essentially an aural tradition, but a type of notation called bhatkande has
been used in northern India.25 Bamboo flute parts intended to be played by Western woodwind
players would be better notated in Western notation; it may be convenient to transpose notation
so that the six-finger note is written as D4 so that the fingerings parallel those of the Western
flute.
The Irish flute tradition favors flutes in D (six-hole note of D4) with a wide bore, large
toneholes, and a large embouchure hole, for a “powerful, rich, hard-edged tone.”26 While
wooden flutes are still the standard instruments for Irish traditional music, many flutists are
adopting bamboo instruments to bring additional colors to their playing, or as a lower-cost
21
Leifer, 15.
Ibid., 2, 18-19.
23
Ibid., 65.
24
Leifer, 32-33, 66-69.
25
Leifer, 4-5; Chaturvedi, 31.
26
Larsen, 52.
22
25
alternative to wood. Some flute makers produce bamboo instruments specifically for Irish-style
playing. Performance practice for the Irish flute tradition, which is based on Irish uilleann pipes
technique, tends toward legato playing with notes articulated by fingered ornaments; this style is
virtually identical to the Irish pennywhistle style that will be addressed in a later section of this
document. It adapts without any difficulty to bamboo instruments.
The Chinese dizi tradition (discussed in another section) may also inform playing of nondizi bamboo flutes. Dizi are typically narrow-bore flutes. Dizi may be played as simple bamboo
flutes if the vibrating membrane is replaced with, for example, a piece of tape, permanently or
temporarily sealing the membrane hole with an airtight but silent patch.
Some flute makers are producing bamboo flutes that are not necessarily intended to relate
to a certain musical tradition. These may vary widely in dimensions and may even be designed to
play alternative scales, but virtually all of these flute makers sell primarily simple-system
instruments.
Woodwind players seeking to purchase bamboo flutes may consider bansuri, Irish-style
flutes, dizi, non-tradition-specific bamboo flutes, and others. Factors to consider include bore and
tonehole dimensions (and their respective effects on tone and volume), intonation, finger stretch,
special finishing (or lack thereof) to the embouchure hole, size or key, and fingering system.
Simple-system flutes are useful for ease of playing in major keys (and modes thereof) and
because simple-system fingerings are common to a number of folk and ethnic instruments. Flutes
made of materials other than bamboo (such as plastics) may also be suitable, and, in some cases,
superior, due to greater consistency of the inorganic materials and higher tolerances used in
manufacturing. Bansuri, dizi, and other flutes native to the Eastern hemisphere may be more
difficult to obtain, although there are currently some skilled makers in the West, as well as
26
reputable importers. Irish-style flutes and generic “bamboo flutes” are readily available and can
be purchased from specialty shops or, often, directly from the flute makers. Because they are
basically diatonic instruments, it is advisable to obtain flutes in a variety of keys.
Case Study
Bamboo flutes in a variety of keys are used in the score of the Broadway-style musical
Miss Saigon. The song “The Ceremony: Dju Vui Vai” features a high-pitched bamboo flute as a
solo instrument and as accompaniment to vocalists.
27
“Dju Vui Vai”
From the musical: MISS SAIGON
BY Alain Boublil & Claude-Michel Schönberg
Music by: Claude-Michel Schönberg
Lyrics by: Alain Boublil & Richard Maltby Jr.
© Alain Boublil Music Ltd. (ASCAP)
Example 1: Excerpts using bamboo flute in Broadway-style show Miss Saigon (1989).27
Transposed for flute pitched in high B-flat (using 6-hole nomenclature; equivalent to E-flat flute
in 3-hole nomenclature); sounds minor 6th higher.
27
Miss Saigon: Original London Cast Recording (Geffen, 1990). Throughout this document, measure
numbers are applied to the excerpted parts, and do not necessarily coincide with measure numbers in the original
scores. All musical examples have been transcribed from commercial recordings, and may differ from the original
scores. Time indications apply to the specific recordings used.
28
In measures 2-10, the bamboo flute makes a solo statement of the melody. The melody,
tonally centered on G, may be played with relative ease on either a flute with a six-hole note of
B-flat4 (as notated here), or on a very small flute with a six-hole note of F5. In bansuri or dizi
nomenclature, these are equivalent to flutes in E-flat or B-flat. The six-hole B-flat instrument has
been selected as a better candidate here due to the relative rarity of small F flutes.
The upward pitch bends indicated throughout the passage may be achieved by halfholing, or by bringing the fingers close to open toneholes to shade the pitch downward, and then
raising the fingers in question in a smooth motion. They can also be done by rolling the flute
inward to start the pitch bend, then returning the flute smoothly to its normal position to bring the
pitch back up. Because the portamento in measure 8 crosses between registers and begins on a
note that has no open toneholes (other than the first, opened as a register vent), it can be best
played by rolling the flute inward to gradually lower the pitch of the (notated) D6, then switching
as smoothly as possible to the C-sharp6 fingering. For bansuri-style flutes with a seventh tone
hole, it may, depending on the instrument, be used to lower the high D‟s pitch to C-sharp.
In measures 11-20, the melody is sung by a chorus, with a vocal soloist and the bamboo
flute echoing the melody in octaves. The flutist must take special care here to match the solo
voice for pitch and balance, while playing in the instrument‟s difficult high register. The Gsharp5 grace note in measure 12 falls outside the instrument‟s basic scale, but on some bamboo
flutes may be cross-fingered by fingering A5 and adding one or more fingers of the right hand.
Measures 21-27 feature the bamboo flute in its lower register, underscoring onstage
dialogue. The use of the lower register allows for soloistic playing while maintaining a suitably
low volume.
29
Throughout the excerpts, the flutist on the transcribed recording uses consistent vibrato,
similar to that used by Western classical flutists. The grace notes are played fairly slowly and
with flexible rhythm.
The bamboo flute in these excerpts is used soloistically and is fairly exposed. Because of
the high tessitura, it must be played either in the high register of a B-flat flute or on a very small
F flute; in either case, significant challenges are faced in maintaining good intonation and a
pleasing tone quality.
Bibliography
Bullard, Beth Alice B. “Wind of Change in South Indian Music: The Flute Revived, Recaste,
Regendered.” Ph.D. diss., University of Maryland, 1998.
The text deals primarily with changes in South Indian society with regard to social class
and gender. Of most interest are the profiles of contemporary bansuri players.
Chaturvedi, B. K. How to Play Flute and Shahnai. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books, 1988.
This work is surprisingly full of useful information for such a small volume. It includes
information on the theory of traditional Indian music and on the technique and performance
practice of the bansuri. The author‟s English can be difficult to follow at times.
Deva, B. Chaitanya. An Introduction to Indian Music. New Delhi: Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Publications Division, 1973.
This text includes organological and historical information on various types of Indian
flutes and reed instruments, with photographs.
Haroon, Mohammed. Indian Music Literature. Delhi: Indian Bibliographies Bureau, 1992.
This is a bibliography of scholarly materials relating to Indian music. It includes a large
section on Indian musical instruments, and sections on Indian music theory, style, and genres.
30
Krishnaswami, S. “Musical Instruments of India.” Asian Music 2, no. 2 (1971): 31-42.
This article includes a brief paragraph on the bansuri and a photo of one specimen. The
text discusses performance practice and technique issues, stressing the differences between the
Indian bamboo flute and Western wind instruments.
Larsen, Grey. The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay
Publications, 2003.
This substantial work is a comprehensive method for flute and pennywhistle in Irish
traditional music. Larsen‟s emphasis is on style, especially ornamentation. The text introduces
Larsen‟s methodical and clear approach to notating ornaments. Extensive exercises and authentic
repertoire are included. Accompanying compact discs include musical examples, some of which
are played on pennywhistle and some of which are played on flute.
Leifer, Lyon. How to Play the Bansuri: A Manual for Self-instruction Based on the Teaching of
Devendra Murdeshwar. Glenview, IL: Rasa Music Company, 1997.
This is a thorough method for playing the bansuri, including history and culture, issues of
selecting an instrument, elements of Indian music theory, and traditional notation. It includes a
cassette tape of musical examples.
Sampson, Erik. Erik the Flutemaker Presents Bamboo Sax 101. Davie, Fl: Erik the Flutemaker,
n.d.
This DVD is an introduction to playing bamboo flutes (and other bamboo woodwinds)
made by Erik “The Flutemaker” Sampson. It is geared toward nonmusicians.
Spottswood, Richard. Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced
in the United States, 1893 to 1942. Vol. 5, Mid-East, Far East, Scandinavian, English
Language, American Indian, International. Urbana, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1990.
This is a reference for locating field recordings and early commercial recordings of
Indian music. Some listings indicate the use of flute.
Selected Recordings
Flook. Rubai. World Village, 2002.
This recording is an example of the use of bamboo flutes (as well as wooden and Boehm
flutes and pennywhistles) in Irish-influenced music.
31
Sachdev, G. S. Bansuri: The Bamboo Flute of India. Lyrichord, 1991.
Sachdev, G. S. Incantations. Arion, 2000.
These are representative recordings by bansuri master Sachdev.
Sampson, Erik “The Flutemaker.” On That Note. Erik the Flutemaker, 2005.
________. Moving Right Along. Erik the Flutemaker, n.d.
These recordings feature music in various popular genres played on bamboo flutes (and
other bamboo wind instruments) made by Sampson (b. 1952).
Miss Saigon: Original London Cast Recording. Claude-Michel Schönberg, composer. Geffen,
1990.
This recording uses bamboo flutes to evoke a Vietnamese setting in a musical theater
score.
Organizations in North America
Ali Akbar College of Music
415 454-6264
215 West End Ave.
San Rafael, CA 94901
http://www.aacm.org
The Ali Akbar College of Music offers instruction in bansuri and other Indian
instruments.
Note: Many of the organizations listed in the pennywhistle section provide Irish flute
resources, and may be of interest for Irish-style flute playing.
b. Dizi
The dizi is a bamboo transverse flute of Chinese origin. Because of the difficulty of
transliterating Chinese words into English, many Romanized variants of the name are used,
32
including “di-zi,” “di-dze,” and “di-tzu;” di, a more general term indicating a flute, is also
sometimes used.28
The quintessential feature of the dizi is the dimo, a mirliton (membrane) stretched across
a hole in the dizi‟s body, giving the instrument its characteristic buzzing sound. The earliest
Chinese membrane flutes probably date to the T‟ang dynasty (618-907 CE).29
The dizi has an embouchure hole, a dimo hole, and six fingered toneholes, operated by
the three middle fingers of each hand. The toneholes are traditionally numbered from one to six,
starting from the hole farthest from the embouchure, which may be the opposite of what is
expected by Western-trained musicians.30 The toneholes traditionally have the same diameter
and are equidistant, though modern dizi makers tend to allow minor variation of this to meet
contemporary standards of intonation.31 Dizi often have additional holes at the bell end of the
instrument, which serve to tune the lowest note and provide a means of hanging tassels for
decoration or for balancing the instrument.32 Dizi usually have extensive lacquered thread
wrappings, which help to prevent cracking, enhance the instrument‟s appearance, and, it has
been suggested, may improve the sound of the upper octave.33 Both ends of the flute traditionally
are, for aesthetic reasons, either painted with black lacquer or tipped with fittings of animal
bone.34
28
Frederick Cheungkong Lau, “Music and Musicians of the Traditional Chinese Dizi in the People‟s
Republic of China” (D.M.A. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991), 6; Marsha Lynne Baxter,
“The Chinese Dizi, the Native American Courting Flute, and the Andean Panpipes: An Investigation of Pedagogy
and Musical Practice” (D.Ed. diss., Columbia University, 2001), 43; Alan Thrasher, “The Transverse Flute in
Traditional Chinese Music,” Asian Music 10, no. 1 (1978): 92.
29
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 93.
30
Li, 69; Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 98.
31
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 96.
32
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 7.
33
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 96-97.
34
Ibid., 97.
33
Figure 2: A dizi. The dimo covers the hole at approximately the center point of the instrument.
Two primary musical traditions have made use of the dizi: the Bangzi opera of northern
China, and the Kunqu opera of southern China. The northern style favors smaller, higher-pitched
flutes (bangdi) and a bright, virtuosic style, while the southern style uses longer, lower-pitched
flutes (qudi) with a mellow sound and songlike style.35 Each style of dizi playing has a
characteristic method of ornamenting melodies. A modern dizi repertoire has been developed
since the creation of the People‟s Republic of China in 1949, including a conservatory training
system.36
Much of modern dizi technique will be familiar to Western-trained flutists. Although
some dizi players hold the instrument in the manner of the Western flute, with the weight of the
instrument resting primarily at the base of the left index finger, this is not necessary for the dizi.
Because it lacks the left thumb keywork of the Western flute, the left thumb may be used to
support the instrument‟s weight, and the hands may therefore be oriented with the fingers of both
hands perpendicular to the instrument. This gives the left hand fingers more freedom of
35
36
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 94; Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 10.
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 168-9.
34
movement than the Western style, and is favored by many dizi players.37 Because the finger and
embouchure holes are usually inline, and because the embouchure hole is usually symmetrical,
the dizi may be held either to the player‟s right, with the left hand closest to the embouchure (the
manner familiar to Western flutists), or vice versa.38 The use of the left hand on top will be
assumed throughout this section. The right little finger is used to stabilize the instrument by
resting on the dizi‟s body, similar to the way the right little finger on the D-sharp key provides
some stability for the Western flute.39
Breathing and embouchure on the dizi are largely the same as those of the Western flute:
controlled exhalation with abdominal muscular support, combined with a small and flexible
aperture.40 Circular breathing is frequently used.41
Tongued articulation is widely used in modern dizi playing, including the double- and
triple-tonguing and flutter-tonguing techniques familiar to Western flutists.42 In older styles of
dizi playing, tonguing is rarely used; a legato style articulated by fingered ornamentation and
breath accents is favored instead.43
Dizi players place less emphasis on the use of dynamics than Western musicians,
though they do seek for balanced contrast in their playing. This is often described as an
interaction of “light” and “dark.”44
37
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 115; Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 99.
Charles DeLaney, “DIZI! Sounds from Ancient China,” Flutist Quarterly 12, no. 4 (Fall 1987): 34;
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 99.
39
Li Ming, “Di-zi: The History and Performance Practice of the Chinese Bamboo Transverse Flute” (D.M.
diss., Florida State University, 1995), 23.
40
Ibid., 23-24.
41
DeLaney, 34; Li, 24.
42
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 116, 212; Li, 25-26.
43
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 105.
44
Baxter, 176-177.
38
35
The balls of the fingers are used to cover the toneholes, except with some of the larger
dizi where the larger flat surfaces of the fingers‟ middle joints must be used.45 Cross fingerings
are seldom used, and half-holing even less so.46 These methods are technically quite possible
with the dizi; the rarity of their use is likely due more to the relatively simple harmony of the
repertoire (which largely corresponds to a Western pentatonic scale) than to limitations of the
instrument or the players.47 Western woodwind players, who may be called upon to use the dizi
in non-authentic contexts, may find use for cross fingerings and half-holing, which can produce a
full chromatic scale.
Table 7: Fingerings for basic scale, dizi in D48
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
45
Li, 23.
DeLaney, 33; Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 97.
47
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 208.
48
Based on Li, 75.
46
36
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
(also 8va)
Table 8: Fingerings for expanded chromatic scale, dizi in D49
The proper use of the dimo (membrane) is of crucial importance. The difficulties of
attaching it properly, its sensitivity and delicacy, and its major influence on pitch and tone
parallel the challenges presented to Western oboists by temperamental reeds. A dimo that is
stretched too tightly, for example, will fail to produce enough buzziness, while a dimo that is too
loose will result in flat pitch and a strident tone.50 The dimo is intentionally wrinkled or pleated
when attached, with the wrinkles running perpendicular to the length of the flute. The manner of
wrinkling also has a great effect on the dimo‟s function.51
49
Ibid.
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 112.
51
Ibid., 96.
50
37
The dimo is preferably made from the inner film of a variety of reed, though it can also
be made from a comparable film extracted from bamboo; the inner skin of an onion or even
plastic food wrap can also be used with reasonably satisfactory results.52 Be-ji, an herbal extract
available in crystallized form, is used to glue the dimo to the dizi. Alternatively, garlic juice, egg
white thinned with water, moist rosin, or adhesive from postage stamps (the type that must be
moistened) may be used.53
Li Ming gives a clear set of instructions for attaching the dimo (quoted):
1) Cut a small piece of membrane, usually into a square shape, at least twice
the size of the membrane hole.
2) Find the natural lines on the membrane, then make several artificial
wrinkles on it which should be perpendicular to the natural lines. This
process will keep the membrane from being easily broken. The number of
wrinkles will vary, according to the quality of the membrane.
3) Before placing the membrane on the di-zi, after the wrinkles are made, the
student must place a drop of water around the membrane hole. Then the
Chinese medicine be-ji is applied to make a sticky surface. Be-ji is a plant
which produces a sticky liquid ideal for affixing a membrane on a di-zi.
Never use any kind of glue to attach the membrane to the di-zi because it
will ruin the membrane. Normally, with proper placement, a high quality
membrane will last from several weeks to several months. Its exact
longevity depends on how often the di-zi is played.
4) When a di-zi is not played for one day or one week, its membrane will
usually be in a loose condition, and it needs to be “awakened”
(moistened). The traditional way to moisten it is by breathing with the
mouth very close to the membrane, and letting the condensation wet the
surface of the membrane. Never put water on the center of the membrane,
because it will ruin it. After wetting the surface of the membrane with
condensation from the breath, let it “cool off” (dry). It will usually be back
to normal and in good working condition after being “awakened” several
times. The flutist must test the membrane by playing and listening for a
“normal” buzzy sound. An experienced di-zi player can easily hear when
the membrane is back to a standard position. Due to the importance of the
52
53
Ibid.
Ibid.
38
buzz, students must always check the condition of the membrane before
they play the di-zi. It has to be in ideal condition.54
In modern dizi repertoire, ornamentation is determined by the composer, and largely
adhered to by the performer.55 Characteristic ornamentation includes glissandi (scalar or smooth)
between notes, as well as overtones used for variation of timbre.56 The “gift sound,” another
common ornament, is a slur to a high and short grace note, used at the end of a phrase. Upper or
lower neighbor tones played in the manner of quick grace notes before the beat are used
extensively. They are sometimes used to rearticulate repeated notes, and sometimes include brief
trills. Sometimes multiple grace notes are used, usually a portion of the instrument‟s basic
scale.57
Ornamentation varies with regional styles. The virtuosic northern style favors flutter
tonguing, portamentos between notes (accomplished by sliding a finger onto or off of a
tonehole), and measured trills.58 The more lyrical southern style uses trills, vibrato, and
especially a single trill leading into a note and played before the beat.59 Trills wider than steps of
the instrument‟s basic scale (for example, trills of a third) are characteristic of Mongolian
music.60
Modern dizi are made in every key, but the nomenclature for identifying the key
of a dizi may be misleading for Western musicians.61 Dizi are named for the fundamental
54
Li, 28-29.
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 210, 213.
56
Li, 26-27.
57
Baxter, 183-4, 190-2.
58
Baxter, 218-220; Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 109.
59
Baxter, 178, 182-4; Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 211.
60
Baxter, 172, 175.
61
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 12.
55
39
pitch produced with the three left-hand toneholes closed (assuming the left hand is closest
to the embouchure), thus, a standard dizi “in D” plays a D4 with three fingers down.
The most commonly used instrument for modern conservatory-style playing is the
instrument in D, with A3 as its lowest note.62 The slightly larger C is also common. For
smaller flutes, G is the most common, followed by F and A.63
The earliest written notation for dizi music appears to have been a 12th-century system
using Chinese characters, read in vertical columns from right to left.64 Today, the prevalent
method used in Chinese conservatories is a method of cipher notation, using numerals to
represent scale degrees, read horizontally from left to right. Durations are shown using horizontal
lines borrowed from the note beaming of Western notation.65
Because of the unfamiliarity of these notation systems to Western musicians, and since
dizi cipher notation transcribes into Western notation in a relatively straightforward manner
without lost information, standard Western notation seems to be the best option when scoring
dizi parts for Western woodwind players.66 Some woodwind players may find it convenient to
have dizi parts transposed so that the lowest note of the instrument is notated as D4, as this
matches the dizi fingerings closely to those of the Western flute, oboe, or saxophone.
Western woodwind players can obtain quality dizi, as well as membranes and traditional
adhesives, through any of several dealers and importers specializing in Chinese artist-quality
musical instruments. Prospective buyers should note that bamboo flutes are popular tourist
souvenirs, and are used in Feng Shui practice (a Chinese aesthetic system that is used, for
62
Thrasher, “Transverse Flute,” 100; Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 10.
Thrasher “Di,” 278; Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 10.
64
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 157.
65
Lau, “Music and Musicians,” 159.
66
See Baxter for extensive examples of cipher notation transcribed into Western notation.
63
40
example, in home décor). Flutes sold for these purposes are not necessarily of suitable quality for
professional use, and may, in fact, be wholly unplayable. Low D and C and high G are
commonly-used flutes for traditional Chinese music, but woodwind players working in theater
and film music may need other keys, as well.
Case Study
The dizi is used extensively as a featured solo instrument in the score of the film
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. In the score segment entitled “In the South,” the dizi in F is
used; here it is shown transposed so that the instrument‟s 6-hole note corresponds to D on the
staff.
41
Example 2: Excerpt using dizi in film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000). Transposed for
dizi in F; sounds minor 7th higher.67
The dizi player on the transcribed recording plays with a light, clear sound with only a
hint of buzz from the dimo. The grace notes indicated as sixteenth notes, as well as the trills, are
played very rapidly and give a fluttering effect. The grace notes notated as eighth notes are
played more slowly and deliberately. The phrasing is largely legato, with only a few notes other
than phrase beginnings being clearly tongued. Vibrato is used sparingly and subtly, and only on
notes a dotted-eighth or longer in duration.
Other than the quick grace notes, the passage gives few significant technical challenges;
the primary difficulty of this passage is playing with suitable delicacy and sweetness of tone.
67
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (Sony Classical, 2000).
42
Bibliography
Baxter, Marsha Lynne. “The Chinese Dizi, the Native American Courting Flute, and the Andean
Panpipes: An Investigation of Pedagogy and Musical Practice.” D.Ed. diss., Columbia
University, 2001.
This work describes Baxter‟s dizi studies with teacher and performer Chen Tao in New
York City. It explores performance practice and technique according to both “northern” and
“southern” schools of dizi playing, including ornamentation, tone, and dynamics, and
philosophical concepts such as yin and yang, the “five elements,” and qi, as applied to dizi
performance. It also includes musical examples in both Western and jianpu (numeric) notation.
Beeson, Craig Brooks. “Origins and Early Functions of the Chinese Vertical Flute.” M.A. thesis,
University of Washington, 1980.
This is a detailed look at Chinese end-blown flutes such as the xiao and yuan, close
relatives of the dizi, with context of the history of Chinese traditional flute music.
DeLaney, Charles. “DIZI! Sounds from Ancient China.” Flutist Quarterly 12, no. 4 (Fall 1987):
33-34.
The author describes his encounters with the dizi during a tour of China. Useful
information includes discussion of the various keys in which dizi are made and how they are
used. This is a respectful and enthusiastic reaction to the dizi and its music, from the perspective
of a Western Boehm-style flutist.
Lau, Frederick Cheungkong. “Forever Red: The Invention of Solo Dizi Music in Post-1949
China.” British Journal of Ethnomusicology 5 (1996): 113-31.
This article is primarily an examination of the “invention” in the later twentieth century
of an ostensibly ancient flute-playing tradition in China. It contains some transcriptions in
Western notation, discussion of the eclectic nature of the modern dizi player‟s repertoire, and
short profiles of leading contemporary dizi players and their individual styles.
________. “Individuality and Political Discourse in Solo Dizi Compositions.” Asian Music 27,
no. 1 (1996): 133-52.
This article is primarily a discussion of sociopolitical meaning in dizi compositions. It
includes useful information on classification of dizi music and elements of musical style and
performance practice.
43
________. “Music and Musicians of the Traditional Chinese Dizi in the People‟s Republic of
China.” D.M.A. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1991.
This dissertation is a thorough discussion of the dizi and its music, especially within the
context of mainland China since 1950. Its topics include history, organology, and performance
practice. A valuable feature is an appendix listing dizi-related vocabulary in both Chinese
characters and Romanized versions, useful for English speakers dealing with Chinese-language
materials. It also includes transcriptions in Western notation of characteristic repertoire, and a
listing of 372 dizi compositions with notes on history, form, mode, meter, etc.
Li Ming. “Di-zi: The History and Performance Practice of the Chinese Bamboo Transverse
Flute.” D.M. diss., Florida State University, 1995.
This is a comprehensive look at the dizi from both performance and musicological
perspectives. It includes some discussion of other Chinese flutes such as the xiao, the kou-di, and
the xun. Dizi-related topics include history, all aspects of playing technique, jianpu notation,
instrument care, placement of the mirliton, a who‟s-who of dizi flutists, a glossary, a fingering
chart, and representative repertoire in both Western and jianpu notation.
Shen Sin-Yan. Chinese Music and Orchestration: A Primer on Principles and Practice.
Woodridge, IL: Chinese Music Society of North America, 1991.
This work is useful for its discussion of the theory of traditional Chinese music, as well
as an overview of the use of the dizi and other traditional Chinese woodwinds in various types of
ensembles.
Spottswood, Richard. Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced
in the United States, 1893 to 1942. Vol. 5, Mid-East, Far East, Scandinavian, English
Language, American Indian, International. Urbana, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1990.
This is a reference for locating field recordings and early commercial recordings of
Chinese music. Some listings indicate the use of Chinese flute, but it is unclear whether this
refers to dizi flutes or other Chinese flutes.
Thrasher, Alan. “Di [dizi].” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley
Sadie, 7:277-9. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Thrasher discusses the dizi primarily from musicological and organological perspectives.
________. “The Transverse Flute in Traditional Chinese Music.” Asian Music 10, no. 1 (1978):
92-114.
This article includes history, detailed organology (including comparison of measurements
and temperament of several specimens), performance practice in both folk and Kun opera
44
traditions, and comparison of historical notation systems. It is especially useful for its distillation,
in English, of a number of important Chinese-language sources.
Wang Tiechui. “Notes on Special Techniques of Dizi (Flute) Performance.” Chinese Music 12,
no. 3 (1989): 51-55.
Wang discusses some characteristic techniques.
Selected Recordings
Tang Jun Qiao. Magical Flute of China: Portrait of Dizi Master Tang Jun Qiao. Channel
Classics, 2007.
Tang Jun Qiao (b. 1974? ) is a leading contemporary dizi soloist and principal dizi player
of the Shanghai Ensemble of Traditional Chinese Instruments. This recording includes music
from the modern dizi repertoire.
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. Tan Dun, composer.
Sony Classical, 2000.
This soundtrack uses the dizi (and other Chinese instruments) in combination with
Western orchestral instruments. It won Oscar and Grammy awards for best soundtrack.
Organizations in North America
Chinese Music Society of North America
630 910-1551
P.O. Box 5275
Woodridge, IL 60517-0275
http://www.chinesemusic.net
The Chinese Music Society of North America sponsors Chicago-based Chinese music
ensembles and supports scholarly activity in the area of Chinese music.
Clarion Music Center
415 391-1317
816 Sacramento St.
San Francisco, CA 94108
http://www.clarionmusic.com
Clarion Music Center offers group and individual dizi instruction.
45
MayTune Chinese Music Teaching Studio
905 471-4068
18 Beulah Dr.
Markham, ON L3S3N7
Canada
http://www.maytune.com
The MayTune Chinese Music Teaching Studio offers group and individual dizi
instruction.
c. Duduk
The duduk is a double reed instrument native to Armenia. It is traditionally made of
apricot wood and has nine fingered toneholes of uniform size (one of these being a thumb hole),
plus an additional tuning hole near the bell end.68 It uses a large double reed, called a ghamish,
made from a piece of tube cane that has been flattened and stripped of bark at one end, and
wrapped in thread at the other.
The duduk is used in some Armenian dance music, but its quintessential role is in
Armenian funeral music. In traditional funerals, the duduk is usually played in pairs, with one
duduk player playing a solo melody and the other (often a student of the soloist) sustaining a
drone pitch with circular breathing.69 These melodies are characterized by a flexible approach to
rhythm.70 Since 1978, there has been a conservatory training system for the duduk in Armenia.71
68
Andy Nercessian, The Duduk and National Identity in Armenia (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2001),
46.
69
Ibid., 53-54.
Ibid., 94.
71
Ibid., 35.
70
46
The ghamish is quite large compared to double reeds used by Western
instruments, usually about 10.5cm (4.13 inches) long, with blades sometimes
thicker than one millimeter (0.04 inches). It uses a bridle which can be moved up
or down the length of the ghamish to adjust the size of the tip opening
(paralleling the use of wires on English horn reeds). The size of the tip opening
affects the tone and pitch of the instrument.72 The end of the ghamish that is
inserted into the duduk is wrapped with thread, and thread may be added or
removed to adjust how far the reed can be inserted, thereby affecting pitch.73
Ghamishes of different sizes are used for duduks of different length.74
The ghamish, as with Western double reeds, must be soaked before
playing. Because it is so much larger than oboe or bassoon reeds, it must be
soaked for a relatively long time (Nercessian suggests 3-8 minutes) before it is
flexible enough to vibrate properly.75 As with Western double reeds, the longer
the reed is soaked, the larger the tip opening of the reed.
A cap is tied to the bridle, which protects the tip and holds the blades of
the ghamish closed when it is not in use.76 The ghamish should always be stored
with the cap in place and the bridle loosened, to maintain the ghamish‟s shape.77
Upright but relaxed posture is essential to proper tone production, and
aids in proper breath support.78 Nercessian indicates that the duduk should be
72
Figure 3: A
duduk. The
ghamish cap is
shown
dangling from
the bridle.
Ibid., 78.
Nercessian, 115-116; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
74
Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
75
John Vartan, The Armenian Duduk: An Instructional Book for Beginners, ed. Ara Topouzian (West
Bloomfield, MI: American Recording Productions, 2000), 6.
76
Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
77
Ibid.
73
47
held close to body, though video recordings of Djivan Gasparyan and Shea A. J. Comfort with
Albert Vardanyan show the instrument being held slightly below horizontal.79
The duduk embouchure is distinctive and may seem unusual to Western-trained
woodwind musicians. The lips are placed at the very tip of the reed, cushioning the reed from the
player‟s teeth, and should be arranged so as to make as little contact with the reed as possible,
allowing free vibration.80 The corners of the mouth are brought inward to contact the sides of the
ghamish.81 This unusual embouchure helps to avoid what Andy Nercessian calls a “brassy” tone,
though it also reduces the player‟s ability to adjust pitch by manipulation of the embouchure.82
Additionally, the lower part of the cheeks should be allowed to puff outward with air, further
relaxing the lips and reducing contact with the reed.83 The throat must also remain relaxed.84
Print sources in English overlook the question of articulation. Close examination of video
recordings suggests that notes are articulated by using the lips to open and close the tip of the
reed, as in pronouncing the letter “P.” Tonguing in the manner of a Western double reed
instrument is also a technical possibility, as is breath articulation.
Vibrato in duduk music is used flexibly and variably, giving variety and interest
according to the player‟s taste and style.85 Nercessian refers to use of the masseters (jaw
muscles) in producing vibrato (making it similar to that used by saxophonists), though Shea A. J.
78
Ibid.
Nercessian, 117; Djivan Gasparyan, Tribute to Innocent Souls Lost to World Atrocities, video recording,
(n.p.: Duduk.com, 2004); Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
80
Nercessian, 116-117; Vartan, 6; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
81
Nercessian, 116-117.
82
Ibid., 105.
83
Nercessian, 116-117; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
84
Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
85
Nercessian, 40, 105.
79
48
Comfort rejects the notion of jaw vibrato, instead describing and demonstrating vibrato by
pulsation of the lips.86
The duduk may be played with either the left or right hand on top; Western woodwind
players will likely be more comfortable with the left hand on top, and this approach will be
assumed in the following discussion.87 In most cases, the left thumb will cover the thumb hole
and the index, middle, and ring fingers will cover the three uppermost finger holes. The four
fingers of the right hand (excluding thumb) will cover the next four holes, and one will be left
open at the bottom. In cases where the lowest hole must be covered, each finger of the right hand
moves down to the next lowest hole, the little finger of the right hand covering the lowest hole
and the little finger of the left hand covering the hole previously covered by the right index
finger. Duduk players may shift their hands in this manner just long enough to play the
instrument‟s lowest fingered note, shifting back as soon as is practical.88 An additional low note
may be achieved in some cases by using the knee to close the tuning hole near the duduk‟s bell
end.
When three fingers of the left hand are in use, the flat pads of the fingers‟ distal joints are
used to cover the toneholes. The distal pad of the right little finger is also used, but the other
fingers of the right hand use the pads of the middle joints. In cases where the left hand uses four
fingers (as when the right hand is shifted downward to reach the lowest tonehole), it uses this
same method and must therefore shift slightly.89 This hand configuration keeps the hands in a
relaxed position while fully covering the toneholes.
86
Nercessian, 116-117; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
Nercessian, 117; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
88
Nercessian, 117; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
89
Nercessian, 117-118; Vartan, 6; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
87
49
Because of the large size of the toneholes, few cross fingerings can be used. A corollary
of this is that, generally, lifting only a single finger is sufficient to produce the desired pitch, and
the fingers below it may be left down with minimal effect on tone and pitch. Nercessian regards
this as the standard method, while recognizing that alternatives exist; video recordings of
Gasparyan and Vardanyan show this method being used inconsistently.90 The inconsistency can
likely be attributed to some combination of convenience in fingering, concessions to
characteristics of specific instruments, and purposeful use of slight variations in tone or pitch.
Half-holing is used extensively to obtain a full chromatic scale and to adjust the pitch of
individual notes. Duduk music is not traditionally governed by Western pitch standards (the use
of Western scales in modern duduk music is an artifact of Soviet-era reforms), and the
instrument must be humored considerably to play in tune with Western instruments.91 Because
adjusting the pitch with the embouchure has an adverse effect on tone, the fingers are used for
pitch correction.92 For fingers that are using the middle pad to cover toneholes, half-holing is
accomplished by raising the fingertip, causing the middle pad to tilt slightly and open the
tonehole somewhat.93 For holes covered with the distal pad, the finger may be rolled upward,
opening the lower part of the tonehole.94 Half-holing with the little finger of either hand may be
done by shifting the wrist upward, causing the little finger to move somewhat from its
tonehole.95
90
Nercessian, 118; Gasparyan; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
Nercessian, 18, 116.
92
Ibid., 46.
93
Nercessian, 117-118; Vartan, 6; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
94
Observation from Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
95
Nercessian, 117-118; Vartan, 6.
91
50
Table 9: Fingerings for basic scale, duduk in A. Holes below the first open hole may be kept
closed to adjust pitch and tone if desired.
RH
shifts
down;
use LH
little
finger
Table 10: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, duduk in A
(use
knee)
(lip up) (lip up)
51
Duduk playing in Soviet Armenia was essentially diatonic and modeled on ideals of
Western music. Djivan Gasparyan is credited with restoring the use of Pre-Soviet aspects of
duduk playing in the subsequent years. These include traditional ornamentation, pitch slides
between notes, and the use of chromatic notes.96
A pervasive traditional ornament is the melism (not to be confused with melisma in
Western music, though the term seems to have been borrowed from the West). It resembles a
brief and rapid trill or turn; Nercessian theorizes that the epiglottis is also involved, closing and
reopening to articulate notes.97 The pitches of the melism may or may not be clear to the listener,
due to rapidity of execution, and due to use, in some cases, of sliding notes or microtones.98
The traditional accompanying drone is played with circular breathing, using the same
technique employed by some Western wind players.99 The puffed-cheek embouchure used in
duduk playing may be an advantage for circular breathing. While circular breathing is standard
practice for the drone player, it is rarely used in playing melodies.100 In a recording situation,
such as for film scores, both parts could be recorded by the same player.
Duduks are available in many sizes. They are given their pitch designation based on the
note produced when the thumb hole and the first six finger holes are covered. The most
commonly played duduk is the “A” instrument, followed by “B,” “H,” and “D,” according to the
German pitch nomenclature used by most duduk makers; for North American musicians this
96
Nercessian, 40.
Ibid., 62-63.
98
Additional discussion of the melism, including the problems of accurately describing it, can be found in
Nercessian, 107-110.
99
Nercessian, 75; Vartan, 6.
100
Nercessian, 45-46; Learn the Art of Duduk Playing.
97
52
translates to A, B-flat, B, and D.101 It should be noted that some current makers and retailers do
refer to the six-hole B-flat instrument as a “B-flat” duduk, while retaining the German “H” for
the B-natural instrument.
A neume system of notation called khaz was used in Armenian music in ancient times,
and an updated version developed in the 19th century is still in limited use.102 Modern duduk
players, especially those with conservatory training, are more likely to read Western notation.103
Western woodwind players may find it convenient to have parts transposed so that the six-finger
note is always written as A3.
Professional-quality duduks and ghamishes are available through several makers and
importers in North America. In many cases it is advisable to purchase ghamishes from the maker
of the instrument, as they will be tuned and adjusted for compatibility with that maker‟s
instruments.
Case Study
In the film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe, a pair of
duduks is used in the musical score to provide the sound of a fictional on-screen instrument, a Vshaped double flute. The use of two duduks (presumably with both parts recorded by the same
musician, using studio overdubbing), one playing a drone, is typical in Armenian music.
101
Nercessian, 116.
Vartan, 4.
103
Nercessian, 76.
102
53
A Narnia Lullaby
from Walt Disney Pictures‟ and Walden Media‟s THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA: THE
LION,THE WITCH AND THE WARDROBE
Music by Harry Gregson-Williams
© 2005 Wonderland Music Company, Inc.
This arrangement © 2009 Wonderland Music Company, Inc.
All Rights Reserved Used by Permission
Example 3: Excerpt using duduk in film The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the
Wardrobe (2005).104 Transposed for duduk in B-natural; sounds major 2nd higher.
104
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe: Original Soundtrack (Walt Disney
Records, 2005).
54
The melody duduk‟s range reaches a sounding C5, higher than can be easily played on the
standard duduk in A; the transcription has been transposed to be played on an instrument in Bnatural (or H). This allows the melody to be played with only one half-holed note (a notated Csharp4, as in measure 3), and requires lipping up to reach the high B-flat4 (as in measure 7). It can
also be played on the duduk in D, still with only one half-holed note, and without lipping up to
reach the highest notes. Use of the D instrument does, however, require shifting the right hand
downward to play the lowest note.
The melody is played once, then partially repeated (measures 11-15), then played again
in its entirety (measures 16-24). With each repetition of the melody, the ornamentation and
rhythmic details are varied somewhat, tending toward a slightly more ornate final statement. The
style throughout is legato, with soft dynamics that swell and then recede at the final note of the
first and partial melody statements, and swell into the orchestral crescendo at the end of the final
statement. In the recording from which the transcription was made, the melody duduk player
uses vibrato on longer notes.
Throughout the first melody statement and partial restatement, the drone duduk sustains a
D4 (assuming a B-natural instrument) with brief ornamental flourishes punctuating the melody.
During the final melody statement, the drone is replaced by an orchestra and chorus, which are
better suited to the dramatic crescendo at the end of the piece. The drone part is played using
circular breathing, as is common practice for drone parts in traditional Armenian duduk music.
Western musicians who circular breathe on their instruments will adapt their technique to the
duduk without difficulty. No vibrato is used for the drone part.
55
Bibliography
At‟ayan, Robert. The Armenian Neume System of Notation, trans. Andy Nercessian. Richmond,
England: Curzon, 1999.
At‟ayan discusses the ancient khaz notation system used in some historical Armenian
music.
Gasparyan, Djivan [credited as Jivan Gasparyan]. Tribute to Innocent Souls Lost to World
Atrocities. Video recording. N.p.: Duduk.com, 2004.
Gasparyan plays in a trio setting with two other unnamed duduk players, presumably two
of his students. The video recording is valuable for its up-close look at duduk playing technique.
Gilbert, Jerry. “Do the Duduk: Jerry Gilbert Meets Armenia‟s Djivan Gasparyan.” Folk Roots 76
(1989): 29.
Gilbert profiles leading duduk player Gasparyan, with special attention to reception of
duduk music by Western audiences.
Learn the Art of Duduk Playing. Pasadena, CA: dudukonline.com, n.d. Video recording.
This DVD includes demonstration of basic playing technique and instrument care. It also
introduces the traditional way of playing the instrument in pairs and teaches some traditional
repertoire. The presentation is by Shea A. J. Comfort with Albert Vardanyan.
McCollum, Jonathan, and Andy Nercessian. Armenian Music: A Comprehensive Bibliography
and Discography. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2004.
The section on musical instruments lists several sources related to the duduk.
Nercessian, Andy. The Duduk and National Identity in Armenia. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press,
2001.
Though much of the text is devoted to the duduk‟s place as a cultural symbol to Armenia,
there is a great deal of information on technique, performance practice, and repertoire scattered
throughout the book. Appendices include detailed transcriptions of duduk performances,
descriptions of the instrument and playing technique, and even measurements used in making
duduks.
56
Spottswood, Richard. Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced
in the United States, 1893 to 1942. Vol. 5, Mid-East, Far East, Scandinavian, English
Language, American Indian, International. Urbana, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1990.
This is a reference for locating field recordings and early commercial recordings of
Armenian music. No listings specifically indicate use of the duduk, but the prominence of the
instrument in Armenian culture makes it likely that at least some of these recordings include it.
This may be at least a useful starting point for locating recordings.
Vartan, John. The Armenian Duduk: An Instructional Book for Beginners, ed. Ara Topouzian.
West Bloomfield, MI: American Recording Productions, 2000.
Topics in this work include basic technique, fingering, and care of the instrument and
reed. It also includes an overview of Armenian history and Armenian music. No musical
examples are provided.
Selected Recordings
Gasparyan, Djivan. Ask Me No Questions. Traditional Crossroads, 1994.
Djivan Gasparyan (b. 1928), recognized contemporary master of the duduk named
“People‟s Artist of Armenia” in 1973, plays pieces in the traditional style, accompanied by a
drone.105
Gasparyan, Djivan [credited as Jivan Gasparyan]. Tribute to Innocent Souls Lost to World
Atrocities. Video recording. N.p.: Duduk.com, 2004.
Gasparyan plays in a trio setting with two other unnamed duduk players, presumably two
of his students. The video recording is valuable for its up-close look at duduk playing technique.
Gasparyan, Djivan, and Hossein Alizadeh. Endless Vision: Persian and Armenian Songs. World
Village, 2005.
This is an example of the duduk used in a nontraditional context, with Iranian lute.
The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe: Original Soundtrack. Harry
Gregson-Williams, composer. Walt Disney Records, 2005.
Gladiator: Music from the Motion Picture. Hans Zimmer, composer. Decca, 2000.
These are examples of symphonic film scores with the duduk as a featured instrument.
105
Nercessian, 39.
57
Organizations in North America
None known.
d. Native American Flute
There are many Native American flute traditions, but the instrument commonly referred
to as the “Native American flute” is that associated with the Lakota tribe, native to North and
South Dakota.106 Little is known about the ancient flute tradition; most of what is regarded as
Native American flute music is no older than the 1970‟s, when the Native American flute
became a subject of renewed interest and enthusiasm.107
The Lakota-style flute (referred to hereafter as the Native American flute) is an endblown
duct flute, held vertically by the player. It is traditionally made of cedar wood.108 The player
blows air into one end of the instrument that has been fashioned into a mouthpiece. The air enters
a chamber of the instrument‟s body, and then is diverted into a channel outside the instrument‟s
main body into a space enclosed by an external block, which directs the air against an edge,
producing a tone.109 This external block is known as a “bird” or “saddle” because it is often
carved to resemble a bird or other animal, or takes another traditional abstract shape that
somewhat resembles a horseback rider‟s saddle.110
106
Baxter, 86.
R. Carlos Nakai and James DeMars, The Art of the Native American Flute (Phoenix: Canyon Records
Productions, 1996), 2.
108
Baxter, 48.
109
Ken Light, “The Renaissance of the Native American Flute,” The Woodwind Quarterly, no. 2 (1993):
55.
110
Paula Thistle Conlon, “The Native American Flute: Convergence and Collaboration as Exemplified by
R. Carlos Nakai,” The World of Music 44, no. 1 (2002): 62; Nakai and DeMars, 8.
107
58
Native American flutes have five or six fingered toneholes, and sometimes
additional tuning holes at the instrument‟s bell end.111 Traditionally, the dimensions of
the flute are based on the player‟s anatomy. Measurements to be used in making the
instrument are taken, for example, from the player‟s arm, hands, and fingers.112 The
toneholes are traditionally equal in size and equally spaced. The combination of
personalized measurements and equal toneholes resulted in each flute playing a slightly
different scale. Modern-made flutes are usually tuned to modern pitch standards, with
hole size and spacing adjusted to suit this purpose. Fingerings have become somewhat
standardized, though not rigidly so. Discussion and fingering charts in this section
assume an instrument with the standard fingering.
As with modern woodwinds, good posture and abdominal breath support are
essential to tone production.113 The simple mouthpiece may be played easily without
any special embouchure requirements. The mouthpiece should rest lightly against the
lips. It is unnecessary to take the mouthpiece into the mouth to any significant extent.114
Responsiveness varies from instrument to instrument, but most perform well with
somewhat less air pressure than is required for modern woodwinds.115 Carlos Nakai
recommends blowing “gently but deliberately.”116
The instrument is held in front of the body at a comfortable angle; the duct
mouthpiece grants some leeway here for personal preference. Modern woodwind
111
Figure 4: A
Native
American
flute.
Lew Paxton Price, Creating and Using the Native American Love Flute (Garden Valley, CA: El Dorado
Press, 1993), 23-24.
112
Conlon, 63; Baxter, 50-51; Nakai and DeMars, 10.
113
Baxter, 102; Nakai and DeMars, 11; Price, Love Flute, 37-38.
114
Borg, 8.
115
Ibid., 2-3.
116
Nakai and DeMars, 11.
59
players will likely naturally hold the instrument at close to a 45-degree angle. Though either the
left or right hand may be on top, woodwind players will be most comfortable with the left hand
on top. This has become a de facto standard.117 The thumbs support the instrument‟s weight and
the little fingers help to stabilize it.118
Tongued articulation, similar to that used by modern woodwind players, is widely
used.119 Percussive, even aggressive articulation may be used, often resulting in chirping or chiff
at the beginning of a note.120 Breath accents are also commonly used.121 Double tonguing may be
used for effect on a single note, but is rarely used to articulate individual notes of rapid
passages.122
Native American flutes are played in a wide range of sizes, named for their lowest note.
The most popular flutes are those in F-sharp and G, with F-sharp4 and G4 as their lowest pitches.
Five-holed flutes are popular instruments among musicians without formal training because their
basic fingerings produce a mode of an improvisation-friendly pentatonic scale. Trained
musicians will likely value the additional flexibility of the six-holed instrument, which has an
additional pitch in its basic scale and has greater possibilities for cross-fingering. Many six-holed
flutes may be played as five-holed instruments if the third tonehole is kept closed with a finger or
has a leather strap tied over it.
117
Price, Love Flute, 37.
Borg, 2.
119
Baxter, 102; Ball and Whitten, 18.
120
Baxter, 86-87.
121
Ibid., 102.
122
Ball and Whitten, 23; Nakai and DeMars, 32.
118
60
Cross-fingerings may be used to approximate a chromatic scale, though some flutes will
do this better than others.123 Half-holing is a technical possibility but is rarely used other than for
effect.124
5-hole
6-hole
Table 11: Fingerings for basic scale, five- or six-holed Native American flute in F-sharp125
N/A
123
Price, Love Flute, 39.
Jeffrey K Ball and Bruce A. Whitten, Trailhead of the American Indian Courting Flute (Lafayette, CO:
Red Feather Music, 2001), 23; Odell Borg, Introduction to the Native American Style Flute (N.p.: High Spirits, n.d.),
7.
125
Based on Nakai and DeMars, 18; Borg, 16.
124
61
Table 12: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, six-holed Native American flute in F-sharp126
Open
lowest
hole
slightly
Open
lowest
hole
more
The Native American flute is thought to have been used traditionally by young men in
courting, and to have been played largely in an improvisatory manner.127 Because the instrument
is associated with improvisation and because so little is known about the ancient flute tradition,
contemporary players have been free to develop a new tradition for the instrument. Published
tutors tend to emphasize individuality and personal taste over adherence to any codified
performance practice, though some common practices have emerged.
126
127
Based on Nakai and DeMars, 22.
Light, 60-61.
62
Ornamentation is based largely on nature sounds, especially birdsong.128 Jeffrey K. Ball
describes two specifically nature-inspired sounds: a cricket-like chirp produced by flutter
tonguing or a “wiggle” of the uvula, and a loon call produced by using a special fingering (Ball
suggests using the index and middle fingers of the right hand) and playing a low-high-low series
of whistle-like notes in the instrument‟s upper partials.129 Another very common bird-like effect
is a chirp at the end of a note, produced by raising one or more fingers while giving an abrupt
burst of air.130
Other characteristic sounds include trills and tremolos (including microtonal or otherwise
non-equal-tempered intervals), abrupt staccato notes, overblown notes, turns or mordents (using
the instrument‟s basic scale, so sometimes the intervals involved are different from the Western
classical tradition), bent pitches, and portamenti between notes (produced by rolling or sliding
the fingers over toneholes).131 Grace notes are also common, especially a pattern of two rapid
grace notes, descending the instrument‟s basic scale to a third note.132 Vibrato, used flexibly and
variably, is produced with pulses of air. As with the modern Western flute, there is some
disagreement about whether these pulses are generated by the diaphragm, the throat, or some
other mechanism; Ball also suggests that the cheek muscles may be used.133
The bird or saddle is usually tied to the flute with a leather strip, and its position can be
adjusted, affecting tone and volume. Ball suggests that the bird can be moved toward the
mouthpiece end of the flute for less volume, or toward the bell end for greater volume and better
128
Baxter, 80-81.
Ball and Whitten, 20.
130
Baxter, 108; Ball and Whitten, 17, 22; Price, Love Flute, 39.
131
Conlon, 66; Nakai and DeMars, 30-31; Borg, 7; Ball and Whitten, 13, 15; Baxter, 80.
132
Baxter, 79-80.
133
Price, Love Flute, 38; Ball, 21.
129
63
low note response.134 In most cases, woodwind players will favor a position that gives greater
volume and clarity, and can manipulate the airstream to obtain softer dynamics when needed.
Flute maker Ken Light indicates that the flute should sound “clear voiced, without an
unnecessary and annoying „hiss‟ and the resultant quiet, fuzzy tones.”135 Moisture that collects in
the duct can interfere with playing, and is removed by shaking the instrument, by blowing
sharply into the mouthpiece with a finger over the blowing edge, or by removing the bird and
drying the duct with absorbent material.136
The ancient Native American flute tradition had no notation system (or, at least, none that
is known today).137 Many modern Native American flute players have adopted a system
proposed by Nakai.138 The Nakai system is a tablature system that allows for flutes of different
tunings to be notated in a consistent way, using the symbols of Western notation but using notes‟
positions on the staff to indicate fingerings rather than actual sounding pitches. The staff
positions used, if combined with a key signature of four sharps, coincide with the sounding
pitches of the most popular modern-tuned flutes in F-sharp. Thus, in the case of an F-sharp flute,
the tablature system and notation of sounding pitch are interchangeable. For players of modern
woodwinds, the F-sharp flute may be considered a concert-pitch instrument, and flutes of other
sizes are best notated so that their lowest notes are transposed to F-sharp4.
The Native American flute is traditionally played either as a solo instrument or
accompanied by a drum; the drum plays a repeating rhythm, and the flute does not necessarily
134
Ball and Whitten, 10.
Light, 58.
136
Nakai and DeMars, 11-12.
137
Borg, 1, 4.
138
Nakai and DeMars, 16-18.
135
64
play in time with it.139 Many modern Native American flute players use electronic delay in their
live and recorded performances to simulate the sound of the flute echoing off canyon walls.140
Some flute makers offer double flutes, which usually have one tube with fingered toneholes, and
an additional drone tube.141
Because Native American flutes are popular souvenir items, care must be taken to obtain
performance-quality instruments capable of playing at the expected pitch level. Six-hole
instruments adhering to the most common fingering system are recommended.
Case Study
The animated film Pocahontas uses the Native American flute as an added tone color to a
texture predominated by modern Western instruments. It is used in combination with a
symphonic orchestra for music cues in the score, and also used in a pop version of the song
“Colors of the Wind” that is used during the film‟s end credits and was released as a single in
1995.
139
Baxter, 88-90.
Ball and Whitten, 7.
141
Borg, 9-10.
140
65
Listen With Your Heart
from Walt Disney‟s POCAHONTAS
Music by Alan Menken
Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz
© 1995 Wonderland Music Company, Inc. and Walt
Disney Music Company
This arrangement © 2009 Wonderland Music
Company, Inc. and Walt Disney Music Company
All Rights Reserved Used by Permission
Colors Of The Wind
from Walt Disney‟s POCAHONTAS
Music by Alan Menken
Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz
© 1995 Wonderland Music Company, Inc. and Walt
Disney Music Company
This arrangement © 2009 Wonderland Music
Company, Inc. and Walt Disney Music Company
All Rights Reserved Used by Permission
Example 4: Excerpts using Native American flute in film Pocahontas (1995).168 Notated in
Nakai tablature for Native American flute in G; sounds minor 2nd higher if read as Western
notation.
168
Pocahontas: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack (Walt Disney Records, 1995).
66
In the first two excerpts, the Native American flute is played in a birdsong-like style, with
frequent staccato articulation and some use of pitch bends. Some subtle vibrato is used. The
excerpts are easily played on a standard instrument in G, except for the notated E in measures 8
and 9, which falls below the instrument‟s standard range. For an instrument with tuning holes at
the distal end, it may be possible to play the low E by covering one or more tuning holes with the
knees; for instruments without tuning holes it may be possible to partially stop the end of the
instrument with the knee, though this is imprecise at best and may be unsatisfactory in terms of
both pitch and tone. A third possibility is to select a larger flute that includes the lowest pitch in
its standard range; this may result in the need for extensive cross fingerings or half holing to play
the remainder of the phrase.
The excerpts from “Colors of the Wind” use a legato style with vibrato, suitable to the
pop setting of the song. A particular challenge in this setting is playing a non-tunable instrument
in tune with accompanying keyboards.
Bibliography
Ashmore, Renita Freeman. “The Native American Flute.” M.A. thesis, California State
University-Dominguez Hills, 2000.
This is primarily a study of the flute‟s role in Native American cultures. The most useful
portions are the appendices, which include a diagram showing the Lakota-style instrument‟s
construction and fingering charts for 5- and 6-hole flutes.
Ball, Jeffrey K. and Bruce A. Whitten. Trailhead of the American Indian Courting Flute.
Lafayette, CO: Red Feather Music, 2001.
This is a beginning method for the Native American flute, suitable for aspiring players
who do not read musical notation. Includes compact disc with musical examples.
67
Baxter, Marsha Lynne. “The Chinese Dizi, the Native American Courting Flute, and the Andean
Panpipes: An Investigation of Pedagogy and Musical Practice.” D.Ed. diss., Columbia
University, 2001.
Baxter‟s dissertation describes her Native American flute studies with teacher and
performer Frank Menusan in New York City. It explores performance practice and technique
according to several Native American musical traditions, including ornamentation, structure and
form, and other stylistic features. It also includes extensive musical examples in both Western
and tablature-style notation.
Borg, Odell. Introduction to the Native American Style Flute. N.p.: High Spirits, n.d.
This brief text is a flute owner‟s manual and method book by Borg, a well-known flute
maker. It includes information on instrument care, basic technique, and fingering for 5- and 6hole flutes. It is suitable for aspiring players who do not read musical notation.
Conlon, Paula Thistle. “The Native American Flute: Convergence and Collaboration as
Exemplified by R. Carlos Nakai.” The World of Music 44, no. 1 (2002): 61-74.
This article discusses Nakai‟s solo performances and collaborative performances with
musicians outside the Native American musical tradition, with a selected discography. It also
includes a brief overview of history and organology; a unique inclusion is a table showing which
tribal groups have traditions of playing flutes with external blocks (such as the Lakota-style
flute).
Hermann, Henry R. Enjoying the Native American-Style Flute. Happy Camp, CA: Naturegraph,
2004.
Hermann provides a beginning method for the Native American flute, suitable for
aspiring players who do not read musical notation. This text also contains information on history
and culture, as well as extensive text on flutemaking and contemporary flute makers. Appendices
include a directory of flute makers and a listing of Internet resources.
Joyce, Kathleen Ann. “The Native American Flute in the Southwestern United States: Past and
Present.” D.M.A. diss., University of Arizona, 1996.
Joyce includes information on history, performance practice, and repertoire. Notable
features are a case for including applied Native American flute studies in college music
curricula, and information on non-Lakota-style Native American flutes, especially end-blown
varieties.
68
Light, Ken. “The Renaissance of the Native American Flute,” The Woodwind Quarterly, no. 2
(1993): 54-66.
Light discusses the Native American-style flute revival since the mid-1980s. Light is a
well-known flute maker. He includes information about the flutemaking process, and about the
tuning system used in modern Native American-style flutes.
Nakai, R. Carlos, and James DeMars. The Art of the Native American Flute. Phoenix: Canyon
Records Productions, 1996.
This important work is a beginning method for playing the Lakota-style Native American
flute by the leading contemporary exponent of the instrument. It introduces Nakai‟s “tablature”
system of notation. It also includes discussion of extended techniques, history and cultural
background, and transcriptions of flute music as recorded by Nakai.
Nettl, Bruno, and Victoria Lindsay Levine. “Aerophones.” In “Amerindian Music” in The New
Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1:500-501. London:
Macmillan, 2001.
This New Grove Dictionary entry is a broad overview of the types and uses of flutes
characteristic of the music of American Indian societies.
Oborksy, Robert Francis. “Acoustic Impedance Measurement of the Plains Indian Flute.” M.S.
diss., Central State University [Oklahoma], 1984.
Oborsky discusses physical parameters of the Lakota-style flute‟s bore and their effect on
sound production. This may be prohibitively dense reading for non-scientists.
Payne, Richard W. The Native American Plains Flute. Oklahoma City, OK: Toubat Trails
Publishing, 1999.
Payne provides a detailed look, with photographs, at extant specimens of Native
American flutes of the Plains region, as well as modern-made flutes based on traditional Plains
flutes.
Price, Lew Paxton. Creating and Using the Native American Love Flute. Garden Valley, CA: El
Dorado Press, 1993.
________. Creating and Using the Native American Concert Flute. Garden Valley, CA: El
Dorado Press, 1996.
________. Creating and Using the Largest Native American Flutes. Garden Valley, CA: El
Dorado Press, 1998.
These volumes discuss issues involved with making and playing Lakota-style flutes,
including applicable acoustical theory and formulae. The Love Flute book deals with simple,
69
traditional instruments; the Concert Flute book deals with advanced topics, including various
means of enhancing tone and playability, as well as special tunings.
Spottswood, Richard. Ethnic Music on Records: A Discography of Ethnic Recordings Produced
in the United States, 1893 to 1942. Vol. 5, Mid-East, Far East, Scandinavian, English
Language, American Indian, International. Urbana, IL: University of Chicago Press,
1990.
This is a reference for locating field recordings and early commercial recordings of
Native American music. Some listings indicate the use of a flute or flutes, but it is unclear
whether this refers to Lakota-style flutes, other Native American flutes, or even Western Boehmstyle flutes.
Selected Recordings
Nakai, R. Carlos. Changes. Canyon Records, 1983.
________. Fourth World. Canyon Records, 2002.
________. People of Peace. Canyon Records, 2005.
________. Sanctuary. Canyon Records, 2003.
R. Carlos Nakai (b. 1946) is the leading figure in the Native American flute revival.
Changes and Sanctuary feature the Native American flute played unaccompanied, in a traditional
style, with Sanctuary exploring the possibilities of flutes in various sizes. Fourth World uses the
Native American flute as a solo instrument in a Western orchestral setting. People of Peace
effectively combines the Native American flute with other ethnic instruments and a jazz-fusion
rhythm section.
Pocahontas: An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack. Alan Menken, composer. Walt
Disney Records, 1995.
This symphonic orchestral score uses the Native American flute sparingly but effectively.
70
Organizations in North America
International Native American Flute Association
757 538-0468
3351 Mintonville Point Dr.
Suffolk, VA 23435
http://worldflutes.org
INAFA publishes a quarterly journal, Voice of the Wind, and maintains listings of local
flute circles (social flute-playing groups) and instructors.
e. Panflute
The panflute (or “panpipes”) is a collection of end-blown tubes, each producing a single
pitch. The tubes are blown across at the ends, in pop-bottle fashion. Panflutes may be made from
natural tubes, such as bamboo, or from man-made tubes, such as those made of wood, clay, or
plastic.
Panflute traditions have been identified on all six of the inhabited continents, with current
active traditions in Romania, South America, and the Solomon Islands.169 Panflutes associated
with Romanian and South American (specifically Andean) music will be discussed here.
The classical Romanian panflute, or nai, has 20 pipes, ranging from B3 to G6 and having
pitch-class content corresponding to G major.170 Some contemporary classical panflutists prefer a
22-pipe variant with the low range extended to G3.171 Alternate tunings, configurations, and pipe
169
Valeriu Apan, “The Panpipe (Nai) in Contemporary Romanian Folk Music,” Ph.D. diss., University of
California, Los Angeles, 1994, 3-4.
170
Valeriu Apan, How to Play Romanian Panpipe, 2nd edition (Santa Monica, CA: Fuge Imaginea Press,
1995), 4, 9. Note that Apan indicates a pitch range of “b‟ to g4” in his description of the instrument on page 4; his
figure 4-a on page 9 clarifies which pitches are meant.“”
171
Costel Puscoiu, New Method for Panpipes, vol. 1 (Delft, Netherlands: Costel Puscoiu, 1994), 15.
71
counts are also available; typical pipe counts range from 20 to 30, with the larger sets adding
lower- or higher-pitched tubes or both to the standard 20-pipe configuration.172
Table 13: Romanian 20-pipe panflute configuration, top view with lowest note at the right.173
A nai‟s pipes are made of bamboo, reed, or wood, and plugged at one end with wood or
cork. The unplugged ends are beveled for the player‟s comfort and to aid in tone production. The
pipes are arranged in a single row from lowest to highest, typically in a curved configuration,
with the lowest note usually at the panflutist‟s right.
172
173
Ibid.
Based on Puscoiu, New Method, 14.
72
Figure 5: A Romanian-style panflute. Front view, with longest tube at audience‟s left. This
specimen has only 14 tubes.
Although most sources agree that the longest tube should be at the player‟s right, Valeriu
Apan‟s method allows for holding the instrument the opposite way if the player is left-handed. It
should be noted that this would require a specially-made left-handed instrument, with the curve
reversed.174 Costel Puscoiu gives the most detailed description of the panflutist‟s grip: the right
hand middle, ring, and little fingers wrap around the tip of the instrument, with the index finger
and thumb extended in an “L” shape to support the front and side of the instrument; the left
thumb rests on the back of the lower rim with the middle finger extended along the front of the
pipes, the other left-hand fingers falling naturally upon the instrument.175
174
Ibid., 8. It is surprising that Apan fails to mention this, especially since the photo on p. 9 demonstrating
left-handed playing clearly shows the same musician (presumably Apan) and instrument as in the right-handed
photo; the left-handed photo has been printed backwards to simulate the left-handed position.
175
Costel Puscoiu, You Can Teach Yourself Pan Flute (Pacific, MO: Mel Bay, 1997), 17-18.
73
Apan and Puscoiu agree on the basic method of tone production.176 Posture should be
upright but relaxed. The instrument should be held with the pipes vertical, the edge of a pipe
contacting a place either at or below the edge of the lower lip. The lips should be stretched
horizontally and slightly tense, leaving a small aperture. A narrow airstream, sustained by firm
abdominal support, is directed at the far edge of the pipe. The panflute is moved left or right,
bringing the desired pipe to the embouchure; Puscoiu accepts some “auxiliary movement of the
head” when necessary, particularly in fast passages.177 The pitch of each pipe may be lowered by
tilting the bottom of the panflute away from the player‟s body; this method is used to obtain all
the pitches of a fully chromatic scale.
Notes are articulated with the tip of the tongue touching the inner part of the lips,
interrupting the airstream.178 Double and triple tonguing are essential to the classical panflutist‟s
technique and are regarded as hallmarks of virtuosity. Apan describes the technique of double
tonguing as being similar to pronouncing the consonants “T-L.” For triple tonguing, he gives
“T-L-T” as a possible approach, but acknowledges that multiple tonguing patterns vary from
player to player.179
Individual tubes may be tuned higher by a process of filling the plugged end with small
amounts of beeswax; pitches that have been previously raised in this manner may be lowered
again by the removal of wax. The wax is applied by dropping small pellets into the tube and
using a dowel to flatten them against the plugged end.180
176
See Apan, How to Play, 7, 13-14, and Puscoiu, You Can Teach Yourself, 19-21, 31.
Puscoiu, You Can Teach Yourself, 21.
178
Ibid.
179
Apan, The Panpipe, 227-228.
180
Apan, How to Play, 4-6.
177
74
Music for Romanian panflute is typically transcribed in standard Western notation,
written at sounding pitch. Apan‟s tutor combines this conventional notation with a system of
numbering the pipes, but it appears that this is meant only as an aid to beginning panflutists.181
Apan briefly describes additional techniques associated with the Romanian panflute tradition.
These are portamento (smooth transitions between pitches, played on a single pipe, by tilting the
instrument), glissando (sliding the instrument past the embouchure, briefly sounding each pipe in
sequence), vibrato (obtained by a “controlled irregularity in the air supply”), tremolo (rapid
rearticulation of a single note using “diaphragm movements;” Apan prefers this effect on the
longer, lower pipes), flutter tonguing, overblowing to obtain higher harmonics, singing while
playing, and trill (fast alternation between two notes by movement of the head).182
The panflutes of the Andes, known as zampoña or siku, have two rows of pipes, each row
arranged in thirds so that a diatonic scale (corresponding to G major) can be played by
alternating between rows. The row closest to the panflutist has six pipes and is called the ira, and
the farther row, with seven pipes, is the arca.183 The rows are usually not attached to each other,
but are held together in the player‟s hands. Zampoñas are traditionally made in four sizes, each
pitched an octave apart. The primary melody instrument is the malta, which ranges in pitch from
D4 to B5. The chulli or ika is pitched one octave higher. The zanca sounds one octave below the
malta, and serves to “complement the Malta, either to lead a melody or as a second voice to the
Malta.”184 The lowest is the toyo, two octaves below the malta, and serves as a bass voice “but is
capable of playing very haunting mysterious melodies.”185
181
Ibid., 9. See also the usage of this method of notation in the exercises on pages 17-24.
Apan, The Panpipe, 234-237; How to Play, 14.
183
Alvaro Graña, How to Make and Play Pan-Pipes (Coventry, England: Condor Books, 1995), 9-10.
184
Ibid., 10.
185
Ibid.
182
75
The essential technique of playing the zampoña is the same as that of the Romanian nai.
Alvaro Graña‟s tutor echoes much of what is found in the Romanian-style texts, especially with
regard to breath support and articulation.186 Graña adds a point about embouchure, which may be
of value in playing pipes of either style: the distance from the aperture of the lips to the edge of
the pipe must vary slightly with the diameter of the pipe, with smaller-diameter pipes being
closer and larger pipes being farther away. Marsha Lynne Baxter‟s dissertation stresses that the
pipes are held vertically (or perhaps with the bottom of the instrument tilted forward slightly), no
matter which row of pipes is in use, rather than tilting the panflute to access either row.187
Andean panflutes are held by the instrument‟s sides, with the thumbs on the inside (closer
to the player‟s body) and the remaining fingers resting on the front of the instrument.188 Unlike
the Romanian pipes, the Andean pipes can be held with the longer pipes either to the left or the
right; the flat raft-style arrangement of the pipes and the straight ends (not beveled like the
Romanian panflute) make them equally playable from either side, although the side intended to
face the audience is often decorated. Holding the panflute with the longer pipes to the player‟s
right is associated with the Bolivian tradition, and the longer pipes to the left is associated with
the Ecuadorian tradition; in either case the shorter ira row is held closer to the player.189 Graña
refers to the longer pipes on the right as the “traditional” way, but suggests that longer pipes on
the left is natural and appropriate for modern Western musicians who are acquainted with the
piano keyboard.190 Panflutes with separate rows can be oriented in either direction; panflutes
with the rows attached to each other must be oriented with the shorter ira row toward the player.
186
Ibid., 20-22.
Baxter, 135, 159-60.
188
Maurice Dela, Learning to Play the Panpipe (Richelieu, Quebec, Canada: Musantiqua, n.d.), 3.
189
Baxter, 128.
190
Graña, 19.
187
76
Table 14: Zampoña malta configuration, top view. Diagram at left shows lowest note at player‟s
left, diagram at right shows lowest note at player‟s right.191
Baxter‟s text and an instructional video recording by musical group Sukay both explain a
technique of varying tone color from a soft, breathy sound to a full, clear sound, by varying the
pressure of the lip against the pipe. A common practice is to play a melody first in a breathy
manner and then again with a clear sound.192 Baxter describes a technique of “pitch slide” that
seems to correspond to Puscoiu‟s portamento, and a technique of articulating some notes with air
pulses rather than the tongue. The air pulse technique can be used to articulate single notes, or
may be used as a measured vibrato.193 The Sukay video recording shows a technique like
Puscoiu‟s glissando, although the effect is not identical because the Andean pipes produce an
arpeggio of diatonic thirds rather than a diatonic scale.194
One traditional practice, known as trenzado or sicuri, involves separating the rows, with
one musician playing one row and a second musician playing the other.195 This practice seems
unlikely to be of particular interest to the musician working in film and theater music, except
perhaps in circumstances that call for imitation of authentic Andean sounds; in a recording
191
Based on Graña, 10.
Baxter, 138; How to Play Flutes of the Andes: Taught by Sukay, video recording (Woodstock, NY:
Homespun Tapes, 1987).
193
Baxter, 138, 143, 150, 160.
194
How to Play Flutes of the Andes.
195
Graña uses “trenzado;” see page 9. Baxter uses “sicuri;” see page 128.
192
77
situation, the same musician might record both parts, with, for example, stereo separation used to
emphasize the distinct parts.
For a woodwind doubler who is already familiar with the Romanian panflute tradition, or
who wishes to use both Romanian and Andean panflutes with a minimum of complication, it
may be possible to unbind a set of zampoña and rebind them in a single row, like a nai. Graña‟s
text gives instructions for “threading” the pipes (binding them together with thread) into ira and
arca rows; these instructions could easily be adapted to a long single row of pipes.196
Since the zampoña tradition is essentially an aural one, without an established method of
notation, panflute parts written for contemporary woodwind players are probably best notated
according to the Romanian panflute convention, using Western notation written at sounding
pitch. Marsha Lynne Baxter‟s dissertation describes an alternate system using numbers to
represent the pipes; this is likely of little use to musicians in film and theater situations because it
is unfamiliar and because, as Baxter points out, it indicates a sequence of pitches but no
particular rhythm.197
Note that zampoña are popular souvenir items, but souvenir flutes may not be of suitable
quality for professional musicians. High-quality zampoña are available from a few North
American importers. Romanian-style panflutes are more easily obtained, available from North
American makers and importers and available for purchase directly from some European makers.
196
197
See Graña, 14.
Baxter, 130-31.
78
Case Study
The score to the film The Alamo uses panflutes to evoke a Latin American sound. The
score segment entitled “El Bexareno” uses two panflutes, possibly performed in the recording
studio by the same musician with overdubbing, playing a duet. Though the style of the music
suggests that zampoña are an appropriate choice, the transcribed excerpt does not lend itself well
to the zampoña and would be better played on the Romanian nai.
El Bexareno
Words and Music by Carter Burwell
© 2004 Touchstone Pictures and Songs
This arrangement © 2004 Touchstone Pictures and Songs
All Rights Reserved Used by Permission
Example 5: Excerpt using panflute in film The Alamo (2004).198 Notated at sounding pitch,
suitable for playing on the standard Romanian panflute.
The key of C major is slightly awkward for either Andean or Romanian flutes, due to the
presence of the F-natural. To play this excerpt easily, a non-standard instrument is required,
198
The Alamo: Original Score (Hollywood Records, 2004).
79
tuned to C major rather than G major. The F-natural may be achieved on a G major flute by
using the F-sharp tube and tilting the instrument away from the body to lower the pitch; this
requires some skill in order to play the pitch accurately. The upper glissando in measure 12
terminates with an F6, adding to the difficulty of using a G major instrument.
The range of the upper part fits within the range of the zampoña chulli (or zampoña ika),
but the lower part does not fit within the range of any standard zampoña. Both parts fit easily
within the nai‟s range, however.
A final piece of evidence supporting the use of the nai rather than the zampoña is the
glissando in measure 13. On the transcribed recording, the glissando can be clearly hard as
incorporating the notes D6-E6-F6 in the upper part and B6-C6-D6 in the lower part. These rapid
sequences of notes cannot be played on an unaltered zampoña because the notes are divided
between two rows; the glissando effect would be lost, sounding as just D6-F6 in the upper part
and B5-D6 in the lower. The nai‟s single row is perfectly suited to diatonic glissandi.
The panflutists (or panflutist) on the soundtrack recording play in a detached style, with
vibrato used on the longer notes.
Bibliography
Apan, Valeriu. How to Play Romanian Panpipe. 2nd edition. Santa Monica, CA: Fuge Imaginea
Press, 1995.
An audiocassette is included. The text covers history, instrument maintenance, and basic
technique; 84 musical exercises are also included.
________. “The Panpipe (Nai) in Contemporary Romanian Folk Music.” Ph.D. diss., University
of California, Los Angeles, 1994.
This is an exhaustive treatise on the panflute, including panflutes outside the Romanian
tradition. It includes some discussion of technique and repertoire.
80
Dela, Maurice. Learning to Play the Panpipe. Richelieu, Quebec, Canada: Musantiqua, n.d.
This is a beginning method for panflute, geared toward those with previous musical
training. It acknowledges differences in technique between Romanian and South American
instruments.
Graña, Alvaro. How to Make and Play Pan-Pipes. Coventry, England: Condor Books, 1995.
Graña gives background on Andean panflutes, including a very useful guide to the
various sizes, their ranges, and their sometimes-confusing nomenclature. He also provides
information on playing technique, instrument making, and a tablature system of notation (as well
as traditional Western notation).
How to Play Flutes of the Andes: Taught by Sukay. Woodstock, NY: Homespun Tapes, 1987.
Video recording.
Members of South American musical group Sukay discuss and demonstrate the
techniques and repertoire of the various Andean panflutes, as well as the quena.
Puscoiu, Costel. New Method for Panpipes. 3rd ed. 3 vols. Delft, Netherlands: Costel Puscoiu,
1994.
This is a comprehensive method for the Romanian panflute, for study independently or
with a teacher. Extensive technical exercises are provided. The book includes audio recording.
Puscoiu, Costel. You Can Teach Yourself Pan Flute. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay, 1997.
This is a very basic introduction to the panflute, including basics of general music
notation; the bulk of the publication is simple etudes and melodies. There is brief but valuable
discussion of panflute technique.
Selected Recordings
Sukay. Encuentros. Sukay, 2007.
________. Music of the Andes. Flying Fish, 1978.
How to Play Flutes of the Andes: Taught by Sukay. Woodstock, NY: Homespun Tapes, 1987.
Video recording.
Andean group Sukay features extensive use of zampoña played in duets.
81
Zamfir, Gheorghe. The Lonely Shepherd. Mercury, 1984.
This recording features popular melodies from classical music, film, and Broadway,
played on the Romanian Panflute with orchestral accompaniment. Zamfir (b. 1941) is popularly
known as the “Master of the Pan Flute.”
The Alamo: Original Score. Carter Burwell, composer. Hollywood Records, 2004.
This soundtrack recording uses panflutes in duet, with a South American style.
Organizations in North America
None known.
f. Pennywhistle
The pennywhistle, also known as the tin whistle or Irish whistle, is an endblown fipple
flute best known for its use in Irish traditional music, though it is also the most important
instrument in kwela, an urban South African popular music from the 1950‟s.199
The pennywhistle, true to its name, can be had for very little money (perhaps even for as
little as the cost of a saxophone reed). The least expensive pennywhistles are of two varieties.
The original design is a sheet of tin or other metal rolled into a tube, with a simple mouthpiece
formed by minor bending and cutting of one end and insertion of a wooden block. These are still
widely available, but an updated design has become even more ubiquitous: a piece of metal
tubing with a molded plastic mouthpiece affixed. Because of the mass-produced nature of both
types, they can be of somewhat inconsistent quality (with regard to tone, intonation, and
199
Lara Allen, “Kwela: The Structure and Sound of Pennywhistle Music,” in Composing the Music of
Africa: Composition, Interpretation, and Realisation, ed. Malcolm Floyd, Ashgate Studies in Ethnomusicology
(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1999), 227; Larsen, 59.
82
response). Still, carefully-selected specimens are the instruments of choice for many top
players of Irish traditional music, due to their traditional sound.
Finely-made (and more expensive) pennywhistles are also available, made in a
variety of metals, woods, and plastics. Because these usually involve at least some
degree of hand-finishing (some are entirely handmade), they are of more consistent
quality and may even be custom made to a player‟s specifications. Some seek to imitate
the traditional breathy tone of the inexpensive pennywhistles, while improving pitch,
consistency, and playability, while others pursue different tone ideals.
In Irish traditional music, the pennywhistle typically serves as a piccolo voice in
the largely monophonic texture, playing a melody in octaves with some combination of
fiddle, uilleann pipes (a bellows-blown set of bagpipes), wooden flute, and concertina,
perhaps accompanied by guitar and frame drum. Much of the pennywhistle‟s
performance practice (as well as that of the “Irish” flute) is derived from the older
bagpiping tradition.
The most common size of pennywhistle in Irish music is the whistle with a
lowest note of D5, referred to as a “D” whistle. This should not be confused with the
modern nomenclature of an instrument “in D,” which would indicate a transposing
instrument. The D whistle is so named for its lowest note and basic scale, though it Figure 6: A
pennywhistle,
plays one octave above concert pitch.200 The slightly larger C whistle is also
of the plasticmouthpiece
common. Since the 1970‟s, larger pennywhistles have rapidly gained popularity,
type.
200
Larsen, 27; Thomas F. Johnston, “The Social Context of Irish Folk Instruments,” International Review
of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 26, no. 1 (1995): 37.
83
with the “low D” whistle, pitched one octave below the common D whistle, being most popular
for its ability to play easily in traditional keys (usually D major, G major, or a mode thereof).
Pennywhistles pitched from a lowest note of A4 or lower are considered to be “low” whistles.201
The pennywhistle may be played with either the right or left hand on top; woodwind
players will likely be most comfortable with the left hand on top. This has become the most
common practice (and is assumed in the following text).202 The index, middle, and ring fingers of
each hand are used to open and close the six toneholes. The instrument is supported by the
thumbs and lips, and may be stabilized with the right hand little finger.203 The instrument should
be held at a relaxed and comfortable angle that avoids forcing the airstream to turn any sharp
corners; usually an angle of approximately 45 degrees is suitable.204 Upright and relaxed posture
is essential and allows for proper abdominal support of the airstream.205
For most of the non-“low” whistles, the pads of the distal joints of the fingers are used to
close the toneholes. The fingers should be relaxed and naturally curved, and should remain close
to the toneholes.206 For instruments that are too large to play comfortably in this way, the
“piper‟s grip” may be employed, using the pads of the distal joints of the ring fingers, and
allowing the index and middle fingers to fall naturally upon the holes in a comfortable position,
often with the pads of the middle joints of these fingers closing the holes.207 For the largest
pennywhistles, hand size may be an issue for some players; some pennywhistle makers select
201
Steáfán Ledsam David Hannigan, The Low Whistle Book (Loughborough, Leics, U.K.: Sin É
Publications, 2000), 7.
202
L. E. McCullough, The Complete Irish Tinwhistle Tutor (Pittsburgh: Silver Spear Publications, 1976),
10-11; Larsen, 64.
203
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 11; Larsen, 66.
204
Larsen, 70.
205
Larsen, 63, 74; Hannigan, 28.
206
Larsen, 65.
207
Hannigan, 9.
84
hole sizes and spacing to allow for a comfortable reach with small hands, but others arrange the
toneholes based more on a desired tone ideal.208
Some pennywhistles have a windway that is rectangular in cross-section, while others,
especially more expensive pennywhistles, have a curved windway (frown-shaped to the player‟s
perspective). Curved windways may affect tone in some way (opinions vary on this matter), and
are also thought to be less prone to clogging with moisture because the condensation can drain
off to the sides. In the event that a pennywhistle‟s windway does become clogged, the moisture
may be removed by a firm shake, or by blowing sharply into the mouthpiece while covering the
duct window with a finger.
The embouchure is formed simply by allowing the lips to form an airtight seal around
the tip of the mouthpiece. Little of the mouthpiece need be taken into the mouth (Grey Larsen
suggests approximately ¼ inch).209 L. E. McCullough recommends a “good strong” airstream,
but both McCullough and Larsen warn that blowing too hard will cause accidental overblowing
to higher partials.210 To achieve the higher octave, McCullough suggests “tightening” the
embouchure.211 Larsen clarifies this somewhat by explaining that the oral cavity and lip aperture
may be narrowed, the lips effectively blocking the opening of the windway to a small extent,
increasing the speed of the airstream.212
Because of the pennywhistle‟s duct-type mouthpiece, the player is limited as to how the
airstream can be successfully manipulated. Increasing the airflow increases volume but also
raises pitch and contributes to shrillness; decreasing the airflow decreases volume, lowers pitch,
208
Ibid., 99.
Larsen, 67-68.
210
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 12; Larsen, 74.
211
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 12.
212
Ibid.
209
85
and can degrade tone and response.213 Air requirements, volume, balance between upper and
lower octaves, tone, and responsiveness depend heavily on the design of the windway and
blowing edge.
Articulation may be accomplished by tonguing in the manner of the Boehm flute, with
the tongue momentarily interrupting the flow of air in the manner of pronouncing the letters “T”
or “D.” This method will be comfortable and natural for woodwind players and is recommended
by McCullough.214 Larsen and Steáfán Ledsam David Hannigan also favor this method but allow
for glottal articulation, or “throating,” as in pronouncing the letter “K.”215 Double and triple
tonguing are also possible, using the techniques familiar to modern woodwind players
(especially flutists).216
Some pennywhistles are tunable by means of a tuning slide or movable mouthpiece, but
some inexpensive pennywhistles are sold with their plastic mouthpieces glued in place.217
Pennywhistle players commonly immerse the mouthpiece end of these whistles in hot water to
soften and remove the glue, enabling the mouthpiece to be moved up or down on the tube for
tuning purposes.218
Pennywhistles use simple-system fingering, having six fingered toneholes that produce a
major scale. Most pennywhistles are not well suited to extensive cross fingering, so half-holing is
used when chromatic notes are desired.219 An exception is the lowered seventh in the lowest
octave, which can often be cross-fingered as indicated in Table 16 (written C5). Sometimes
213
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 12; Hannigan, 29.
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 15.
215
Larsen, 274; Hannigan, 29.
216
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 15; Larsen 276-7.
217
Larsen, 74.
218
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 10; Larsen, 75.
219
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 13.
214
86
fingers of the right hand can be added to improve pitch; however, a slightly sharp lowered
seventh is characteristic of Irish traditional music.220
Table 15: Fingerings for basic scale, pennywhistle in D. Sounds 8va.221
(also 8va) (also 8va) (also 8va) (also 8va) (also 8va) (also 8va) (also 8va)
220
221
Larsen, 27.
Based on Larsen, 452-453.
87
Table 16: Fingerings for extended chromatic scale, pennywhistle in D. Sounds 8va.222
222
Based on Larsen, 452-453.
88
Vibrato is used only as an ornament in Irish traditional music, and, when used, it is most
often fingered vibrato.223 For this technique, a microtonal trill is produced by rapidly opening
and closing a tonehole, usually the second open tonehole after the last closed one. Vibrato
produced by a pulsation of the airstream is also a technical possibility, but, because of the
instrument‟s low resistance and backpressure compared to modern woodwinds, may be difficult
to control.224
Ornamentation is crucial to the authentic Irish sound. The pennywhistle inherits its
performance practice largely from the uilleann pipes, an instrument that cannot quickly start and
stop its airstream. Thus pipers are unable to rearticulate repeated notes in the manner of modern
woodwind instrumentalists. Instead, the piping tradition has developed a vocabulary of quick,
almost percussive ornaments that serve as articulations. These ornaments, overlaid on an
essentially legato style, have permeated the musical tradition and are imitated by fiddlers,
whistlers, and flutists in Irish music.225
These ornaments have long defied accurate representation in Western notation, often
being shown as grace notes. Larsen has developed a method of notating the ornaments that
represents them as articulation markings, rather than added notes, which better characterizes their
purpose and sound. This method is described in detail in his Essential Guide to Irish Flute and
Tin Whistle.226
The most basic Irish ornaments are cuts and strikes. The cut is achieved by rapidly—
almost instantaneously—lifting and replacing a finger. Larsen recommends using the finger
above the lowest closed hole (for example, if the three highest toneholes are closed, the second
223
Larsen, 246-249.
McCullough, Tinwhistle Tutor, 16.
225
Larsen, 40.
226
Ibid., 113, 115.
224
89
finger will be used).227 Strikes are played by rapidly closing and reopening the first open hole
(for example, if the three highest toneholes are closed, the fourth finger will be used).228 These
ornaments should be executed with such speed as to avoid discernible “pitch, duration, or
rhythmic identity.”229
More complex ornaments such as cranns and rolls are made up of sequences of two to
four cuts and strikes.230 Larsen identifies and explains various “short,” “long,” and “condensed”
versions of rolls and cranns, totaling thirteen distinct complex ornaments.231
Slides are a common pitch inflection, produced by gradual opening or closing of
toneholes.232 Trills are also possible, but used only rarely in Irish traditional music.233
The kwela tradition of South Africa takes an idiosyncratic and distinctive approach to the
pennywhistle. In kwela, the pennywhistle serves as the lead instrument (in later kwela,
sometimes replaced by the saxophone). It is accompanied by the guitar, perhaps also with bass
and drums. Sometimes this texture is augmented by an additional chorus of pennywhistles,
playing accompanimental figures in harmony.234 Pennywhistles in B-flat and high G are most
common in kwela, and are typically of the kind made of a metal sheet; with the metal
pennywhistles, the blowing edge can be bent down slightly for more volume and robustness of
tone.235 More recent styles of pennywhistles with plastic mouthpieces cannot be altered in this
way, and tend to have a longer beak which is unsuitable for the specialized kwela embouchure.
227
Ibid., 115-117.
Ibid., 138.
229
Ibid., 115.
230
Larsen, 162.
231
Ibid., 244-245.
232
Ibid., 154.
233
Ibid. 251-252.
234
Allen, 229-231.
235
Ibid., 243-245.
228
90
The kwela embouchure involves taking the mouthpiece deeply into the mouth, so that the
lips partially cover the duct window. To facilitate this, the pennywhistle is rotated 45 degrees in
one direction, and the head tilted 45 degrees in the opposite direction, so that the mouthpiece
essentially enters the mouth turned 90 degrees from the “normal” position. Partially covering the
window allows more air to be used without overblowing, and also lowers the pitch, so that in
some cases a B-flat whistle, for example, might sound in A. A rich, “buzzy” sound is
produced.236 The lips can also be used to vary the amount of window that is covered, altering the
pitch and allowing for effects such as pitch bends. The large amount of mouthpiece inside the
mouth makes tongued articulation difficult, so kwela players tend to use a glottal (“K”)
articulation.237
Kwela fingering uses something similar to the “piper‟s grip” used by Irish pennywhistlers
on larger whistles. In kwela, this grip is used for pennywhistles of all sizes because it facilitates
half-holing; the tips of the fingers are raised, slightly opening the toneholes beneath the pads of
the middle joints of the fingers. This technique is used to produce chromatic notes, and for the
pitch bends that are ubiquitous in kwela.238 Growls produced in the throat, breath accents, and
trills are also commonly used.239
Pennywhistles are widely available in the Western world and mass-produced models may
even be available in local music stores. These pennywhistles, if carefully selected, may be
suitable for situations that call for a traditional Irish sound, but may also suffer from poor
intonation and other problems. A few specialty shops stock fine handmade pennywhistles, but
many pennywhistle players prefer to buy these more expensive pennywhistles directly from
236
Ibid., 246.
Ibid., 246.
238
Ibid., 245.
239
Ibid., 246-247.
237
91
pennywhistle makers. A benefit of working directly with a pennywhistle maker is that in some
cases the pennywhistles can be made or adjusted to suit to the player‟s preferences. A possible
option for woodwind doublers is to consider all-plastic instruments from any of several makers,
which have the benefits of good intonation, consistent tone, availability in many keys, and
relatively low cost.
Case Study
The film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring uses the pennywhistle to
evoke a peaceful, pastoral setting. Style and ornamentation resembling those used in Irish
traditional music are employed. The following excerpts are transcribed from the soundtrack
recording and use ornament notation borrowed from the Larsen method, as well as grace notes
indicating ornamental figures that are played slowly enough to make individual notes clear.
92
CONCERNING HOBBITS
By HOWARD SHORE
© 2001 NEW LINE TUNES
All Rights Administered by WB MUSIC CORP.
All Rights Reserved
Used By Permission
Example 6: Excerpts using pennywhistle in film The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the
Ring (2001).240 Transposed for pennywhistle in D; sounds one octave higher.
240
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (Reprise,
2001).
93
The style of the excerpts as played on the soundtrack recording is essentially legato, with
emphasis given to certain notes through ornamentation or inflection. The marking placed above
the F-sharp4 in measure 4, and used throughout the excerpts, is that recommended by Larsen to
indicate a cut.
A few specific cuts are worth examining as examples of how to perform the cuts
throughout the excerpts. The cut in measure 4 is performed by fingering the preceding D4 (six
toneholes closed), then proceeding to an altered version of the F-sharp4 fingering, with the first,
second, and fourth toneholes closed, the third tonehole being open briefly to execute the cut. This
fingering is used for the briefest possible moment before closing the third tonehole to produce a
clear F-sharp4. The cut on the E4 in measure 6, preceded by a higher note, is played by playing
the preceding F-sharp4 with its normal fingering (four toneholes closed), then simultaneously
closing the fifth tonehole and opening the fourth. The fourth tonehole remains open for only an
instant before closing again; this appears to be a momentary flick of the right index finger at the
onset of the E. The cut on the F-sharp4 in measure 6, approached by descending leap, is
accomplished by a flick of the left hand middle finger at the beginning of the F-sharp4.
The curved markings, such as that above the B4 in measure 5, indicate upward slides,
performed by half-holing. The slides used here, mostly occurring in ascending stepwise motion,
are performed with relative ease. A slide on a B4, preceded by an A4, is accomplished simply by
uncovering the left middle finger‟s tonehole in a slow, smooth motion. A slide preceded by a
leap, such as that in measure 17, is slightly more difficult to play, and may be best approached by
moving the fingers that differ between the two notes in a synchronized smooth motion.
The pennywhistle player on the soundtrack recording uses a whistle with minor
breathiness and a slight rasp on certain notes, with a generous breath vibrato.
94
Bibliography
Allen, Lara. “Kwela: The Structure and Sound of Pennywhistle Music.” In Composing the Music
of Africa: Composition, Interpretation, and Realisation, ed. Malcolm Floyd. Ashgate
Studies in Ethnomusicology. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1999.
This text includes discussion of South African kwela music, including extensive
information on the types of pennywhistles used, common modifications to the instrument by
kwela musicians, performance practice, and use of the “pennywhistle chorus” as an
accompanying ensemble.
Conway, Pat. Soodlum’s Irish Tin Whistle Tutor. Dublin: Soodlum Music Co., 1977.
This is primarily a collection of authentic repertoire and some popular non-authentic
tunes, with brief text on playing technique. Notation is Western, with fingerings given beneath
the staff for each note.
Dannatt, Norman. “The Clarke Pennywhistle.” The Woodwind Quarterly, no. 12 (1996): 36-44.
Dannatt provides a brief history of the Clarke company and its whistles, widely regarded
as the first pennywhistles.
________. The History of the Tinwhistle: The Story of Robert Clarke and His Famous
Tinwhistle: 1843 to the Present Day. Hythe, England: Corunna, 2005.
This is a comprehensive history of the Clarke company and its whistles. It includes
profiles of contemporary pennywhistle players.
________. “Tin whistle [whistle, pennywhistle, flageolet, Irish whistle].” In The New Grove
Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 25:503-504. London: Macmillan,
2001.
________. “Pennywhistle [tin whistle].” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
ed. Stanley Sadie, 19:314. London: Macmillan, 2001.
These articles discuss the history and organology of the pennywhistle. The presence of
two separate articles seems to reflect the author‟s idea that “tin whistle” is a generic term, and
that “pennywhistle” is appropriately applied only to whistles made by the Clarke company.
Hannigan, Steáfán Ledsam David. The Low Whistle Book. Loughborough, Leics, U.K.: Sin É
Publications, 2000.
This is a unique method geared specifically toward the larger “low” whistles (pitched in
A and lower). Most of the information here is applicable to pennywhistles of all sizes, but the
95
low-whistle-specific information is valuable. The book includes a compact disc with spoken
word and musical examples.
Johnston, Thomas F. “The Social Context of Irish Folk Instruments.” International Review of the
Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 26, no. 1 (1995): 35-59.
This article includes discussion of pennywhistles, including whistle types, relationships
with other traditional instruments, and performance practice.
Kubik, Gerhard. “Kwela.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley
Sadie, 14:63-66. London: Macmillan, 2001.
This New Grove Dictionary entry discusses the prominent role of the pennywhistle in
South African kwela music, including aspects of performance practice.
Larsen, Grey. The Essential Guide to Irish Flute and Tin Whistle. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay
Publications, 2003.
This is a comprehensive method for flute and pennywhistle in Irish traditional music.
Larsen‟s emphasis is on style, especially ornamentation. The text introduces Larsen‟s
methodical and clear approach to notating ornaments. Extensive exercises and authentic
repertoire are included. A compact disc is also included, with musical examples, some of which
are played on pennywhistle and some of which are played on flute. Chapters dedicated to the
pennywhistle include information on types of whistles, proper technique, and performance
practice.
Maguire, Tom. An Irish Whistle Book: Complete Instruction Book for Learning the Irish Tin (or
Penny) Whistle: Basics, Diagrams, Techniques, with Irish Song Airs and Dances. Cork:
Ossian, 1995.
This is a beginning method for the pennywhistle. It includes some basic music theory, an
introduction to Western notation, and authentic repertoire (without ornamentation).
________. An Irish Whistle Tune Book: Suitable for Fiddle, Flute, Pipes, Concertina, Accordion,
Mandolin, Etc. Cork: Ossian, 1996.
This is a collection of traditional repertoire in Western notation, intended as a companion
volume to Maguire‟s method book (listed above). It is also suitable for Irish flute. No
ornamentation is provided.
________. The Tin Whistle Book. Cork, Ireland: Ossian Publications, 1985.
This work is similar to An Irish Whistle Book by the same author (listed above). A
notable feature of this volume is the illustrations of historical whistles, flageolets, and other
related instruments, and facsimiles of historical advertisements from instrument makers.
96
McCullough, L. E. The Complete Irish Tinwhistle Tunebook. New York: Oak Publications, 2002.
The Tunebook contains 125 authentic Irish traditional tunes, listed by type in the table of
contents. Some generic ornamentation markings are given. The book includes four compact discs
with recordings of all the tunes played by McCullough, a highly-regarded pennywhistle player.
This text is also suitable for Irish flute.
________. The Complete Irish Tinwhistle Tutor. Pittsburgh: Silver Spear Publications, 1976.
The Complete Irish Tinwhistle Tutor is a well-known beginning method for the
pennywhistle. It includes information on history and culture, selecting a pennywhistle, technique,
and performance practice. It is sometimes criticized for a potentially misleading approach to
notating ornamentation; Grey Larsen‟s method (listed above) sheds some light on this and offers
an alternative scheme.
________. “Style in Traditional Irish Music.” Ethnomusicology 21, no. 1 (1977): 85-97.
This article includes discussion of phrasing, ornamentation, articulation, and other
stylistic parameters, including comparison of regional styles.
Schultz, Glen [credited as “The Thin Weasel”]. “Pennywhistle.” The Woodwind Quarterly, no. 8
(1995): 14-17.
This brief article features discussion of hand-making pennywhistles from wood, by the
maker of the well-known “Thin Weasel” and “Water Weasel” whistles (the latter being made
from PVC pipe). It includes measurements, techniques, and practical advice for whistlemaking.
Schaeffer, Deborah L. Irish Folk Music: A Selected Discography. Discographies, no. 31. New
York: Greenwood Press, 1989.
This is an annotated discography of Irish traditional music. There is no indexing by
instrument, but many (if not most) of the recordings listed indicate the use of pennywhistles.
Recordings are indexed by musician and by tune name.
Selected Recordings
Bergin, Mary. Feadóga Stáin. Shanachie, 1979.
________. Feadóga Stáin 2. Shanachie, 1993.
Bergin (b. 1949) is a recognized master of the Irish pennywhistle style.
97
Flook. Rubai. World Village, 2002.
Irish group Flook blends traditional Irish sounds—including virtuosic pennywhistle
playing by Brian Finnegan—with contemporary influences.
Mashiyane, Johannes “Spokes.” King Kwela. Gallo, 1990.
Nkosi, West. Rhythm of Healing: Supreme Sax and Penny Whistle. Earthworks, 1993.
These are representative recordings by Mashiyane and Nkosi (1940 - 1998), two of the
best known kwela pennywhistle players.
The Alamo: Original Score. Carter Burwell, composer. Hollywood Records, 2004.
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack.
Howard Shore, composer. Reprise, 2001.
Titanic: Music from the Motion Picture. James Horner, composer. Sony Classical, 1997.
These three film soundtracks make extensive use of the pennywhistle. The Alamo
particularly features low whistles.
Organizations in North America
Alabama Celtic Association
P.O. Box 724
Trussville, AL 35173
http://www.celticalabama.net
The Alabama Celtic Association maintains statewide listings of musicians and
instructors, as well as Irish traditional music events.
Celtic Society of the Monterey Bay
http://www.celticsociety.org
The Celtic Society of the Monterey Bay maintains listings of musicians, teachers, and
music events in the Monterey Bay area of California.
Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann North America
http://ccenorthamerica.infosaic12.com
The Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann (“Gathering of Musicians of Ireland”) is an
organization based in Ireland with a strong North American arm. There are currently close to 50
local branches in the United States and Canada. CCÉ, or Comhaltas, offers instruction in Irish
music (as well as language and dance), sponsors performances, conventions, and competitions,
and supports scholarly work.
98
Irish American Heritage Center
773 282-7035
4626 North Knox Ave.
Chicago, IL 60630
http://irish-american.org
The Irish American Heritage Center sponsors a weekly traditional music session, and
maintains listings of Chicago-area Irish music events.
Irish Music Association
816 699-9950
519 S Brookside Ave.
Independence, MO 64053
http://www.irishmusicassociation.com
The Irish Music Association maintains listings of musicians who play Irish traditional
music, as well as related festivals and venues. In 2008 it held the first annual Irish Music
Awards.
O‟Flaherty Irish Music Retreat
1320 Navaho Trail
Richardson, TX 75080
www.oflahertyretreat.org
The O‟Flaherty Irish Music Retreat offers three days of instruction in various Irish
instruments, including the pennywhistle, in the fall.
Traditional Irish Music Education Society
972 238-8724
1320 Navaho Trail
Richardson, TX 75080
http://www.irishtradmusic.org/
The Traditional Irish Music Education Society supports Irish traditional music
educational programs and performances. TIMES produces the annual O‟Flaherty Irish Music
Retreat (listed above) in Texas.
g. Recorder
The recorder, an endblown duct flute, is an instrument of the Western art music tradition.
It is a period instrument in the sense that it reached a height of popularity in the Baroque period,
99
and then suffered a decline in the Classical and Romantic, during which time it was virtually
replaced by the transverse flute.241 It has experienced a revitalization since the 20th century, with
renewed interest in its historical repertoire and performance practice, as well as active
development of a modern repertoire.242 The recorder‟s reputation has suffered somewhat due to
its use by children in elementary school music curricula, though the instrument is a demanding
one to play and capable of fine music making.
Recorders and their predecessors have existed since at least the Middle Ages. There are
no complete extant specimens from this period, though plenty of documentary evidence exists.243
Needless to say, any discussion of the instrument‟s performance practice in this period is largely
speculative.
Recorders in the Renaissance were one-piece wide-bored instruments with large
toneholes, and had a powerful, robust tone, especially in the lower octave.244 Replicas of
Renaissance instruments are available from a number of modern makers.245
Baroque instruments were made in three parts—headjoint, body, and footjoint—which
allowed some adjustments for tuning and fingering comfort, and also facilitated fine adjustments
to the bore by recorder makers. Baroque recorders feature a reverse conical bore, narrowing as it
approaches the footjoint, which improves intonation and response. The alto (or “treble”) recorder
rose to prominence as a solo instrument during the Baroque period, unlike its predecessors in the
241
Eve O‟Kelly, The Recorder Today (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 31; Niall
O‟Loughlin, “The Recorder in 20th-Century Music,” Early Music 10, no. 1 (1982): 36.
242
Hans-Martin Linde, The Recorder Player’s Handbook, trans. Richard Deveson (London: Schott, 1991),
122-123; O‟Kelly 1-10.
243
Linde, 9.
244
O‟Kelly, 30; Linde, 3; Anthony Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford
University Press, 1959), 13.
245
Linde, 13.
100
Renaissance, which were rarely used as solo instruments.246 The Baroque alto
recorder inspired a large number of concerti, and was also used to great effect for
obbligato parts in vocal music.247 The recorder was also frequently used in consorts,
chamber ensembles made up of recorders of various sizes.248
The recorders familiar to most people today are essentially Baroque recorders.
Modern Baroque-style instruments are often slightly altered replicas of period
recorders, adjusted to meet current pitch standards and to suit modern ideals of
recorder tone.249 A number of makers have also developed “modern” versions of the
recorder, which seek to improve the instrument in various ways; the Baroque-style
instrument remains predominant. Conservatory training on the recorder is available
in the Western world, especially in schools with early music curricula.250 The
instrument‟s modern repertoire includes works by composers as prominent as Paul
Hindemith and Benjamin Britten.251
Recorders are traditionally made of dense hardwoods that are well suited to
turning on a lathe.252 The question of whether different woods produce different tone
colors is a matter of some debate.253 High-quality plastic instruments in all the
common sizes are also available, which cost considerably less than comparable
Figure 7: A
modern
Baroque-style
alto recorder.
246
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 13.
Linde, 89, 91-92.
248
Ibid., 59.
249
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 10.
250
Linde, 124; O‟Kelly, 17-18.
251
O‟Kelly, 40-46‟ O‟Loughlin, 36-7.
252
O‟Kelly, 26.
253
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 8.
247
101
wooden instruments and are not subject to cracking or warping.254 Though the finest recorders
are invariably made of wood, these plastic instruments may be suitable for many applications for
woodwind doublers.
Modern instruments are most often tuned to A=440Hz (or close to it), but a number of
true Baroque replica instruments are tuned to A=415Hz or another historical pitch standard.255
Modern woodwind players will likely get the most use out of instruments at A=440Hz, unless
playing with other Baroque replica instruments.
The most common modern sizes of recorder are sopranino, soprano (or “descant”), alto
(“treble”), tenor, and bass.256 Both smaller and larger sizes, as well as some intermediate sizes,
also exist, but are rarely used. The common sizes are referred to, misleadingly, as being “in C” or
“in F;” all play at concert pitch or an octave transposition thereof, and thus, in the nomenclature
used by modern woodwind players, can all be considered to be in C. The C or F designations
more accurately describe two parallel fingering systems; the C instruments (soprano and tenor)
all play a C for their lowest note, while the F instruments (sopranino, alto, and bass) produce an
F when the same fingering is employed.257 The complete pattern of fingerings used on the C
instruments applies to the F instruments as well, only transposed by a fourth.
The sopranino, soprano, and alto instruments in most cases have only fingered toneholes.
The sopranino and even smaller recorders, such as the garklein in C, may present difficulties to
some musicians due to the very closely-spaced toneholes; small fingers or very careful technique
254
O‟Kelly, 19.
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 10.
256
Don Cowan, “More About Recorders,” Music Educators Journal 52, no. 1 (1965): 121; Carl F.
Dolmetsch, “The Recorder or English Flute,” Music & Letters 22, no. 1 (1941): 68.
257
O‟Kelly, 10.
255
102
are required to play them fluently.258 The tenor is large enough that it is often fitted with one or
two keys to cover the lowest toneholes.259 Two keys are preferable to one in that they allow
playing both the low C and C-sharp, while single-keyed tenors cannot play the C-sharp. Bass
recorders may have a number of keys, due to the very wide tonehole spacing.
Upright, relaxed posture is essential for good tone production.260 The instrument should
be held at a comfortable angle, usually 45 degrees or less from vertical.261 The left hand is used
to operate the higher toneholes; because the tonehole arrangement is not symmetrical, using the
right hand on top is not practical. The weight of the instrument is supported by the lower lip and
right thumb.262 Larger instruments have thumbrests which aid in supporting the instrument, and
some recorder players add thumbrests to their smaller instruments, as well. The footjoint may be
rotated to facilitate the right little finger‟s reach.263
The bass recorder‟s size makes necessary a neckstrap or floor peg to support its
weight.264 Some basses have a crook or bocal, like that of a bassoon, to facilitate the instrument‟s
large reach; other options are the direct-blow style (a straight endblown instrument with a
mouthpiece like the smaller recorders) or the knick style (resembling a direct-blow instrument
that has been bent to angle the mouthpiece toward the player).
The pads of the fingers‟ distal joints should be used to close the toneholes or to operate
the keys.265 The fingers should remain close to the toneholes or keys.266 Most recorders use the
258
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 18.
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 17.
260
Linde. 28-29; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 25; Walter van Hauwe, The Modern Recorder
Player, vol. 1 (London: Schott, 1984), 10.
261
Linde, 29; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 25.
262
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 26.
263
Ibid., 27.
264
Ibid., 18-20.
265
Linde, 29; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 25.
266
Linde, 29; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 25.
259
103
“Baroque” fingering system, also called the “English” system.267 The “German” system is far
less common, and unpopular with recorder players because its somewhat simpler fingering
system is achieved at the expense of good intonation.268 Cross fingerings are used extensively to
give the recorder its full chromatic scale. Half-holing is a technical possibility but has not been a
necessary part of the recorder tradition since the introduction of double holes for the right hand‟s
ring and little fingers.
The air requirements of the recorder are considerably less than those of the “modern”
woodwinds, so fine breath control is required.269 Abdominal breath support should be used, but
the airstream should be neither too slack (causing flatness and unsatisfactory tone) nor too strong
(causing shrillness, sharpness, and overblowing).270
Because of the recorder‟s duct mouthpiece, the embouchure is rather less complex than
that of the transverse flutes. The lips should seal completely around the tip of the mouthpiece,
but without excess tension.271 The tongue raises or lowers within the mouth to change the shape
of the oral cavity, speeding or slowing the airstream as needed for register changes.272 Linde
recommends subvocalizing vowel sounds for the instrument‟s different registers: “O” for the
lowest notes, “A” for the middle range, and “Ü” for high notes.273
The recorder is distinguished from other duct flutes by the presence of a thumbhole.274
The thumbhole serves its most important function when only partially opened, creating a vent to
ease overblowing into the second octave. This allows the higher octave to be played with only
267
Linde, 31.
Linde, 31; O‟Kelly, 9-10; Cowan 120-1.
269
Cowan, 122.
270
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 28-31; Linde, 22-23; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 47.
271
Linde, 29; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 37; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 16.
272
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 85; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 29.
273
Linde, 27.
274
O‟Kelly, 21-23.
268
104
minor adjustment to the airstream, so transitions between octaves are more agile and the octaves
are better balanced in volume.275 The technique of partially opening the thumbhole is a
demanding one; the precise amount of opening affects pitch, tone, and response. The thumb must
be kept very relaxed, and, as much as possible, the movement must be limited to the distal joint.
The knuckle of the thumb is flexed, tilting the distal joint so that the thumbnail comes in contact,
or near contact, with the edge of the thumbhole.276 This allows for precise control of the opening
of the thumbhole.
Breath pulse vibrato, produced according to the same technique used for the modern
flute, oboe, and bassoon, is the most common vibrato technique used for the recorder.277 A
fingered vibrato technique, called flattement, was used in the Baroque period and has also been
called for in 20th-century works.278 Many period and modern tutors include detailed flattement
instructions and fingerings.279
Tongued articulation, essentially identical in technique to that used on the modern flute,
is standard practice for the recorder. The tip of the tongue touches the hard palate just behind the
front teeth, blocking airflow, and releases the air to articulate notes.280 This is similar to the
tongue motion involved in pronouncing the letters “D” or “T.”281 Double tonguing, using
alternating “T” and “K” articulations, is also used.282 The tongue is also frequently used to end
275
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 6.
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 85; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 29.
277
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 32; Cowan, 122; Linde, 27-28; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 64.
278
Linde, 69-70; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 72-73.
279
See Hotteterre, 83-85; van Hauwe, vol. 2, 72-75.
280
Linde, 42.
281
van Hauwe, vol. 1, 55-56; Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 34.
282
Rowland-Jones, 46.
276
105
notes, as a taper in the airflow may cause sagging pitch.283 This must be done with the utmost
delicacy to avoid abrupt note endings.
Recorders may be tuned to some extent by pulling in or pushing out at the headjoint and
footjoint, though, as with modern woodwinds, this is a compromise at best.284 Recorder
intonation is tied closely to airflow, with a stronger breath driving pitch upward and a weaker
one allowing it to drop. Individual notes may be humored in this way, but only so far as tone is
not adversely affected. The pitch of individual notes may also be adjusted by the use of alternate
fingerings.285 Other options include shading (bringing the fingers close enough to open toneholes
that the pitch is lowered somewhat) and what Anthony Rowland-Jones calls “slide-fingering,”
slightly opening closed lower toneholes to raise the pitch.286 The recorder‟s sensitivity to airflow
precludes dramatic dynamic contrasts; significant dynamic changes require special fingering
techniques to compensate for changes in pitch.287
Recorder music uses Western notation. Parts for the bass and larger recorders are written
in bass clef, and the tenor and higher instruments are written in treble clef.288 The alto and tenor
are written at actual sounding pitch. The soprano, sopranino, and bass sound one octave higher
than written.289
283
Linde, 43; van Hauwe, vol. 1, 68.
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 63.
285
Ibid., 61-62.
286
Ibid., 56-59.
287
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 94-95; Cowan, 122.
288
Rowland-Jones, Recorder Technique, 18-20.
289
O‟Kelly, 24-25.
284
106
Bass
Soprano
Tenor
Sopranino
Alto
Bass
Soprano
Tenor
Sopranino
Alto
Table 17: Recorder fingerings for chromatic scale. Notes shown indicate written pitch;
sopranino, soprano, and bass sound 8va.290
290
Based on van Hauwe, vol. 1, 31.
107
Sopranino
Alto
Soprano
Tenor
Bass
Sopranino
Alto
Soprano
Tenor
Bass
Pre-Baroque ornamentation thought to be appropriate to the recorder includes trills and
melismatic, improvisatory embellishments on longer notes.291 Sacred music from these periods
291
Linde, 68.
108
was likely performed with smooth, legato tonguing, while dance music would have been more
detached.292
Baroque recorder style emphasized light, legato playing, with elegant articulation
including portato and, for virtuosic flair, double-tonguing.293 Baroque ornamentation practice
will already be familiar to trained modern Western woodwind players, especially flutists, oboists,
and bassoonists. Important ornaments include trills (starting from the upper note), appoggiaturas,
double appoggiaturas (Anschlag, Schleifer), mordents, and turns. Flattement vibrato would have
been used in the early Baroque, but breath vibrato gained in popularity throughout the Baroque
period.294
The 20th-century recorder repertoire has explored possibilities including glissandi,
multiphonics, microtones, extended range, alternate fingerings, and flutter tonguing.295
Recorders are widely available. Many local music stores stock inexpensive instruments
for use in elementary school music curricula; professional woodwind players would be well
advised to pay just a small amount more for finely-made plastic instruments. Inexpensive
wooden recorders are also available, but rarely play as well as plastic instruments in the same
price range. Fine wooden instruments are available at considerably higher cost, with a wide
variety of options available for serious and committed recorder players.
292
Ibid., 63.
Ibid., 101-104.
294
Linde, 111-112; Rowland-Jones, 115-116.
295
Linde, 127-8; O‟Kelly, 51; the most complete discussion of 20th-century techniques is found in O‟Kelly,
293
82-115.
109
Case Study
The Broadway musical Spamalot uses the recorder for a Medieval sound. In the song
“Brave Sir Robin,” the sopranino recorder is used as a solo and accompanimental instrument.
110
Example 7: Excerpt using recorder in Broadway show Spamalot (2004).296 Transposed for
sopranino recorder; sounds one octave higher.
296
Monty Python’s Spamalot: Original Broadway Cast Recording (Decca Broadway, 2005).
111
On the recording from which the transcription was made, the sopranino recorder is played
in a detached style, with no slurred notes anywhere in the excerpt. Breath vibrato is used on the
longer notes.
Playing the smaller recorders requires fine breath control, especially if vibrato is used.
The extensive use of the sopranino‟s upper range makes this excerpt especially hazardous.
Musicians trained in modern woodwinds may instinctively try to improve the response of the
upper notes by manipulation of the embouchure, but this can be counterproductive with the
recorder. The venting of the thumb tonehole is key to successful playing in the upper register. To
play the upper notes clearly and accurately, the left thumb must be kept relaxed and must open
its tonehole to precisely the correct degree. The optimal size of the opening may vary from
instrument to instrument and even from note to note, so some experimentation is in order to
determine the best approach for the instrument and notes in question.
The sopranino recorder uses F-based fingerings, which may be somewhat unfamiliar to
some woodwind musicians. The bassoon and the clarinet‟s lower register both use F fingerings,
but neither is written in the range of this excerpt. A possibility for woodwind players who are
less familiar with F recorder fingerings is to transpose the excerpt down a fourth and use C
recorder fingerings, which will be more intuitive to flutists, oboists, saxophonists, clarinetists (at
least in this register), and to those who got their first recorder training on the soprano instrument
(in an elementary school music program, for example).
In measures 1-8, the recorder serves as a solo instrument. Throughout the remainder of
the excerpt, it accompanies the vocal solo, playing strictly accompanimental material in
measures 9-40, and then joining the vocal line in octaves through the end. The song ends
abruptly (and humorously) after measure 47.
112
Bibliography
Boeke, Kees. “Recorder Now.” Early Music 10, no. 1 (1982): 6-9.
This article is a discussion of the recorder‟s role in the world of modern music, with
pedagogical information including problems of technique, repertoire, and obtaining appropriate
instruments.
Cowan, Don. “More About Recorders.” Music Educators Journal 52, no. 1 (1965): 121-22.
Cowan gives an overview of the recorder family. The article includes some useful
discussion of beginning recorder technique and some recommended recordings.
Dolmetsch, Carl F. “The Recorder or English Flute.” Music & Letters 22, no. 1 (1941): 67-74.
Dolmetsch discusses the recorder and its revival in the twentieth century. He addresses
performance issues of tone, intonation, and dynamics.
Griscom, Richard, and David Lasocki. The Recorder: A Research and Information Guide.
Routledge Music Bibliographies, ed. Brad Eden. New York: Routledge, 2003.
This reference provides annotated bibliography entries on over 2,000 recorder-related
sources, plus essays on obtaining recorder-related sources and on the future of recorder research.
Hotteterre le Romain, Jacques. Principles of the Flute, Recorder, & Oboe, trans. David Lasocki.
New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1968.
This is a modern translation of the early eighteenth-century treatise. It includes facsimiles
of fingering charts from the original edition. This is a useful source for authentic historical
performance practice.
Hunt, Edgar. “The Recorder and Its Music.” Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 75
(1948): 39-51.
Hunt discusses history, repertoire, and organology, especially the various sizes and keys
of recorders and their use.
________. The Recorder and Its Music. London: Herbert Jenkins Ltd., 1962.
This is a greatly expanded version (almost 200 pages) of the article listed above.
113
Juritz, J. W. F. “Recorder Fingerings.” The Galpin Society Journal 13 (1960): 91-92.
Juritz provides suggestions for fingering the highest notes of the alto recorder, including
his technique of using the knee or an added key to stop the bell of the instrument.
Lasocki, David. “Recorder.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley
Sadie, 21:37-53. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Lasocki discusses the recorder primarily from musicological and organological
perspectives. This is useful as a starting point for locating authentic repertoire, and for an
overview of performance practice in the Renaissance and Baroque periods, as well as recorder
performance practice in contemporary music.
Linde, Hans-Martin. The Recorder Player’s Handbook, trans. Richard Deveson. London: Schott,
1991.
Linde gives an overview of organology and technique. The text also includes detailed
discussion of performance practice with regard to historical style periods and the twentieth
century.
O‟Kelly, Eve. The Recorder Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
O‟Kelly provides a detailed history of the recorder since its revival around the turn of the
twentieth century. Also included is thorough discussion of modern extended techniques with
musical examples from the literature, including graphic notation, electronics, and more.
O‟Loughlin, Niall. “The Recorder in 20th-Century Music.” Early Music 10, no. 1 (1982): 36-37.
O‟Loughlin discusses repertoire and techniques for the recorder in avant garde music.
Rigby, Fred Frankland. Playing the Recorders. New York: St. Martin‟s Press, n.d.
This text is notable for its discussion of various sizes of recorders and the issues unique to
each, as well as discussion of consort playing.
Rowland-Jones, Anthony. Playing Recorder Sonatas: Interpretation and Technique. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1992.
This work discusses performance practice with regard to Baroque style. It includes text
related to specific major sonatas as well as general advice.
114
________. Recorder Technique: Intermediate to Advanced. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University
Press, 1986.
This text addresses aspects of recorder performance, including technique, practicing, and
repertoire.
Thomson, John Mansfield, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Recorder. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1995.
This is a collection of in-depth essays by leading recorder experts, covering various
aspects of history, repertoire, and more. It also includes an annotated bibliography of related
reading.
van Hauwe, Walter. The Modern Recorder Player. 2 vols. London: Schott, 1984.
This is a serious, comprehensive recorder method. It is a beginning method in terms of
technique, but assumes a strong musical background.
Waitzman, Daniel. The Art of Playing the Recorder. New York: AMS Press, 1978.
This is a thorough pedagogical treatise, with special attention given to types of recorders,
keywork on larger instruments, and venting and half-holing techniques.
Wollitz, Kenneth. The Recorder Book. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982.
Wollitz‟s comprehensive pedagogical text includes chapters on technique, historical
performance practice, ensemble playing, selecting instruments, and repertoire.
Selected Recordings
Brüggen, Frans. Italian Recorder Concertos.
Brüggen (b. 1934) performs Baroque concerti.
Linde, Hans-Martin. Music for a bird. Wergo, 1990.
German recorder virtuoso Linde (b. 1930) plays his own contemporary solo and chamber
music for recorder, including extended techniques.
Little Consort Amsterdam. Salve Regina. Channel Classics, 1990.
This recording includes Medieval works by Machaut and anonymous composers, played
by a recorder consort.
115
Van Hauwe, Walter. Telemann. Globe, 1989.
Van Hauwe plays works Baroque works for recorder alone and with continuo.
Monty Python’s Spamalot: Original Broadway Cast Recording. John Du Prez and Eric Idle,
composers. Decca Broadway, 2005.
This Broadway musical uses the recorder to evoke a Medieval setting.
Organizations in North America
American Recorder Society
800 491-9588
1129 Ruth Dr.
St. Louis, MO 63122-1019
http://www.americanrecorder.org
The ARS publishes American Recorder magazine and a newsletter, supports recorder
performances and educational projects, and maintains teacher listings. The ARS currently lists
over 100 local chapters and consorts in the United States and Canada.
American Recorder Teachers Association
http://arta-recorder.org
ARTA maintains listings of recorder teachers, and publishes the Recorder Education
Journal and the ARTAfacts newsletter.
Early Music America
888 SACKBUT (888 722-5288)
2366 Eastlake Ave. E. #429
Seattle, WA 98102
http://earlymusic.org
EMA publishes Early Music America Magazine and maintains listings of teachers of
recorder and other early music instruments.
h. Shakuhachi
The shakuhachi is an endblown bamboo flute associated with traditional Japanese music.
The name of the instrument is actually a measurement; a shaku is an ancient Japanese unit of
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length equivalent to about 30.3 centimeters (or 11.9 inches) and divided into ten sun. Hachi is
the number eight. Thus, shakuhachi refers to a length of one shaku and eight sun, or 1.8 shaku.
Though the term shakuhachi can therefore only be applied precisely to an instrument of
that length, it is also commonly understood to refer to an entire family of instruments, which may
range in length from about 1.3 shaku to over 3 shaku. In English, sizes other than the common
1.8 shakuhachi are often referred to by their size, as in “1.6 shaku.” The term shakuhachi should
be regarded in the following text as referring to an instrument of any size unless otherwise noted.
Table 18: Common sizes of shakuhachi, and their lowest basic pitches
Length (shaku) Lowest basic pitch
1.6
E4
1.7
D-sharp4
1.8
D4 (most common)
1.9
C-sharp4
2.0
C4
The shakuhachi is commonly made in two parts, with the bamboo piece divided between
the third and fourth holes (between the left hand index and ring fingers). This makes the
shakuhachi somewhat more portable, but the primary reason for the division into two joints
seems to be that it facilitates adjustment of the bore in the shakuhachi making process.297
The utaguchi, or blowing edge, may be made simply by cutting the bamboo to a sharp
angle, but fine shakuhachi usually have an inlaid edge of animal horn (usually water buffalo) or a
synthetic substitute.298 Inlaid edges are more durable and less prone to warping or cracking; they
297
Christopher Blasdel and Kamisango Yuko, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning; Learning to Play
(Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo Sha, 1988), 3.
298
Tanimura Ko, “The Shakuhachi,” The Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments (Tokyo: Tokyo Ongakusha,
1990), 86.
117
also lack the natural grain of the bamboo and may be better suited to making a
smooth, precisely-shaped edge.
Though it is used in some traditional Japanese ensembles, the most
recognizable shakuhachi music is the genre of honkyoku, meditative solo pieces that
are characterized by highly flexible use of tone color, rhythm, pitch, and dynamics.
The instrument is held at approximately a 45-degree angle from vertical
(except in the case of certain techniques to be discussed below).299 As with Western
woodwind instruments, good posture and deep, abdominal breathing are of vital
importance to tone production.300
The embouchure, like that of the Western flute, is highly variable and
personalized. Christopher Blasdel gives the following description of the shakuhachi
embouchure:
First, make a small, concentrated opening with your lips, slightly pursed.
Rest the shakuhachi lightly on your lips with the inserted blowing edge
barely spaced from the lips. The edge of the bamboo opposite the
mouthpiece insert should rest lightly but securely in the chin dimple
below your lips. . . Blow across the mouthpiece insert as if you were
blowing across a bottle top or a tightly held piece of cellophane.301
Masayuki Koga‟s instruction is more detailed and includes a number of
photographs and illustrations. He stresses tongue position (keeping the tongue low
Figure 8: A
shakuhachi.
in the mouth, and touching the backs of the lower front teeth), a small aperture, relaxed facial
muscles, and wet lips; he also emphasizes that the jaw should be dropped and moved slightly
299
David Hughes, “Shakuhachi,” in “Japan,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed.
Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 2001): 200.
300
Blasdel and Kamisango, 21.
301
Blasdel and Kamisango, 23.
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forward to create space between the teeth and to align the upper and lower teeth vertically.302
Richard Keeling describes the embouchure as a “relaxed smile” with the center of the lips
“focused and shaped.”303 Ralph Samuelson indicates that “the lower lip must be stretched
without losing the relaxation of the muscles.”304
Higher notes are achieved by overblowing to higher partials. Masayuki suggests pushing
the tongue slightly forward and closing the jaw somewhat in order to overblow to the second
octave.305 Keeling recommends an aperture that is a “tight, narrow slit” for higher notes, as
opposed to “looser and “more rounded” for notes in the lowest octave.306
The shakuhachi traditionally has five finger holes, one for the top hand‟s thumb and four
covered by the index and ring fingers; the middle fingers and right thumb, along with the chin,
support the weight of the shakuhachi. The left hand is placed on top by most players; using the
right hand on top is equally possible though less common.307 Use of the left hand above the right
will be assumed hereafter.
The holes are traditionally numbered from the bottom up, which may surprise musicians
trained in the West: the hole nearest the bell end is the first hole, and the thumb hole, closest to
the embouchure, is the fifth.308 Shakuhachi with additional holes are also available; these may
302
Masayuki Koga, Shakuhachi: Japanese Bamboo Flute (Navarro, CA: Japanese Music Institute of
America, 1978), 5-13.
303
Richard Keeling, “Shakuhachi Music of the Kinko School: Techniques and Melodic Embellishment”
(M.A. thesis, University of California-Los Angeles, 1975), 52.
304
Ralph Samuelson, “Some Aspects of the Kinko Ryu Honkyoku, Including a Study of the Pattern-Units
of Kokû Reibo” (M.A. thesis, Wesleyan University, 1971), 21.
305
Masayuki, 76.
306
Keeling, 52.
307
Masayuki, 14; Samuelson, 20.
308
Tanimura, 85; Blasdel and Kamisango, 18.
119
ease fingering of certain passages but are generally frowned upon by purists as lacking the
characteristic sound of the five-hole instrument.309
The basic scale of the 1.8 shakuhachi corresponds approximately to a Western pentatonic
scale: D4, F4, G4, A4, C5, D5. This pattern overblows at the octave, and skilled players use
additional fingerings to proceed into a third octave.310 Instruments of other sizes maintain the
same interval pattern, though transposed.
Table 19: Fingerings for basic 1.8 shakuhachi scale311
(Also 8va)
(Also 8va)
(Also 8va)
(Also 8va)
(Also 8va)
(Also 8va)
The basic scale is expanded to a full chromatic scale (and even into microtones) through
the techniques of meri and kari. Meri, lowering the pitch of a note, may be accomplished by the
partial covering of an open hole with the fingers, by tilting the shakuhachi away from the body,
by tilting the head downward, by using the embouchure to aim the airstream downward, by
decreasing the speed of the airstream, or by combination of two or more of those techniques. The
term chû-meri indicates lowering the pitch of a basic scale note by a small amount (a half step
for most fingerings), and meri indicates lowering by a larger amount (a whole step for most
fingerings). Kari, raising the pitch of a note, is accomplished by some combination of bringing
the shakuhachi in close to the body, tilting the head slightly upward, using the embouchure to
309
Tanimura, 123, 178.
Blasdel and Kamisango, 37; Masayuki, 24.
311
Based on Blasdel and Kamisango, 25.
310
120
aim the airstream upward, and increasing the speed of the airstream. Kari is more rarely used and
the pitch change is often less than a half step. Both meri and kari affect the tone as well as the
pitch of a note, and these variations in tone are considered essential to the characteristic sound of
the shakuhachi.312
312
Blasdel and Kamisango, 39-42; Masayuki, 33, 84.
121
Table 20: Fingerings for expanded chromatic 1.8 shakuhachi scale.313 Negative numbers below
fingerings indicate how many half steps the fingered pitch must be lowered using meri
techniques (-1 = chû-meri, -2 = meri).
-2
-2
-1
-1
-2
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-1
-1
Special techniques associated with the shakuhachi include a pitch vibrato accomplished
by a nodding motion of the head (tateyuri), a loudness vibrato produced by shaking the head
313
Based on Blasdel and Kamisango 40, Keeling 53-55, Masayuki 100-101, Tom W. Deaver, Ichiyo
Shakuhachi Manual, vol. 1 (Nagano Ken, Japan: n.p., 1976), 10-11.
122
side-to-side (yokoyuri), microtonal and timbral trills, portamento, explosive breath attacks
(muraiki), flutter-tonguing, and wide variations in tone color.314
A vocabulary of conventional ornamentations makes up an important part of the
shakuhachi‟s performance practice. Full discussion of these is beyond the scope of this
document; thorough descriptions of the ornamentation tradition can be found in Blasdel, Keeling,
and Samuelson, or they may be learned aurally. 315 Some of the simpler ornaments include grace
notes (approaching from either above or below a longer note) and pitch bends (up to the start of a
note, down at the end of a note, or downward and then returning to pitch within the duration of a
note).
The tongued articulation familiar to Western woodwind players is not traditionally used
on the shakuhachi, though it is a technical possibility. Repeated tones played on the same
exhalation are articulated with the fingers, by either striking an open hole (a technique called
utsu) or by briefly opening and reclosing a hole (osu or yuru).316
The finest shakuhachi are virtually always made from bamboo, but more budgetconscious models made of wood or plastic are also available, and some of these may even be
suitable for professional use by woodwind doublers.
Some bamboo instruments include part of the root section of the bamboo at the end of the
lower joint. This is considered cosmetically desirable and increases the instrument‟s value, and
may possibly affect its playing characteristics since the inner diameter of the bamboo generally
narrows at the root; some players and makers believe that the presence or absence of the root end
has no effect on sound. The root end may also be bent slightly outward by the shakuhachi maker
314
Tanimura, 107-108, Keeling, 51, 77-108.
Blasdel and Kamisango, 45-51; Keeling, 77-111; Samuelson, 58-121.
316
Tanimura, 108; Blasdel and Kamisango, 35, Masayuki, 28.
315
123
as an additional cosmetic touch. The color or natural markings of the bamboo are thought to be a
matter of preference and do not affect sound.317
The inner bore of the shakuhachi may in some cases be reshaped by the application of a
paste called ji. Instruments made with this paste (jiari shakuhachi) and those made without
(jinashi shakuhachi) are often given a final coat of lacquer in the bore. This helps protect the
bamboo from cracking due to moisture inside the instrument.318
Most readily available shakuhachi are made according to the requirements of the Kinkoryu, or Kinko school of shakuhachi playing. Instruments of other schools may have very slight
differences in bore geometry and playing characteristics. Kinko-style instruments may be
identified by their trapezoid-shaped utaguchi. Shakuhachi can be purchased from a number of
makers and dealers in North America. Some makers only make instruments to order; this may
mean a delay of months or even years before the instrument is completed.
Traditional shakuhachi notation uses Japanese characters and is read in vertical columns
from right to left. This system, being unfamiliar to Western musicians, is of little immediate use
to most woodwind doublers. Shakuhachi music written for theater or film scores will, in most
cases, be better written in Western notation, perhaps with additional written performance
instructions where necessary. (At least one notable expert believes that authentic shakuhachi
music cannot be adequately notated using the Western system.319) In cases where a size other
than 1.8 shaku is desired, woodwind players may find it convenient if the music copyist treats
these as transposing instruments (with the lowest basic note of the instrument notated as D4)
rather than notating at concert pitch.
317
Tanimura, 98.
Tanimura, 91-92.
319
Dan E. Mayers, “The Unique Shakuhachi,” Early Music 4, no. 4 (1976): 467.
318
124
Case Study
In the musical score to the film Jurassic Park, the shakuhachi is used out of the context
of Japanese traditional music, providing unusual effects combined with Western instruments.
Composer John Williams is thought to have chosen the shakuhachi because it “sounds like a
dinosaur‟s cry.”320 The range and pitch content of these excerpts is best suited to the common 1.8
shaku instrument.
320
Valerie J. Nelson, “Masakazu Yoshizawa, 57; played Japanese flute in films,” Los Angeles Times,
November 16, 2007. Note that the article actually quotes Yoshizawa, not Williams.
125
Example 8: Excerpts using shakuhachi in film Jurassic Park (1993).321 Notated at sounding pitch
for 1.8 shaku.
The first excerpt uses only three notes, two of which are part of the shakuhachi‟s basic
scale. Meri technique, especially tilting of the head and/or instrument, is used for the pitch bend
up to the F5 in measure 1. The use of this technique may in itself provide the additional breath
noise heard on the soundtrack recording; additional breath noise can be achieved by increasing
321
Jurassic Park: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. (MCA, 1992).
126
the size of the aperture between the lips. The descending pitch bend at the end of the F5 may also
be achieved with meri technique; the following C-sharp5 is articulated, so the pitch bend does not
necessarily connect the two notes smoothly. The C-sharp5 may be played with either of the
fingerings given in the extended fingering chart (Table 20, see page 122), or, on some
instruments, may be played with the left hand index and ring finger toneholes closed (thumbhole
open).
The multiphonic sound that begins the second excerpt in measure 3 can be accomplished
by maintaining the proper embouchure for the F4, and using a forceful airstream to overblow it to
the partial an octave higher, allowing the higher note to be rather sharp, and ideally creating a
split tone. The tremolo figure in the same measure may be executed by fingering the G4 normally
and raising the left hand index finger to produce approximately a B-flat4 (the pitch need not be
precise).
The timbre trill in measure 5 can be achieved by trilling the left hand ring finger against
the edge of the tonehole, disrupting the airstream enough to be audible but not significantly
affecting pitch.
The multiphonic sound in measure 6 can be accomplished by fingering the D4 and using a
narrowed aperture and increased airflow to produce the higher partials. Rapid grace notes in
measure 7 may be played by fingering the B-flat4 with the thumb and left ring finger, then simply
adding the left index finger for the G4. The A-flat4 is played using meri technique, possibly
including shading of the left ring finger tonehole.
The breath noise in measure 11 may happen naturally as part of a dramatic crescendo, but
can be increased by opening the aperture somewhat. The C grace notes in measure 12 can both
127
be played omitting the right hand for speed; the higher C can be produced by combining the
altered fingering with a sudden burst of air.
Throughout, precision of rhythms and even pitches seems to be of secondary importance
to overall mood; it is likely that some or all of the gestures were improvised by the shakuhachi
player.
Bibliography
Berger, Donald Paul. “The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryu Notation.” Asian Music 1, no. 2
(1969): 32-72.
Berger gives an overview of history, organology, and performance practice, but the bulk
of the text is dedicated to Kinko-ryu notation and a method of translation to and from Western
notation.
Blasdel, Christopher. The Single Tone: A Personal Journey into Shakuhachi Music. Tokyo:
Printed Matter Press, 2005.
This book is useful for its insights into the culture and philosophy surrounding the
shakuhachi and its music, from the perspective of a native Westerner who has thoroughly
absorbed Japanese culture.
Blasdel, Christopher, and Kamisango Yuko. The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning; Learning
to Play. Tokyo: Ongaku no Tomo Sha, 1988.
This is a beginning method book for the shakuhachi. It uses primarily Western notation,
with some Kinko-ryu provided as well. Especially useful are the discussion and examples of
common ornamentation patterns and their proper execution. It also includes text on history and
repertoire.
Deaver, Tom W. Ichiyo Shakuhachi Manual. Nagano Ken, Japan: n.p., 1976.
This is a beginning method book for the shakuhachi, in two volumes. The text is in
English, liberally sprinkled with Japanese characters. Emphasis is given to tradition and cultural
context. All of the notation is Kinko-ryu (explained in the text).
128
Grous, Robert. Introductory Manual for Kinko Honkyoku. Willits, CA: Chieh Publications, 1978.
Grous gives an overview of the Honkyoku shakuhachi tradition with cultural context. He
includes basic playing technique and explanation of Kinko-ryu notation.
Hughes, David. “Shakuhachi.” In “Japan,” in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and
Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 12:831-6. London: Macmillan, 2001.
This article subsection is much more detailed than the standalone “Shakuhachi” New
Grove article. It includes sections on instrument construction, notation, and performance
practice, including differences between schools of shakuhachi playing.
Keeling, Richard. “Shakuhachi Music of the Kinko School: Techniques and Melodic
Embellishment.” M.A. thesis, University of California-Los Angeles, 1975.
Keeling makes an exhaustive examination of shakuhachi technique, including
ornamentation and extended techniques. The text includes musical examples in Western
notation, Kinko-ryu notation, and a graphical notation system devised by Keeling.
Osborne, Nigel, and Peter Nelson, eds. Contemporary Music Review 8, part 2, “Flute and
Shakuhachi,” issue ed. Kondo Jo and Joaquim Bernítez (1994).
This full issue of Contemporary Music Review is dedicated to the shakuhachi and its
relationship to other flutes. It includes articles and interviews relevant to the shakuhachi and its
music, especially contemporary music.
Lee, Riley Kelly. “Fu Ho U Vs. Do Re Mi: The Technology of Notation Systems and
Implications of Change in the Shakuhachi Tradition of Japan.” Asian Music 19, no. 2
(1988): 71-81.
This article describes the fu ho u system of shakuhachi notation, an ancient system
predating Kinko-ryu and Western notation.
Lependorf, Jeffrey. “Contemporary Notation for the Shakuhachi: A Primer for Composers.”
Perspectives of New Music 27, no. 2 (1989): 232-51.
This is a practical guide to the sounds and techniques unique to the shakuhachi, and
includes suggestions for indicating them in Western notation. A brief discography is also
included. This text is useful as an introduction to the sound and repertoire of the instrument.
129
Masayuki Koga. Shakuhachi: Japanese Bamboo Flute. Navarro, CA: Japanese Music Institute of
America, 1978.
This is a fairly comprehensive method for the shakuhachi. It includes extensive text and
diagrams on embouchure, oral cavity formation, posture, and hand position. It introduces and
uses Kinko-ryu notation.
Mayers, Dan E. “The Shakuhachi.” Early Music 3, no. 3 (1975): 299.
Mayers writes a short letter to the editor with insightful comparisons between the
shakuhachi and modern Boehm-style flute, especially as regards extended techniques. He urges
further scholarly study of the instrument.
________. “The Unique Shakuhachi.” Early Music 4, no. 4 (1976): 467.
This short article is perhaps intended as a follow-up to Mayers‟s 1975 letter to the editor
(listed above). Mayers gives general background on the instrument and its performance practice,
geared toward an audience unfamiliar with Eastern aesthetics. He stresses the freedom and
individual interpretative license characteristic of the instrument and its music.
Noll, William Henry. “Kinko-ryu Gaikyoku: The Shakuhachi as an Ensemble Instrument.” M.A.
thesis, University of Washington, 1977.
This thesis discusses issues relative to the use of the shakuhachi in ensemble situations,
with transcriptions of chamber music performances using traditional Japanese instruments.
Samuelson, Ralph. “Some Aspects of the Kinko Ryu Honkyoku, Including a Study of the
Pattern-Units of Kokû Reibo.” M.A. thesis, Wesleyan University, 1971.
Samuelson takes a comprehensive look at Kinko-ryu notation, with an overview of the
shakuhachi, its playing technique, and its history. Kokû Reibo is a repertoire piece; Samuelson
examines several recordings of this piece to demonstrate how certain melodic fragments,
common throughout the Honkyoko school‟s repertoire, are approached differently by various
shakuhachi players.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. “Shakuhachi.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
23:200. London: Macmillan, 2001.
This is a clear, concise overview of the shakuhachi‟s history and organology.
Tanimura Ko. “The Shakuhachi.” The Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments. Tokyo: Tokyo
Ongakusha, 1990.
Part 1 contains dozens of color photographs showing types of shakuhachi, the
shakuhachi-making process, playing posture and hand position, and more. Part 2 (within the
130
same volume) contains dozens of short articles on history, organology, technique, repertoire, and
more.
Umezaki Kojiro. “Matters: Integrating the Shakuhachi with Electronic Sound.” M.A. thesis,
Dartmouth College, 1993.
This text describes methods and implementation of an interactive music performance
system using shakuhachi and electronic elements. It includes a chapter on the sound
characteristics of the shakuhachi and thoughts on performance practice in contemporary music.
Selected Recordings
Neptune, John Kaizan. The Circle. Denon, 1986.
Neptune, John Kaizan. Tokyosphere. JVC, 1988.
American shakuhachi virtuoso John Kaizan Neptune (b. 1951) has used the shakuhachi to
great effect in music outside the traditional styles. (“Kaizan” is an honorary name bestowed upon
Neptune for his mastery of the instrument.) Recordings such as these use the shakuhachi in a
jazz-fusion style.
Yamaguchi Goro. A Bell Ringing in the Empty Sky. Nonesuch, 1969.
Yamaguchi Goro (1933-1999), dubbed a “Living National Treasure” by the Japanese
emperor, released this landmark recording in the Kinko tradition while living in the United
States. It was the first shakuhachi recording to be widely available in the Western world.
Yokoyama Katsuya. Zen: Katsuya Yokoyama Plays Classical Shakuhachi Masterworks. YVP,
1988.
Yokoyama Katsuya (b. 1934), an internationally recognized master trained in the Kinko
school, plays several of the most popular compositions in the Kinko-ryu tradition on this twodisc set.
Jurassic Park: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. John Williams, composer. MCA, 1992.
This film soundtrack uses the shakuhachi with orchestral instruments and synthesizers.
The shakuhachi is used to suggest dinosaur roars (see footnote 320 on page 125).
131
Pearl Harbor: Music from the Motion Picture. Hans Zimmer, composer. Hollywood Records,
2001.
Memoirs of a Geisha: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. John Williams, composer. Sony
Classical, 2005.
These soundtrack albums use the shakuhachi both in combination with other Japanese
instruments and as a color instrument within the Western orchestra. “Dr. Crab‟s Prize,” from the
Memoirs of a Geisha soundtrack, is a solo shakuhachi piece in the style of a honkyoku
composition.
Organizations in North America
The International Shakuhachi Society
http://komuso.com
The International Shakuhachi Society maintains a list of shakuhachi teachers, and
publishes the Annals of the International Shakuhachi Society.
The Japanese Music Institute of America
415 621-2950
426 33rd Ave.
San Francisco, CA 94121
http://www.jmia.org
The Japanese Music Institute was founded in 1981by shakuhachi master Masayuki Koga,
who continues to direct the school and to teach shakuhachi there. The JMI offers instruction in
shakuhachi and other Japanese instruments, and sponsors concerts and other events. There are
additional locations in Sacramento and Davis, California, and Boulder, Colorado.
Ki Sui An Shakuhachi Dojo
917 207-6724
625 Greenwich St., Studio
New York, NY 10014
http://www.nyogetsu.com
The Ki Sui An Shakuhachi Dojo offers shakuhachi instruction and study retreats, and
sponsors shakuhachi festivals. There are additional locations in Rochester and Syracuse, New
York; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Baltimore, Maryland.
132
Kyo Shin An Shakuhachi Dojo
718 499-7793
New York, NY
http://www.nyoraku.com
The Kyo Shin An Shakuhachi Dojo offers private shakuhachi instruction and
masterclasses.
The Shakuhachi Society of the Long River
413 323-4793
413 774-4858
P.O. Box 644
Belchertown, MA 01007-0644
The Shakuhachi Society of the Long River (named for the nearby Connecticut River)
promotes shakuhachi study and offers performances, lectures, and a newsletter.
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Chapter 3: Conclusions and Future Research
Each of the instruments discussed here has a rich tradition with associated authentic
repertoire and performance practice. Full discussion of playing these instruments in authentic
contexts is beyond the scope of this document but has, in many cases, been thoroughly discussed
elsewhere (see the bibliography at the end of each section of Chapter 2). Learning to play any
one of these instruments in a genuinely authentic manner could involve many years of serious
study. This type of study, while enriching and worthwhile, may be impractical for woodwind
doublers working in film and theater music. Woodwind doublers would, however, be well-served
by at least an informal background in these traditions and the ability to reproduce some of the
more important and recognizable sounds associated with them.
Sources consulted and cited in preparation of this document are all in the English
language. Additional sources are available in many other languages, and use of these in future
research would likely provide additional insight.
Much of the fundamental technique of the instruments discussed here will already be
familiar to players of modern Western woodwinds. The most basic elements of tone production,
including upright posture, avoidance of unnecessary tension in the body, firm abdominal breath
support, and careful control of the airstream are common to all of these. Basic fingering
technique will also be generally familiar. Some of the instruments discussed here, such as the
recorder and the simple-system instruments (pennywhistles and most bamboo flutes), use
fingering systems that bear strong similarities to the fingering systems of modern woodwinds.
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Woodwind players should use these similarities to their advantage, but, for best effect, should
study the fingerings of new instruments carefully to avoid misapplication of fingerings.
For many of the instruments discussed here, their pedagogical traditions allow for some
variations in technique that may be used to the modern Western woodwind player‟s advantage.
For example, many of these instruments can be played with either the left hand above the right or
vice-versa; woodwind players will immediately feel more at home by using the left hand on top.
In many cases the transverse flutes may be played with the instrument supported at the base of
the left index finger. This technique is familiar to modern Western flutists, but is not strictly
necessary if no left-hand thumb tonehole or keywork exists.
A few particular technical pitfalls include the shakuhachi‟s difficult embouchure and
meri technique, the duduk‟s puffed-cheeks embouchure and the shifting of the hands between
two different fingering systems, the panflutes‟ arrangement of pipes, and the proper affixing of
the dizi membrane.
Advanced woodwind doublers should have a variety of folk, ethnic, and period
instrument sounds available to them. The instruments discussed in this document are currently
some of the most commonly-heard and versatile. In many cases, composers or orchestrators may
be unaware of the strengths and limitations of these instruments; this may mean that some
collaboration between the orchestrator and woodwind player is in order.
While some situations in film and theater music may call for specific instruments, other
situations may simply call for an “ethnic flute,” for example, and the decision as to which
instrument to use may be left to the woodwind player. In these situations, the woodwind player
should be prepared to consider a number of factors in his or her decision. These might include
any intended or implied cultural reference in the music, appropriate tone colors, key and scalar
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material, pitch range, and any specified inflections or other requirements. Pennywhistles and
bamboo flutes are useful because they are relatively easy to play and can be obtained
inexpensively in an array of sizes. Recorders may be more suitable for passages that require
precise chromatic playing, or for playing in keys for which the player does not have other
instruments available. Panflutes, Native American flutes, and the shakuhachi are particularly
flexible in terms of special effects and imitations of nature sounds.
As trends in film and theater scoring change, various ethnic instruments may increase or
decline in popularity. Other instruments could be examined in future research. Some possible
subjects are listed in Table 21.
Table 21: List of suggested instruments for future study
Instrument
Type
Associated musical tradition
Bawu
Single reed
Chinese
Didgeridu
Lip-reed instrument (perhaps
technically not a woodwind
instrument, though used by a
number of ethnic woodwind
players)
Australian
Fife
Transverse flute
American Colonial and Civil War
periods
Fujara
Overtone duct flute
Slovakian
Ney
Endblown flute
Persian, Turkish, Egyptian
Ocarina
Vessel flute
Western, Chinese
Quena
Endblown flute
South American
Wooden flutes
Transverse flute
Irish, Cuban, others
Xiao
Endblown flute
Chinese
Various historical woodwinds
Predecessors of modern
woodwinds (such as the Baroque
flute), obsolete instruments (such
as the crumhorn or shawm)
Western
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This document benefits scholarly study of woodwind doubling by documenting the
current trend of scoring for folk, ethnic, and period woodwinds in film and theater music. By
examining eight woodwind instruments and situations in which they are used, this study provides
a practical overview of each instrument, written with the perspective of the woodwind doubler in
mind.
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