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Chapter 21 The West and the Changing World Balance
I.
Introduction
After 1400, a new world balance was being created. The Mongol conquest caused the decline of
Arab strength and opened opportunities for new participants in the Islamic trade system. At first the
Ming dynasty of China appeared poised to take over the lead in world trade. When the Ming
withdrew from international leadership, the nations of western Europe began to assert themselves.
The emergence of western Europe was signaled by internal changes that prepared the way for
leadership. Changes outside the Eurasian network in Africa, the Americas, and Polynesia also
affected the nature of international relationships.
II.
The Decline of the Old Order
A.
Introduction
By 1400, both the Byzantine Empire and the Abbasid Empire were virtually defunct.
B.
Social and Cultural Decline in the Middle East
By 1300, religious leaders began to exert greater control over Islamic culture. In the Middle
East, philosophical rationalism met resistance from religious conservatives. Mysticism and
Islamic legalist traditions enjoyed greater currency than did the pursuit of scientific
discoveries. As the caliphate declined, landlords exercised greater authority over the
peasantry. Agricultural productivity declined as did tax revenue. European merchants began
to challenge the Arabs in the Mediterranean, if not yet in the Indian Ocean. No total collapse
of Islamic civilization occurred, as it did in the ancient West. The Ottomans rapidly took over
most of the lands formerly held by the Abbasid caliphate.
C.
A Power Vacuum in International Leadership
Ottoman rulers did not foster commerce as avidly as had the Abbasids. Science and
philosophy continued to stagnate. The result was a power vacuum within Islamic civilization
outside of the Ottoman Empire. The world trade network presided over by the Abbasids
fragmented, and the chief beneficiaries were the Europeans.
D.
Chinese Thrust and Withdrawal
When the Ming dynasty successfully drove out the Mongols in 1368, China was best placed
to exert leadership in the Eurasian trade system. The first Ming emperors sought expansion,
both by extending the borders of the empire and reviving the tribute system and by initiating
state-sponsored maritime expeditions. Voyages reached India, the Middle East, and Africa.
Just as the Chinese appeared poised to capture the trade system, the Ming emperors
ordered the voyages to cease in 1433.
The costs of such ventures detracted from improvements in the infrastructure of China. The
scholar-gentry also opposed the voyages out of rivalry with the leader of the expeditions,
Cheng Ho. China's decision reflected traditional concentration on internal improvements and
cultural isolation. Economic expansion in China did not depend on foreign trade. China's
withdrawal cleared the path for the emergence of European dominance in the world trade
network.
III.
The Rise of the West
A.
Introduction
In the fifteenth century, when the West began to expand their world contacts, there were
important changes taking place in Europe. The Church, for long the unifying element of
western culture, was under attack. Western philosophy seemed stagnant, and the military
organization associated with feudalism was no longer effective. The West was also suffering
from the impact of the Black Death, which eventually carried off almost one-third of Europe's
population.
B.
Sources of Dynamism: Medieval Vitality
The West enjoyed certain positive developments in the fifteenth century. More powerful and
centralized nations were developed, particularly in the aftermath of the Hundred Years' War.
New forms of military organization made greater centralization possible. Improvements in
metallurgical technology made possible the construction and use of guns and munitions.
Capitalism became more evident in the western economy with increased urbanization.
C.
Imitation and International Problems
Although the Black Death temporarily reduced population levels in Europe, the overall trend
between 1000 and 1700 was rapid population expansion. The establishment of the Mongol
empire gave Europeans access to Asian technological developments. As a result, western
technology drew closer to more advanced civilizations in Asia and the Middle East.
Another factor contributing to Europe 뭩 international position was the fact that Europe had
only crude goods to exchange for Asian luxury products and, while the people were able to
make up the difference in gold, this meant that there was a serious gold shortage in Europe
by 1400.
D.
Secular Directions in the Italian Renaissance
The Renaissance, which began in Italy at the beginning of the fifteenth century, turned away
from the medieval cultural synthesis toward a more secular outlook in art and literature. The
wealth of Italian cities patronized the burgeoning of Italian cultural production. The typical
political unit of the Italian peninsula was the city-state. Cities competed amongst themselves
for land, cultural accomplishments, and administrative innovations.
E.
Human Values and Renaissance Culture
The Renaissance was an age of cultural innovation and individualism. Renaissance artists
abandoned medieval formalism to embrace more realistic and secular styles. Classical
architectural forms replaced Gothic. Initially the Renaissance was largely limited to Italy, and
even there its style was not accepted everywhere. The wide range of Italian commercial and
shipping techniques laid the foundation for western expansion. The "Renaissance spirit"
encouraged a sense of innovation and discovery.
F.
The Iberian Spirit of Religious Mission
Another center of European expansion was the Iberian peninsula, where Christian monarchs
had slowly reconquered the region from the Muslims. Two of the most important Christian
kingdoms, Castile and Aragon, were united through the marriage of their monarchs in 1469.
As part of the reconquest, Spanish and Portuguese rulers had developed powerful armies
and regarded the defense and expansion of Christianity as a sacred duty. The Church
worked closely with the Iberian states to encourage the sense of religious mission.
IV.
Western Expansion: The Experimental Stage
A.
Introduction
Early expansion in the Atlantic began in the thirteenth century. Early discoveries unveiled the
promise of colonialism.
B.
Early Explorations
The Vivaldi brothers of Genoa undertook the first voyage of exploration into the Atlantic. In
the fourteenth century, other Genoese explorers discovered the Canary Islands. Ships from
Barcelona began to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa in the same century. Development of
new technology more sea- worthy vessels, the compass, and the astrolabe enabled
European discoverers to penetrate even farther into the Atlantic and along the African shore.
C.
Colonial Patterns
Colonization rapidly followed exploration. Spanish and Portuguese settlers established large
agricultural estates designed to produce commercial crops on the Atlantic islands. Sugar,
cotton, and tobacco became the most popular crops. The Iberian settlers imported African
slaves as a labor supply. These commercial ventures were sufficiently successful to
stimulate further colonization on the plantation model of exploitation.
V.
Outside the World Network
A.
Introduction
The Americas, Polynesia, and parts of sub-Saharan Africa remained unaffected by early
Western expansion, although they were eventually brought into a European-dominated
world trade system. Some of these cultures experienced difficulties during the fifteenth
century that made them vulnerable to European expansion.
B.
Political Issues in the Americas
Both the Aztec and Inca empires of the Americas were already in disarray prior to the arrival
of Europeans. Even without European intervention, it seems possible that other cultures
would have taken over political leadership if American history had proceeded in isolation.
C.
Expansion, Migration and Conquest in Polynesia
Between the seventh and the fifteenth centuries, migrations from the Society Islands
populated the islands of Polynesia. One pattern of migration led to the Hawaiian islands,
where an agricultural society developed. Hawaii was organized into regional kingdoms with
stratified societies dominated by priests and nobles. While Hawaiian culture was complex, it
lacked metallurgy and a system of writing.
D.
Isolated Achievements by the Maoris
A second migration pattern led settlers to the islands of New Zealand. As in Hawaii, the
Maori culture of New Zealand was warlike and dominated by priests and nobles. As in
Hawaii, the Maori culture lacked metallurgy and concentrated on use of indigenous plants
and animals. All of these developments occurred in total isolation from other civilizations.
VI.
Conclusion: Adding Up the Changes
The fifteenth century was an era of critical transitions involving world trade and the relative power of
civilizations. As in the twentieth century, newly dynamic civilizations challenged those that had
previously dominated.