Download MHC-200-Powerpoint

Carbon Dioxide
Definition: A heavy colorless gas that does not support
combustion, is formed especially in animal respiration and in the
decay or combustion of animal and vegetable matter, is absorbed
from the air by plants in photosynthesis
Projections for CO2
• The Industrial Revolution not only marked our
transition into an era of technological advancement and
prosperity, but also drastically transformed the
environment by increasing CO2 emissions
– Population began to grow exponentially
– We consumed fossil fuels in increasing amounts to feed our
rapidly industrializing economies
– Increased deforestation to make room for cities and roads
• Less trees Less photosynthesis More CO2
• Is this the price of progress?
Sources of CO2 emissions in the US
•
Electricity
– Is a significant source of energy in the United States that is
used to power homes, business, and industry
– The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity is the
largest single source of CO2 emissions in the nation, which
accounts for approximately 37% of total U.S. CO2
emissions and 31% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions
in 2013
•
Transportation
– The combustion of fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel,
used to transport people and goods is the second largest
source of CO2 emissions
– This includes transportation sources such as highway
vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail
•
Industry
– Many industrial processes emit CO2 through the
combustion of fossil fuels
– Some of the emissions are produced through other chemical
reactions that do not require combustion such as the
production of mineral products, metals, and chemicals
How does a Greenhouse Work?
1. The sun emits different types of electromagnetic radiation
2. The glass allows most solar wavelengths to enter except for the long (thermal
infrared) wavelengths
3. Upon colliding with plants or the Earth, the short wavelength infrared rays
warm the plants and the Earth
4. The warmed objects give off long wavelength infrared which are mostly
trapped inside the glass and continue to heat the inside of the greenhouse
The Greenhouse Effect
•
•
•
•
There are certain gases that are naturally present in the Earth’s atmosphere called
greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere and help regulate the Earth’s
temperature
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is the primary greenhouse gas emitted through human
activity
– In 2013, CO2 accounted for nearly 82% of all United States greenhouse gas
emissions from human activities
The equilibrium level for CO2 in the atmosphere is 280 ppm but currently the level
of CO2 in atmosphere is approximately 400ppm
– This means that our atmosphere contains 41% more CO2 than equilibrium
– the increased amount of CO2 in the air is reflecting more infrared waves back
towards the earth thus increasing average temperatures
The increased amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has a similar effect to a
greenhouse where the glass is too thick, too much heat is trapped and temperatures
rises
Harmful effects of CO2
• Rising temperatures result in the melting of polar ice
caps will raise sea level
– it is predicted that if the global temperature rises by 3.60
°C, the polar ice caps and glaciers would melt. This would
increase the water level of oceans by about 100 m and lead
to the flooding of low-lying coastal areas of the earth
• Ocean acidification
– The CO2 reacts with the H2O to form H2CO3 (Carbonic
acid) which then further breaks up into H+ and HCO3– The increased concentration of Hydrogen ions increases the
acidity of the ocean, putting many calcifying species at risk
and may have severe destabilizing effects on the entire
oceanic food-chain.
EPA Founding
• After President Nixon’s inauguration in 1969, he established the
Environmental Quality Council.
• In late 1969, Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA). This statute changed the role of the government from passive
conservation to active protection of the environment.
• In 1970, Nixon wanted to establish a regulatory body to guarantee the
enforcement of environmental policy.
• It aimed to complete the following:
– Establishment of environmental protection standards in line with the nation’s
environmental goals.
– Establishing research protocols and unifying data collection in order to
strengthen current and developing environmental protection programs.
– Assisting organizations, through grants, in slowing down pollution in the
environment.
– Working with the Environmental Quality Council to develop and recommend
new policies to the President.
• This resulted in the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency
Clean Air Act (1970)
• Government intervention that was a crucial foundation
in addressing the problem of air pollution
• This was the first action taken by the Federal
Government to mitigate air pollution
• A comprehensive federal law that regulates air emission
and allows the EPA to establish National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for common pollutants
– SO2, O3, NOx, CO, PM, Pb
• Its main goals were to: protect public health and
regulate emissions of hazardous air pollutants
• At the time CO2, was not prioritized as a hazardous air
pollutant because it occurred naturally
Clean Air Act (1990)
• Required technology based standards for areas
that produce either more than 10 tons of a single
hazardous pollutant, or more than 25 tons of a
combination of hazardous pollutants
• For these areas the EPA evaluates and requires a
maximum possible reduction in emissions these
Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT)
• Standards are then reviewed for each area by the
EPA every 8 years for any further reduction
potential in emissions by these areas
Classification of Carbon Dioxide by EPA
• In 1998, the Clinton administration EPA determined that the Clean Air Act
was “potentially applicable” to CO2 and other greenhouse gases
– The Clinton administration never moved to regulate the gases, despite
continued pressure from environmental groups
• The Bush Administration chose not to follow this classification, declaring
that carbon dioxide and the like aren’t pollutants under the Clean Air Act.
Therefore, the agency had no power to regulate them
– This idea was rejected in April of 2007, when the Supreme Court rejected that
position, declaring that Clean Air Act gives the Environmental Protection
Agency the authority to regulate the emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases from cars
– This backing allowed the EPA to classify rising carbon-dioxide emission as a
hazard to human health, meaning that while CO2 itself was not a pollutant, the
rising concentrations were.
– This once again gave the EPA the power to regulate and attempt to curb the
rising levels of CO2 emissions.
Cap and Trade
CAP AND TRADE
The Other Option
THE FREE MARKET SOLUTION
Carbon Tax
• There is currently no tax at the national level, only in some more
local areas.
• Carbon tax is one of two major market-based options to lower
emissions, the other being cap-and-trade
– Many economists and consumers prefer the carbon tax because of its
simplicity and impartiality
• Carbon tax is based on the concept of negative externalities
– Externalities are costs or benefits generated by the production of goods
and services. Negative externalities are costs that are not paid for.
• When utilities, businesses or homeowners consume fossil fuels, they
create pollution that has a societal cost because everyone suffers
from the effects of pollution.
– Proponents of a carbon tax believe that the price of fossil fuels should
account for these societal costs.
How does it work?
1. The federal government taxes Company X for the CO2 it
emits
2. Company X adds the cost of the tax to the sale price of the
product, essentially passing on the burden of the tax to the
consumer
3. Products manufactured in companies that operate with low
levels of emissions are able to sell their product for a
lower price
4. Consumers purchase cheaper, low-pollution products
5. Competing companies have a financial incentive to reduce
emissions
6. A portion of the tax is returned to low income households
or green development and research
British Columbia
•
•
British Columbia inaugurated its carbon tax on July 1, 2008 at a rate of $10
(Canadian) per metric ton of carbon dioxide. The tax incremented by $5/tons
annually, reaching its current level of $30 per ton of CO2 in July 2012.
Results
– DROP IN FUEL CONSUMPTION: ”The carbon tax has contributed substantial
environmental benefits to British Columbia (BC). Since the tax took effect in 2008, British
Columbians’ use of petroleum fuels (subject to the tax) has dropped by 15.1% — and by 16.4%
compared to the rest of Canada. “
– GROWTH UNAFFECTED: “BC’s GDP growth has outpaced the rest of Canada’s (albeit by
a small amount) since the carbon tax came into effect – suggesting that it has not adversely
affected the province’s economy, as some had predicted. This finding fits with evidence from
seven other countries that have had similar carbon tax shifts in place for over a decade,
resulting in neutral or slightly positive effects on GDP.”
– REVENUE NEUTRAL: “The BC government has kept its promise to make the tax shift
‘revenue neutral’, meaning no net increase in taxes. In fact, to date it has returned far more in
tax cuts (by over $300 million) than it has received in carbon tax revenue – resulting in a net
benefit for taxpayers. BC’s personal and corporate income tax rates are now the lowest in
Canada, due to the carbon tax shift.”
– GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS DECLINING: “From 2008 to 2010, BC’s per capita
GHG emissions declined by 9.9% — a substantial reduction. During this period, BC’s
reductions outpaced those in the rest of Canada by more than 5%.”
So…Should We Do It?
State Carbon Tax
• Could serve as a model,
which could provide a base
for a federal tax.
• Risks people driving out of
state to get gas that isn’t
taxed.
• Could be easier to pass due
to less pressure against
environmentalism in every
state.
Federal Carbon Tax
• If the US itself imposes the tax, it
could affect other nations that
trade resources that consume
fossil fuels, and push other
nations to adopt their own taxes.
• It would be easier to regulate at
the national level the tax, rather
than each state having their own
tax and making interstate trade
more difficult.
• Energy policies are normally
maintained by the federal
government.
How does Cap and Trade work?
Cap and Trade also known as Emission Trading is a market
based approach used to control pollution by providing
economic incentives for achieving reductions in the
emissions of pollutants
1) A specific number of credits (the cap) is created
2) Businesses can buy and sell credits as they see fit
3) Cap decreases every year until the pollutant is
ultimately banned
DOES IT WORK?
Does it Work?
YES!
Acid Rain Program (ARP)
- Title IV of the 1990 clean air act established
program
- Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) causing Acid Rain was
becoming a problem
- Primarily concerning coal fired power plants
- Pricing of SO2 made installing scrubbers
economically advantageous
1995 – Phase 1
Electric power generating plants (261 Units in 21 states)
to cut sulfur dioxide emission rates to 2.5 lbs/million Btu
Those who installed scrubbers got a 2 year extension
2000 – Phase 2
Emission rates had to be cut to 1.2 lbs/million Btu
Polluters had to pay $2,000 per metric ton of SO2 emitted
past
Results
- SO2 emissions were reduced by 50% from 1980 levels
by 2007
- Reduced cost of controlling acid rain by as much as 80%
- SO2 emissions have fallen from 17.3 million tons in 1980
to about 7.6 million tons in 2008, a decrease in emissions
of 56%
- 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR)
- 2011 Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) 28 States
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) program
- Nitrogen Oxides produce Smog, cause asthma
- 1999-2002 Ozone Transport Commission
(OTC)
- NOx Budget Trading Program (NTP) under the
NOx State Implementation Plan, has gone
further
Results
Ozone Season NOx emissions decreased by 43%
between 2003 and 2008. Emissions continue to
drop
Will result in $85 billions - $100 billion in health
benefits.
Avoids 20,000 and 50,000 incidents of premature
mortality annually due to reductions of ambient
PM2.5 concentrations
SO2 and NOx Reductions
So what about Carbon?
SO WHAT ABOUT CARBON?
California
- In 2006 California passed the California Global
Warming Solutions Act, under Gov. Schwarzenegger
- 2012 program began
CAPS
- 2014: 160 million metric tons
- 2015: 395 million metric tons *
- 2020: 334 million metric tons
State has sold $2.27 Billion of CO2 allowances
Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX)
- Founded in 2000
- Aimed to reduce CO2 emissions by 6% by 2010
- Failed
- 5-10 cents per metric ton ad eventually trading
stopped altogether and market closed in 2010
- Finding the right balance
Western Climate Initiative (WCI)
Started in 2007 by the governors of five Western States
(AZ, CA, NM, OR, and WA)
Green House Gas emissions 15% below 2005 emission
levels by 2020
By 2008 initiative expanded to include two more states
(MT, and UT) and 4 Canadian Provinces (BC, MB, ON, and
QC)
Only California adopted initiative into State Government,
other states dropped out and now are “observers”
New York State
2003 - Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI)
Nine States are part of RGGI
Launched in 2009 with the aim to reduce the
carbon budget of each state’s electricity generation
sector to 10% below their 2009 allowanced by 2018
2013 Initiative was revised and 2014 cap was 91
million tons. 2.5% reduction every year until 2020.
Results
Economic
- Since 2009 NY State Government has raised over
$700,000 from proceeding's and created 9063 job
years.
- Over $1 Billion in energy bill savings to over 130,000
homes and 2,500 businesses.
Public Health
- CO2 emissions caps also reduce amount of other air
pollutants
- Since 2005, rates of asthma, bronchitis, heart attacks,
hospital visits, and death linked to air pollutants
reduced by 87%, saving up to $4.8 billion
American clean energy and Security
Act 2009
- Was going to be a national Cap and Trade
Program similar to the EU Emissions Trading
Scheme
- House of Representatives approved the bill 219212
- Would require electric utilities to meet 20% of
their electricity demand through renewable
resources by 2020
- Reduce CO2 emissions by 17%
- Never brought to the floor of the Senate for
discussion or a vote
Other EPA Initiatives
2015 President Obama and EPA announce Clean Power Plan
- 32% reduction from 2005 levels by 2030
- States are going to decide how they are going to achieve
this
- These plans are due in 2016
- Could be reversed
Raising fuel efficiency standards
Improving building insulation standards
Subsidizing Clean Energy
The Take Away
Cap and Trade is method using free market
economics to curb CO2 pollution
Popular with those who would firmly appose a
Carbon Tax
Cap and Trade has worked in the past and it can
work for Carbon as well in the future
International Measures
The start of international collaboration
(1979)
• The First World Climate Conference (1979) is held
after a series of disastrous environmental and
climate-related events worldwide.
• Hosts: WMO, UNEP, FAO, UNESCO, WHO
• The FWCC led to the creation of several global
intl’ bodies representing different aspects of
environmental concern: the most relevant being
the World Climate Programme
• Several environmental treaties would be made
following this historical event.
FWCC’s Hosts
World Climate Programme (1979)
• Established under the joint responsibility of WMO,
UNEP and ICSU (International Council of Scientific
Unions) in 1979
Goals:
• Research to what extent climate can be predicted &
the extent of human influence on climate
• Ensure accessible observations of the global climate
and manage data
• Promote capacity development in developing countries
• Effectively apply climate knowledge for planning, policy
and practice
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (1988)
• Created in 1988 by WMO and UNEP, and endorsed by the
UN General Assembly
• This is a scientific body under the UN which reviews the
most recent scientific, technical, and socio-economic
information that is relevant to the study of climate change.
• No research or scientific observations are conducted under
this body.
• Scientists worldwide contribute their research to IPCC.
• The IPCC intends its reviews to be policy-relevant and
policy-neutral, government endorsement of an IPCC review
would then “acknowledge the authority of the[ir] scientific
content.”
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992)
• Held in Rio de Janeiro on June 1992 from the 3rd to the
14th.
• Main theme: Environment and sustainable
development.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC): A treaty first adopted during the
Summit then formally enacted in 1994.
• Other accomplishments: Agenda 21, Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development, Statement of Forest
Principles, UN Convention on Biological Diversity, UN
Convention to Combat Desertification.
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
• The UNFCCC is an international treaty that has
organized the Conference of the Parties, an
annual event in which the heads of states can
discuss environmental measures, protocols
and treaties.
• Aim: “Preventing ‘dangerous’ human
interference with the climate system.”
• But, how?
• By stabilizing greenhouse gas emissions!
Kyoto Protocol
• Proposed in December 11, 1997 during COP3
(Kyoto).
• Not formally put into effect until 2005 due to the
complex ratification process.
• Mandates wealthy countries (Annex I) that have
ratified it to have binding emission targets,
mainly for the six main GHGs.
• Emerging developing countries such as China,
India, and Brazil which have large GHG emissions
must limit their emission growth.
Mechanisms
• Clean development mechanism (CDM): Any Annex I
country can invest in a non-Annex I country for
emission reduction.
• Joint Implementation (JI): Any Annex I country can
invest in a GHG-reducing project with another Annex I
country.
• International Emissions Trading (cap-and-trade): Each
ratifying country has “assigned amount units” (AAU)
which they can trade with other countries.
• The last trading unit is a “removal unit” (RMU) which is
related to land use, land-use change and forestry
(LULUCF).
Picturing it
The Limits & Targets
Doha Amendment, the Second
Commitment
• This is considered the second round of the
Kyoto Protocol.
• Created new targets for the second
commitment period, from January 1, 2013 –
31, December 2020.
• Enacted on December 8, 2012 at COP18
(Doha, Qatar).
• Ratified by only 52 countries as of November
10, 2015.
The Top 10 Offenders
2014 Stats from the UNFCCC
Global Rank
Name
Global share of CO2 emissions from
fuel combustion
1
China
25.86%
2
United States of America
16%
3
India
6.16%
4
European Union (28)
11.00%
4
Russian Federation
5.20%
5
Japan
3.90%
7
Korea
1.87%
8
Canada
1.70%
9
(Islamic Republic of Iran)
10
Saudi Arabia
6
1.45%
EU Status
• According to an October 2015 press release from the European
Environment Agency, the EU has already achieved its 2020 goal,
and is on track for its 2030 goal (40% reduction).
How the EU does it
• Legalized and enforced carbon capture and
storage (CCS).
• Binding national targets for renewable energy.
• Binding national emissions limit for each member
state.
• Emissions trading aka cap-and-trade, with linear
annual reduction.
• Renewable Energy Directive
China
National goal: Have emissions peak by 2030 at the
latest.
By 2014, with 2005 as a benchmark:
• CO2 emissions per unit of GDP is 33.8% lower
than the 2005 level.
• The installed capacity of hydro-power is 300
gigawatts (2.57x), on-grid wind power is 95.81
gigawatts (90x), solar power is 28.05 gigawatts
(400x), nuclear power is 19.88 gigawatts (2.9x).
• Non-fossil fuel in primary energy consumption is
11.2%.
How we probably look like to everyone
else
Conclusion
• United Nations Climate Change Conference (Paris):
Parties to the UNFCCC will create another
universal, legal agreement to deal with climate
change beyond 2020.
• COP21 will take place in Paris, from 30 November
to 11 December 2015.
• A majority of the parties to the UNFCCC have
already submitted their Intended Nationally
Determined Contribution (INDC).
• Alternative sources of energy are large steps
towards decreasing emissions.
• Worldwide collaboration is essential.