Download Mesopotamia River Valley Civilizations

Mesopotamia River Valley Civilizations
Sumer
Sumerians began to settle in southern Mesopotamia around 4,000 B.C. on flat land partially bounded by Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. The fertile silt and reliable water source were excellent ingredients for of systematic agriculture.
Ancient Sumer is part of a region still known as the Fertile Crescent because of its prolific agricultural production.
However, the rivers were prone to erratic flooding and the flat land made the settlements ripe for invasions. Origin of the
Sumerian people is still a mystery but by around 3,000 B.C. they had established a number of independent cities such as
Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. The city of Uruk is thought to have exceeded a population of 50,000. These settlements eventually
developed into city-states. A city-state is exactly what the name implies. It is a city that is also a state. The boundaries of
a city- state usually extended out as far as the leadership of that city-state could control. I like to think of it in terms of cell
phone towers. Phone service providers place a tower only as frequently as necessary to maintain a signal for its
customers. Sometimes that signal overlaps as did the claims of city-states which often resulted in conflict/war.
Sumer Religion/Government
The temple was the main building in Sumerian cities constructed to honor a chosen god. It was often located at the top of
a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The people believed gods ruled the city so leadership supposedly served at
the discretion of those gods making Sumer’s government a theocracy. Sumerian leadership was basically dynastic. That
is to say that succession in leadership was normally achieved by virtue of birthright. Being one of the gods or at least their
representative provided the leader with total authority, but also carried with it total responsibility. If one of the gods was
not performing well it would have been a direct reflection on that god’s representative. Use of the term “gods” here
indicates they believed in more than one god. In fact, they had determined there were around 3,000 different gods
associated with nature, particularly weather related events. A society that worships multiple gods is said to practice
polytheism. The word polytheism has its origins in the Greek terms polu meaning many and thos meaning god. In a
theocracy, all religious leaders play an important role. Sumer was no exception as priests ranked high on the social
pyramid and in some cases were important advisors and advocates of the leader.
Sumerian religious beliefs did not include the possibility of a blissful afterlife. They were never sure if the gods were for or
against them but periodic devastating floods made them lean toward the latter. Artifacts indicate the Sumerians were
pessimistic and filled with dread. This is likely due to the idea that the gods were against them, frequent flooding, frequent
invasions, and no hope of afterlife. Speaking of the afterlife Sumerian writings say “where dust is their food, clay their
sustenance; where they see no light and dwell in darkness” “They seemed to have subscribed to the idea that “life is
hard, then you die.”
Sumer Economics
The economics of Sumer were agriculturally based. They used oxen to pull plows and donkeys as pack animals.
Fertilizer was used to enhance crop production and wheeled carts were used for transport. Silver was introduced to
facilitate ease of trade. The need for food storage and preservation drove the Sumerians to improve on the potter’s wheel
and the production of pottery. They invented glass and were also prolific traders who ultimately ranged as far as India.
Merchants used surplus agricultural commodities to trade for much needed raw materials which artisans converted into
fine clothing, pottery, jewelry, metal tools, weapons, and monumental buildings.
Sumer Science and Technology
Sumerians were the first to use arches and domes in their architecture. To get to the etymology of architecture, we need
to look at the word architect. The word architect has its origin in the Greek terms archi which means something like “first,
best, or master” and tektōn meaning “builder”. So, architecture carries the connotation of a structure or structures
designed and built by a master at his trade. In present day, and in historical terms, architecture may have more to do with
defining a particular building style. Sumerians were the first to use the wagon wheel, sundial, and were the first to make
bronze from copper and tin.
Their system of time included a 7 day week. Months were based on phases of the moon and a year was based on the
movement of the sun. Sumerians founded the science of astronomy and made charts of major constellations
subsequently used in the Middle East for 5000 years. Their interest in astronomy was to facilitate their interest in
astrology. They created a numbering system based on 12, 60 and 360 which is still used today in calculations involving
circles and hours. The first system of writing (cuneiform) was introduced in 3500 B.C. driven by the complexities
associated with civilization such as parceling off property and record keeping. It evolved from an alphabet of 2000
symbols later streamlined to around 300. The cuneiform symbols were pressed into soft clay with a wedge shaped stylus
then the clay was baked. Cuneiform was wedged shaped and imbedded in clay tablets with reed stylus. Several hundred
of these clay tablets have been recovered. Individuals who created cuneiform tablets were known as scribes. The
position of scribe was reserved for men of the upper class. Selected boys from the upper class attended a hyper intense
scribe school where one could be “caned” for most any offense.
The social structure in Sumer began with the king at the top. He was looked on essentially as a god. There were three
major social groups, listed here in descending order; 1) The nobles, which included royalty, priestly officials, and their
families, 2) Commoners who worked for palace and temple estates as farmers, merchants, and crafts people, and 3)
slaves who belonged to palace officials and were used mostly for building projects. Rich landowners also used slaves in
their farming operations. The vast majority (around 90%) of the people were farmers.
Art thrived in Sumer but was religious in nature. The Sumerians were skilled potters, carvers, sculptors, and jewelry
makers. Utilizing cuneiform, Sumerians wrote the first book, it was entitled the Epic of Gilgamesh and is thought to have
contained information passed down orally since 7000 B.C.
Sumer Demise
Between 3000 and 2400 B.C. various strong Sumerian city-state kings attempted to control other city-states but no empire
of consequence was ever developed. Sumer succumbed to a military invasion from Akkad around 2400 B.C. led by King
Sargon I.
First Empires of Mesopotamia
Sargon I, king of Akkad unified the Sumerian city-states and maintained an aggressive and far reaching military force.
The city-states were still like cell towers, but power was now being generated from a central location The Akkad society
broadened the use of cuneiform to create literary works. As with most invasions and occupations, it was easier to conquer
than to control. In an increasingly fragmented political environment (resistance from natives) the Akkad empire lasted two
centuries and was replaced by the Babylonians 1800 B.C. The Babylonians unified much of Mesopotamian and were
known for their large cities and wealth. They were led by Hammurabi, famous for codifying laws and generating the
Hammurabic code. The word codify has its origins in the Latin terms codex meaning “book, or book of laws” and facere
meaning “to make”. Essentially, codify means to combine and make uniform. Codification of laws promotes the “rule of
law” as opposed to a total dictatorship. An established set of laws promotes trade as merchants and traders are more
comfortable conducting business in stable settings with common rules and regulations. Codification of laws is conducive
to a centralized government that can be replicated on a smaller scale in various parts of the empire. The Babylonians
created an extensive bureaucratic network of government officials and judges. The word bureaucratic is a form of the
word bureaucrat which is one who functions within a bureaucracy. The word bureaucracy has its origins in French word
baize alluding to a “desk cover” and the Greek term cracy meaning “power or rule”. Likely, the idea of the original word
was to denote the administrative part of a government, hence the reference to part of a desk. In present day bureaucracy
means an administrative organization of officials and regular procedures. The Babylonians held power for two centuries
and fell to the Hittites who’s authority was short lived. The Mesopotamian region was essentially in flux until around 900
B.C
Egypt River Valley Civilizations
Egyptian Origins
Around 3,100 B.C., a king called Menes began to unite villages of the upper and lower Nile River in Northeastern Africa in
an area not far from Mesopotamia. The Nile is the longest river in the world at over 4,000 miles. Its head waters are in
the middle of Africa and its mouth at the Mediterranean Sea. Over the centuries it has deposited silt forming the Nile
Delta called Lower Egypt. This fertile area is where important Egyptian cities developed. The Nile flooded annually due
to heavy summer rains in Africa. The floods reached Egypt in September and October on a regular basis leaving rich soil
deposits favorable for growing crops. In addition to providing a constant supply of water for agriculture, the river was also
good for travel and the transport of goods. This travel and trade also resulted in interaction with other societies. Physical
geography played a part in the success of the early Egyptian civilization. Unlike Mesopotamia, natural boundaries such
as the Sahara Desert and the Mediterranean and Red Seas generally prevented invasion. Egyptian civilization was
secure in its environment and experienced thousands of years of existence. Also unlike Mesopotamia, Egyptian society
did not evolve from city-states but rather began with a somewhat centralized authority.
Egyptian Religion/Government
Part 1 - Some form of an Egyptian Empire existed essentially uninterrupted for over 2,000 years. The eras include the;
Old Kingdom (2700 – 2200 B.C.), Middle Kingdom (2050 – 1652 B.C.), and the New Kingdom (1567-1085 B.C.)
The Old Kingdom (2700 – 2200 B.C) is associated with prosperity and splendor. Rulers held complete power and
carried the title of pharaoh (great house or palace). The Pharaoh was supposedly chosen by god(s) great wealth and
power but also was charged with great responsibility. The gods were thought to control such things weather and
military engagements. If the gods were not looking favorably on the people then the pharaoh might be blamed.
Egyptians looked on their gods as being in their favor (on their side). As opposed to the Sumerians, the Egyptians
were fairly content with their gods and hoped for their help in the afterlife. Part 2 - Even though the pharaoh had
complete power, he/she enlisted help in administering their kingdoms. Initially they relied primarily on family, but later
a bureaucracy was instituted. The word bureaucracy has its origins in the French word baize alluding to a “desk
cover” and the Greek term cracy meaning “power or rule”. Likely, the idea of the original word was to denote the
administrative part of a government, hence the reference to part of a desk. In present day, bureaucracy means . The
pharaoh also had a vizier (steward of the whole land) who was in charge of the bureaucracy and answered directly to
the pharaoh. Political organization of Egypt eventually evolved into a complex of 42 provinces with governors
answering to the vizier.
The Middle Kingdom (2050 – 1652 B.C.) is portrayed by Egyptians as the golden age or age of stability. They conquered
Nubia to the south and sent armies to Palestine and Syria. Traders made their way to Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia, and
Crete. Part 3 - Pharaohs took on a more shepherd like role rather than being so aloof and removed. During this period
swamplands were drained for new farmland, and a canal was dug to connect the Nile to the Red Sea helping boost trade
and transportation.
In 1652 B.C., Egypt was invaded by people from western Asia known as Hyksos who had the advantage of horses verses
donkeys. The Hyksos ruled for nearly 100 years until the Egyptians learned from them how to use bronze and horse
drawn chariots. Their new military knowledge was used to run the Hyksos out around 1567 B.C. ushering in the New
Kingdom which lasted until 1085 B.C. Egypt strengthened its military and became the most powerful empire in Southwest
Asia. This power precipitated building of new temples. The first female pharaoh (Hatshepsut) took the throne during this
period leading military campaigns into Syria and Palestine as far as the Euphrates. There was a move by pharaoh
Amenhotep IV to designate Aton (god of the sun dial) as the sole god. This is a notable attempt to convert Egypt to a
monotheistic type of religion. Part 4 - The word monotheistic has its origins in the English term mono meaning “one” and
the Greek term theos meaning “god”. The suffix ism has the connotation of some type of belief system or practice. In
present day, monotheism holds the meaning of worshiping only one god. Amenhotep IV’s actions were not well received
and soon undone after his death by boy-pharaoh Tutankhamen who restored the former polytheistic practices. The
weakening of the kingdom by Amenhotep led to the loss of the empire which collapsed in 1085 B.C. For the next 1,000
years Egypt was dominated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and finally Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the
Great. Egypt eventually became a province of Rome around the 1st century B.C.
Egyptian Science and Technology
Part 1 - The Pyramids at Giza were built during the Old Kingdom. The largest pyramid (Great Pyramid) was built 2540
B.C. for King Khufu. It covers 13 acres and measures 756 feet at each side and stands 481 feet high. It is only a few
inches off being perfectly square at its base and consists of approximately 2 million limestone blocks. Blocks weight
ranges from 2 ½ to 30 tons each. It is thought the stone blocks were mined miles away, floated down the Nile on rafts,
and at some point shaped with copper saws. There is yet to be agreement on exactly how the stones were put into place
given the limited technology available at the time. Greek historian Herodotus reported (2000 years after the fact) that it
took 100,000 Egyptians 20 years to build the largest pyramid. These unbelievable feats of engineering and architecture
are part of a larger complex of buildings dedicated to the dead (essentially a city of the dead). Tombs were stocked with
supplies such as chairs, boats, chests, weapons, games, dishes, and foods. Egyptians believed that if the body was
preserved properly one’s spirit could return and continue to exist.
Part 2 - To preserve the body Egyptians mummified their dead, a process that entailed a 70 day drying process where
internal organs and the brain were removed. Those performing the mummification were afforded opportunity to learn
much about the human anatomy. It is no surprise that Egyptians are known for their early expertise in medicine and
surgery. The word 'mummy is generally believed to derive from a Persian word, mummiya, meaning 'bitumen', used to
describe the blackened state of ancient Egyptian bodies. The term is now generally applied to all human remains which
retain their soft tissue, either by natural means or artificial preservation.” There were varying levels of mummification
based on financial and social status. Predominantly, the mummies of commoners were buried in shallow desert graves
where the arid environment served to perpetuate the mummification. The wealthier participants received a more through
processing and were buried in tombs. Westerners visiting Egypt inexplicably viewed the mummies as a commodity.
There are 19th century reports of Egyptian mummies being used for railroad fuel and also being shipped to the U.S. for
paper making purposes. An even more macabre (horrid or gruesome) report describes wealthy tourists purchasing
mummies in Egypt and carrying them home for “mummy unwrapping parties” complete with written invitations. They
worshiped thousands of gods residing in all sorts of animate and inanimate forms.
Egyptian Cultural Development
Part 3 - The social structure descended in this order. The Pharaoh at top followed by priests and nobles (bureaucrats)
who managed the government and their own landed estates. Next were merchants, artisans, scribes, and tax collectors.
Near the bottom were farmers (vast majority of the population) who paid taxes in the form of crops. These commoners
lived in small towns and villages and were utilized for forced labor and military service. At the bottom would have been
slaves. Egypt was a patriarchal society but women were respected. Property that women brought into the marriage
continued to be theirs. Marriages were arranged by parents and predominantly monogamous, but the husband could
have other wives if his initial wife could not bear children. Upper class women could become priests. Four Egyptian
queens became pharaohs.
Part 4 - Writing emerged in Egypt around 3000 B.C. It was called hieroglyphics meaning “priest-carving” or “sacred
writings”. It utilized both pictures and more abstract forms and was found in tombs and on temple walls. It is very
complicated and hard to learn. A simplified version hieroglyphics is hieratic script which consists of a set of dashes,
strokes, and curves. Egyptian writing was used for business transactions, record keeping, and general daily use.
Hieroglyphics were at first carved in stone then later, hieratic script was written on papyrus (paper made from papyrus
reed). At the age of 10 boys of the upper class went to schools run by scribes. It took many years to master writing and
discipline was strict.
The Egyptians devised a 12 month 30 day calendar with 5 days added at the end. They also developed basic arithmetic
and geometry. They are noted for their surgery and medications
India River Valley Civilizations
Indus River Civilization
India’s first civilizations arose along the Indus River from the Himalaya Mountains to the Arabian Sea. Here, more than
1000 settlements sprung up including the two major cities of Harappa and Mlhenjo-Daro (moh hehn joh dahr oh). Both
aforementioned cities had populations around 35,000.
Governments were theocratic and in Harappa, the temple and royal palace were combined. They were agricultural based
societies that traded extensively with Mesopotamia exchanging natural resources and luxury items in return for textiles
and food.
Indus River Valleys Arrival of the Aryans
For many years the geography of India buffered it from outside intrusion. The Hindu Kush and Himalayan Mountains
guarded it from the north. The Thar Desert and Deccan Plateau also were deterrents to invaders. The southern, eastern,
and western parts of India are bound by seas which, at the time, made attack from those directions most unlikely.
Natural disasters such as floods anf earthquakes, and change in course of the Indus River weakened the Indus River
valley civilization. Invasion by the Aryans finished them off.
Around 1500 B.C. Indo-European nomadic people (Aryans) moved out of their central Asian homeland and began to
cross over the Hindu Kush mountain range. They conquered the Harappans and imposed their own culture in the area.
For the next 500 years they began to move eastward and then south across the Deccan Plateau eventually dominating
essentially all of India. They began to convert from pastoral to sedentary farming lifestyle. They utilized the iron plow,
and with the help of their new subjects cleared out land around the Ganges River and made it into some awesome farm
land. They grew wheat, barley, millet, rice, vegetables, cotton, pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. They did not have a
written language but developed one around 1000 B.C. called Sanskrit which provided them a means to record all their oral
history, religious information (chants and rituals), and legends. These records indicate that between 1500 and 400 B.C.
there was considerable conflict in the area with Aryan rajas (princes) claiming certain areas and fighting to defend against
other rajas that would attack their fortresses and take their women, cattle and treasure.
Society in India
One social institution installed by the Aryans was the caste system which although outlawed in India in 1947 is still widely
followed there). It was based in part on skin color. Aryans were light complected and looked down on their dark colored
subjects. The five strata of the caste system were 1) Brahmas – priests, 2) Kshatriyas – (ksha tree uhz) warriors (some
families from other castes would be accepted into the Kshatriyas. 3) Vaisyas (vysh yuhz) – commoners. Mostly those
merchants and farmers. 4) Sudras (Soo druhz) great majority usually dark-skinned natives. Peasants relegated to
manual labor with limited rights in society. 5) Untouchables – did the work no one else would do such as street sweepers,
latrine cleaners, garbage collection and handling dead bodies. Lived in segregated areas and had to tap two sticks
together to let other members of society know they were coming so they could be avoided.
India - Family
Patriarchal and extended (grandparents, parents, and children under same roof) women had no property rights and not
entitled to education. Sons of wealth were to be educated and should not marry until completion of 12 years schooling.
Marriages were arranged and women were to marry young likely to eliminate financial drain on her parents. Men could
take a second wife if the first could not bear children (need children to take care of you in old age) Suttee (Sati) was
practice where the widow would throw herself on her husband’s burning funeral pyre (structure/pile of combustible
material used basically used for cremation of a corpse)
China River Valley Civilizations
Ancient China
Like other ancient civilizations, China’s began in river valley settings. Populations began to congregate along two major
Chinese rivers. The Huang He (hwong huh) or Yellow River is 2,900 miles in length originating in Mongolia then flowing
to the Pacific Ocean depositing yellow silt as it goes. The Chang Jiang (chong jyong) or Yangtze River is 3,400 miles in
length and runs across central China emptying into the Yellow Sea. These river valleys provided ingredients conducive
for food production. Formation and perpetuation of Chinese river valley civilizations can be credited in part to natural
boundaries in the area such as mountains, deserts, and oceans. However, the northern portions of this region
experienced considerable conflict from invading nomads of Mongols
Ancient China was ruled by a succession of dynasties. The word dynasty has its origins in the Greek word dunastiea
meaning “lordship or power”. Later (in middle English) the word evolved into dynast with the connotation of a powerful
family especially a “hereditary ruler”. Normally, when studying history, the word dynasty alludes to a period of time when
an individual and his/her heirs were continuously in power. In present day, the term is more loosely used to describe
successful enterprises, especially sports teams. For our purposes, when you see the word dynasty, it will almost always
refer to a span of successive rulers from the same family.
Ancient Chinese Political and Social Structures
It is thought the first Chinese civilization occurred during the Xia (SYAH) dynasty approximately 4,000 years ago. Little is
known about the Xia dynasty which was replaced by the Shang dynasty.
The Shang Dynasty (1750 – 1122 B.C.) was predominantly an agricultural society led by a king assisted by the
aristocracy (upper class landowners). Excavated ruins of this era reveal cities with huge walls, royal palaces, and large
royal tombs. The king was also the military leader. The Kingdom was divided into territories governed by aristocrat war
lords appointed by the Shang king. The upper levels of society represented a small percentage of the population as most
people were peasants and worked the land. There were a few artisans, merchants and slaves.
The ruler of the state of Zhou took it upon himself to revolt against an allegedly corrupt Shang king. Claiming the Mandate
of Heaven, the Zhou was the longest lasting Chinese dynasty from 1045 -256 B.C..
Zhou dynasty began to crumble and some of the territories began to rebel. In 403 B.C. civil war broke out and began a
period known as the “Period of Warring States”. Warfare had become more deadly with the use of iron and the crossbow
(invented by Chinese in 7th c. B.C)
Eventually the Qin (Chin) (one of the warring states) won out around 221 B.C. The Qin dynasty was responsible for some
of the most famous work done on the Great Wall ca. 220 – 206 B.C. and the Terracotta Warriors created to guard the
tomb of the emperor Qin Shi Huang.
The Mandate of Heaven espoused by Chinese leaders was a two edged sword. The mandate gave complete power but
the ruler was expected to keep the gods appeased to ensure safety from natural disasters and to produce good harvests.
It also included a right of revolution to overthrow a corrupt ruler.
Ancient Chinese Social Structure
The king/emperors and their advisors dominated society. Some peasants had a little land of their own. Artisans and
merchants worked at the direction of their lords and there was a class of slaves.
The family in Ancient China was patriarchal.. Complete submission of children (filial piety) as well as a system of place in
the family order was part of the social structure. There was a need of family members for farming purposes. A woman’s
place was to raise children and take care of the home. Women had influence politically as members of the royal family
Economic and Technological Growth
Ancient China was an agrarian society. From 6th to 2nd centuries B.C. crop production improved due to introduction of
irrigation and the iron plow shear. There is evidence of a wide trade network especially in regards to silk. A trade route of
the era began in China and ended in Southern Europe
The Chinese had a written language of simple script during the Shang Dynasty (1750 – 1122 B.C.) that consisted of
primarily of pictographs and ideographs. Written Chinese is more complex now but is the same basic concept.
Ancient Chinese Religion and Philosophies
When a Shang king died he was buried with his faithful servants, who were apparently sacrificed if still living at the time of
the king’s death. This is indicative of a belief in an afterlife. Hence the king’s continued need for servants after his death.
Oracle bones were used in attempts to communicate with the gods. These bones serve as a good source of information
about ancient China because of the written history they provide. They believed in veneration of ancestors . In addition to
and along with religion, philosophy played a major role in Chinese society. Between the years of 500 – 200 B.C. three
schools of philosophy emerged in China: 1) Confucianism, 2) Daoism, and 3) Legalism
Confucius, known to the Chinese as the first teacher (Confucius – Kongfuzi or K'ung Fu-tzu – Master Kung), was born 551
B.C. He felt qualified to be a political consultant but found no takers. He wandered around promoting his ideology and
found a following that recorded his ideas and sayings in the analects and helped spread his message. His sayings were
studied by almost every Chinese student until the 20th century. The warring city-states were causing terrible civil unrest
and travesties. Confucius made proposals of how to restore order which were popular. He was not concerned with
spiritual but rather human behavior. Behaving properly meant following the Dao (Way). Duty and humanity were of
utmost importance. You were to subordinate your own interest for the good of the whole. Five Constant Relationships: 1)
parent/child, 2) husband/wife, 3) older/younger sibling, 4) older/younger friend, and 5) ruler/subject. He advocated a good
work ethic and a form of the golden rule as well as tolerance. He died in 479 B.C. One of his main contributions was the
idea that men of superior talent should be allowed into government. It did not come to fruition during his time but had a
great impact later on.
Daoism is a system of ideas based on teachings of Laozi (low dzuh) “Old Master”, supposedly a contemporary of
Confucius. The ideas associated with Daoism became popular during the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. Its ideas come from
a short work called Tao Te Ching (The way of the Dao) It seems to be based on spontaneity and allowing nature to take
its course.
Legalism was a set of impersonal laws to be strictly administered by a strict ruler. It presumed that men were inherently
evil and would only do right if facing stiff punishment for doing otherwise.
Nomadic Peoples
Nomads lived on the fringes of civilizations depending on hunting, gathering, herding, and sometimes farming for survival.
Pastoral Nomads (herders) periodically overran settled communities and created their own empires. They domesticated
animals for both food and clothing. They also traded with settled communities (livestock for crops). Nomads sometimes
acted as transportation for goods between civilized centers. They often passed on new technology such as the use of
bronze and iron. But, if things got tough due to drought or overpopulation, they were liable to attack settled communities.
Indo Europeans were one of the most important nomadic peoples. People known as Indo Europeans all used language
derived from a single parent tongue. They were likely originally based in a Steppe region north of the Black Sea or in
Southwest Asia. Around 2000 B.C. they began to move into Europe, India, and Western Asia. One group moved into
Asia Minor and Anatolia around 1750 B.C. and got together with the Hittites who created their own empire between 1600
and 1200 B.C. These were the first Indo-Europeans to make use of iron.