Download Oral Communication: Some Basic Principles

Topic
2
Oral
Communication:
Some Basic
Principles
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Classify the basic principles of oral communication;
2. Explain why oral communication is important;
3. Describe the roles of speakers and listeners in the communication
process; and
4. Identify interferences in communication.
INTRODUCTION
This topic outlines some basic principles of oral communication, focusing on the
need for good listening and speaking skills (Figure 2.1). It also describes the roles
of speakers and listeners in the communication process, and identifies possible
sources of noise that interferes with this process.
Figure 2.1: Oral communication involves good listening and speaking skills
Source: karumudi.com
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TOPIC 2
2.1
ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
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PRINCIPLES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
The way you use oral communication skills can either help or hinder your ability
to influence or bond with family and friends, and affect your performance at
work. Many corporate organisations and professional positions require people
who are able to speak well and convincingly. Teachers, professors, doctors, sales
people, corporate management personnel, trainers and politicians make use of
this skill extensively. Clearly, mastery of oral communication skills can play a
vital role in helping you achieve success.
When writing on the essential principles of communication, Camp and
Satterwhite (2002) explained that oral communication is a two-way process that
requires both a speaker and a listener. It is most effective when the sender of a
message has good speaking skills and the receiver has good listening skills.
Oral communication therefore involves two crucial skills
speaking.
2.1.1
listening and
Listening Skills
How would you rate your listening skills? Take this test to find out how good a
listener you are.
ACTIVITY 2.1
What kind of a listener are you?
This activity helps you to learn more about your listening habits. Do
you listen effectively? Respond to the following questions, rating
yourself on a scale of 1 to 5, using the following key:
1 = always, 2 = often, 3 = sometimes, 4 = seldom, and 5 = never.
1.
I listen actively, I show respect to the speaker, and
prompt the speaker to develop his thoughts further.
2.
I listen to the speakerÊs message and feelings; I try to feel
what the speaker feels.
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3.
I always look for the underlying message by listening
for subtle verbal or non-verbal cues.
4.
I listen mostly to the surface meaning of what a
speaker says; I donÊt concentrate so much on the
hidden meanings.
5.
I listen without getting actively involved; I mostly
listen silently and take in the speakerÊs message.
6.
I listen objectively; I keep focused on the logical
meaning rather than on the emotional meaning of
what the speaker says.
7.
I listen critically and evaluate the speaker as well as
his message.
8.
I listen to the speaker without being judgmental.
(Adapted from Devito, 2009)
How did you fare in the test above? Well, you might be surprised to learn that
there is no single „best‰ way of listening. If the majority of your answers were
„mostly‰, „often‰ and „sometimes‰, then you could probably consider yourself
an effective listener. But if your answers were mainly „always‰ and „never‰, then
perhaps you need to review and improve on your listening skills. Of course, how
you listen is influenced by a host of factors, including what is happening in the
actual listening situation itself. The methods described in Activity 2.1 above
apply to many situations but not ALL possible scenarios.
Does this explanation make you feel even more confused? DonÊt worry just
read on and you will soon learn more about listening, including the various ways
this takes place, in different situations, under different conditions. Clearly, you
cannot listen with undivided attention to everything that people around you are
saying, all the time. Neither can you focus on every sound uttered near you, day
and night. If you try to do that, you will probably end up as a victim of burn-out.
A good way to start improving on your listening skills is to identify the listening
behaviour appropriate for different situations. Later, you can work on actually
improving your listening skills.
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(a)
ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
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Mindful Attention
Listening is the skill that is the least taught formally. Unless you have a
hearing disability, everybody assumes that just because you have ears, you
can listen. This is a wrong assumption as listening and hearing are different
sets of skills.
Hearing, which is merely the physical ability to hear sounds, occurs
unconsciously. Listening is to hear something mindfully. Effective listening
requires you to listen intently and pay close attention to the speaker. If you
do not pay full attention or miss part of the message, you cannot replay
what has been said unless you have recorded the message or lecture.
According to Devito (2009), effective listening comprises five components
as shown in Figure 2.2 below:
Figure 2.2: A model of listening
Source: Devito, J. A. (2009). Human communication: The basic course. Boston, USA:
Pearson Education.
(i)
Receiving
Hearing begins and ends when one receives a sound stimuli.
Listening is different. Listening does not begin and end just with
hearing a sound as it involves deriving meaning from the sound.
When you listen, you concentrate on the verbal as well as non-verbal
message. This involves reading gestures, body movements and facial
expressions.
(ii)
Understanding
This is the stage where you learn to decipher the meaning of the
message as well as pick up cues from the emotional tone of the speaker.
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ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
(iii) Remembering
Listening also involves remembering interpreted sounds or messages
and saving them for use later on. However, you may not be able
to remember exactly what you hear. Your mind deciphers and
reinterprets messages and sometimes, you just cannot recall 100% of
the message.
(iv) Evaluating
Evaluating a message means that you make some judgement about it.
This process is often done unconsciously by the listener. In some
cases, you might want to identify the speakerÊs intention or motive.
This judgement might be critical or analytical and cause you to
wonder whether what you hear is based on facts or emotion. You may
need to decide whether the speaker has a personal agenda, or is
biased and prejudiced.
(v)
(b)
Responding
Responses are feedback based on what you have heard. You respond
in two ways. First, you respond while the speaker is talking and,
second, you respond after the speaker has stopped speaking. In
responding you allow the speaker to know what you think or feel
about what he has said.
Listening
There are two types of listening
passive and active. The difference
between them is the level of involvement of the listener.
In passive listening, you listen passively, at a low level of concentration and
absorb the minimum number of words. Very often, you remember, or
understand, very little of what has been said. You may respond to the
speakerÊs voice by smiling or nodding but do not pay full attention to
him/her.
This kind of listening happens when you are on holiday or relaxing. You
may be lazing on the beach, listening vaguely to music or voices in the
background. You only begin to listen attentively when you hear something
that interests you, for instance, the call to go for lunch.
Active listening involves a higher level of concentration. You listen actively
at school, university or work, when you need to obtain information.
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You can improve your active listening skills through various techniques:
(i)
Paraphrasing the speakerÊs message and ideas, using simpler words
without changing the meaning.
(ii) Identifying your weaknesses, e.g. are you hearing-impaired, mentally
unprepared, or easily distracted?
(iii) Preparing yourself mentally and physically to listen, using various
listening strategies, e.g. the Memory Helper (see Figure 2.3).
(iv) Setting priorities, e.g. what are the important things you want to listen
to?
The Memory Helper
This method helps you remember the speakerÊs message better.
Use the strategies represented by the letters „IS A FACT‰:
Identify the speakerÊs ideas and connection between ideas.
Summarise the main ideas.
Assess whether the ideas are true or correct.
Formulate questions.
Associate speakerÊs ideas with other known concepts.
Consider ways in which the ideas might be used.
Take notes to help you recall the information.
(Camp and Satterwhite, 2002)
Figure 2.3: The memory Helper
You will learn more about listening skills and ways to become better listeners in
later topics.
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ACTIVITY 2.2
1. What is the difference between „hearing‰ and „listening‰?
2. What is the difference between „passive listening‰ and „active
listening‰?
3. Give examples of different situations in which you listen passively
and actively.
2.1.2
Speaking Skills
This is the skill that you will use most in oral communication. Wood (2009) lists
three principles that explain oral communication and how they affect us. The
fourth, concerning speech quality, is obtained from Camp & Satterwhite (2002).
(a)
Interpretation of Symbols Create Meaning
Symbols, like words, which are used in communication do not have
meanings on their own. Their meanings are derived from people. This
means that you have to look into people to uncover the meaning. Every
word has a dictionary meaning but when used by a person in an
expression, you have to look into the person and the context in which the
word is used to get the actual meaning. For example, „go out‰ is literally a
command or directive. You say these words when you want someone to
physically move from the inside of a building to the outside. However, if a
man says to a woman, „LetÊs go out.‰ he is not necessarily asking her to go
outside. He might actually be asking her to go on a date.
Also the meanings attached to words change from time to time. Words
which used to have a positive or neutral connotation may now have a
negative connotation, and vice-versa. The word „gay‰ used to mean
„merry‰. Nowadays, the same word may be used to refer to people who
are homosexuals.
(b)
There Are Rules in Communication
Verbal communication has its own set of unspoken but widely understood
rules. „Communication rules are shared understandings of what
communication means and what kinds of communication are and are not
appropriate in various situations‰ (Wood, 2009).
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These rules are not formalised or intentionally formed but are unconsciously
developed as we interact with family, friends and people at work. There are
two sets of rules that guide communication:
(i)
Regulative Rules
These unwritten rules tell you when, where, how and with whom
you can have a conversation. An example is turn-taking when talking
with someone. You know that you should not interrupt the person
speaking but you also need to look out for signals that will tell you
when to enter into a conversation and when to end it.
Regulative rules also define when, where, and with whom you can
communicate in a particular way. For example, traditionally, in Asian
homes, the elders speak first while the youngsters listen without
interruption or contradiction (Figure 2.4).
At work, junior officers are expected not to interrupt superior officers
when they speak. However, superior officers can interrupt their junior
officer any time. Employees are also expected to show respect and
interest when their employers speak to them.
Figure 2.4: Elders speak first
Source: firstpeople.us
(ii) Constitutive Rules
These rules „define what communication means by showing us the
meaning behind certain kinds of symbols used in communication.‰ For
example, head bowing in Asia is a symbol of respect (Figure 2.5),
kissing and hugging denotes love and affection while yawning and
shouting during a conversation denotes rudeness.
Another example of a constitutive rule is to clap after a speaker has
given a talk even though we may have found the talk absolutely boring.
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Figure 2.5: Head bowing
Source: dkimages.com
(c)
Punctuation Affects Meaning
Punctuation in communication affects meaning. The full stop, for instance,
marks the end of one sentence or idea and the beginning of another.
Similarly, punctuation can signal the beginning or the end of a particular
interaction.
For example, when a professor enters the lecture hall, his entry marks the
beginning of the lecture. When he switches off the overhead projector, takes
off his reading glasses and says „ThatÊs all for today‰, it signals the end of
the lecture. Tension is created when people disagree on punctuation.
(d)
Voice Attributes
To be an effective speaker, you need to pay attention to the following voice
attributes as they affect the quality of your speech.
(i)
Volume
Your voice must be heard clearly for effective oral communication.
You need to have good breath control in order to speak with sufficient
volume. If you speak too softly, the audience will not be able to hear
and understand what you are saying.
(ii)
Pitch
You should speak with a pleasing pitch that is neither too high nor too
low. Your voice will be shrill if it is pitched too high, and deep if it is
pitched too low. Speakers need to learn to vary the pitch of their
voices when they speak so as to get the right intonation.
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(iii) Intonation
Intonation is the rhythm, or the rise and fall of your voice when you
speak. For example, the intonation rises at the end of the utterance
when you ask a question. The intonation remains level at the end of
the utterance when you make a statement. Subtle nuances in meaning
can arise when you vary the pitch.
(iv) Tone
The tone of your voice reflects your emotions and attitude. A cheerful
and pleasant tone is usually appreciated by your listeners (Figure 2.6).
Telephone operators and frontline people who man phones need to
develop a polite, cheerful and pleasant tone. The tone that you use
must also be suitable for the words and the message that you intend
to convey.
Figure 2.6: Let your listener hear you smile
Source: popartmachine.com
(v)
Tempo
Tempo refers to the speed at which you speak. Do not speak too fast
or too slowly. If you speak too fast, your listeners will not be able to
catch what you are saying. However, if you speak too slowly, your
listeners may get bored and their attention may wander. Worse still,
you may end up making them sleepy. A recommended speaking rate
is 125 words per minute.
(vi) Enunciation
This refers to the clarity or distinctiveness with which you articulate
each part of a word. Clear enunciation of words will help your listener
to better understand your message.
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Many speakers do not enunciate the end sounds of words, for
example, dropping the /g/ sound in „walking‰ to sound like
„walkin‰. When they speak fast, they run the sounds of a group of
words together and drop some sounds, e.g., „Whadijado?‰ for „What
did you do?‰
(vii) Pronunciation
Pronunciation refers to the reproduction of the sound of individual
letters or group of letters that make up a word. It also includes
speaking with the correct stress and emphasis.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Read the following statements and decide which rules are constitutive
and which are regulative. Write „C‰ (constitutive) and „R‰ (regulative)
in the box next to the particular statement.
1.
Nodding your head means you agree with what your
colleague is saying.
2.
Clasping your parentsÊ hands when you greet them
shows respect.
3.
You interrupt your friends only when they stop
speaking.
4.
Being punctual and doing your work well shows that
you are a good worker.
5.
You only talk to your mother about personal issues.
6.
You never talk about family disagreements at a social
gathering.
7.
Hugging your friends shows affection.
8.
You keep quiet and listen when your father is talking.
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2.2
ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
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WHY WE NEED GOOD ORAL
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Possessing good oral speaking skills will make you a more effective
communicator as you will be able to influence and persuade people. This is
beneficial for you at a personal level as well as socially and professionally.
2.2.1
Building Friendships
Socially, good oral communication skills enable you to effectively share
information, thoughts, feelings, needs and intentions. You can create close
relationships and bond with family, friends and people at work (see Figure 2.7).
A good listener is almost always appreciated. If you are a good listener, you also
tend to win friends as most people regard someone who listens to their problems,
fears, joys, and successes as a true friend.
Figure 2.7: Oral communication skills help to foster friendships
Source: singaporearmystories.blogspot
2.2.2
Knowledge Acquisition
The learning process often requires you to have an inquiring mind. Good
oral communication skills will help you acquire knowledge more effectively,
especially when you are able to ask questions, express opinions and ideas, and
summarise information.
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Providing such feedback will enable your lecturers, teachers, or instructors to
gauge how well you understand what has been taught. Good listening skills will
also help you comprehend course content better.
2.2.3
Developing Workplace Competencies
Business and professional people depend a lot on oral communication
skills when they engage in different activities. Educationists deliver lectures
and hold tutorials, discussions, forums and seminars. Business people use oral
communication skills a great deal when they interact with customers and
suppliers, make reports or give explanations, participate in meetings, and hold
informal discussions with employers and employees.
Speaking is an important skill when interviewing or training new employees,
participating in social-business discussions and giving public presentations or
speeches. Listening is important for both employers and employees. As an
employer, you need to listen to the suggestions, complaints and feelings of your
employees. Conversely, an employee needs to listen to the instructions, demands
and advice given by his superiors at work.
2.3
ROLES OF SPEAKER AND LISTENER
Both the speaker and the listener are responsible for ensuring that effective
communication takes place. Remember that the speaker is the sender of the
message while the listener is the receiver. Let us look at the some of
responsibilities of both the speaker and the listener in the communication process
(Camp & Satterwhite, 2002).
2.3.1
Evaluate the Situation
Effective communication can only take place when the speaker is clear about his
own views and interpretation of ideas and experiences. Communication with
yourself must take place before you can communicate effectively with others. The
speaker needs to evaluate the communication situation and try to do the
following:
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(a)
Avoid Miscommunication
The ideal situation is when the intended message, actual message, and
interpreted message are the same. This is what Carl Rogers meant when he
defined „communication‰ way back in 1952. The speaker needs to choose
his words precisely and the receiver should listen with full attention so
that the message is understood correctly. There should be no room for
miscommunication.
(b)
Give and Receive Feedback
Misinterpretation and breakdown in communication can be avoided if the
sender gets feedback. In a dialogue, the speaker can observe signals given
out by the listener (e.g. body language, gestures, and facial expression) to
see whether his message has been interpreted correctly.
Another technique is to ask questions. The speaker can ask the receiver
questions to determine whether his message is getting across accurately.
As communication is a continuous two-way process involving sender and
receiver, the receiver can, in turn, ask questions to clarify what is unclear.
(c)
Maintain Goodwill
Effective communication is more easily achieved if the listener accepts
and receives the speakerÊs message with an open mind. An effective
communicator needs to be good at public relations so as to maintain
goodwill between sender and receiver. Do not offend or anger people with
what you say or you will make enemies. This will affect how your message
is received and interpreted.
2.3.2
Understand Needs
As an effective communicator, you will try to fulfil your own needs as well as the
needs of the receiver of your message. Abraham Maslow categorised human
needs into five levels. Figure 2.8 shows MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs:
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Figure 2.8: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs
(a)
Physical Needs
These are basic needs like food, clothing, and shelter. These basic needs
must be satisfied before receivers can think of other things.
(b)
Security Needs
These include the desire for a safe and secure environment that is free from
physical harm and emotional or mental abuse.
(c)
Social Needs
Everyone wants to have a sense of belonging and be part of a group. These
needs are satisfied by being part of a family, social circle or workforce.
(d)
Esteem Needs
These needs are actualised through feelings of self-worth, self-respect,
prestige, power and recognition.
(e)
Self-actualisation Needs
These are higher level needs which are met through a sense of achievement
and helping other people realise their goals.
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2.3.3
ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
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Use Interpersonal Skills
Good interpersonal skills are useful when dealing with people as they help to
build goodwill. The late American president, Ronald Reagan, was known as „the
great communicator‰ as he had an easy way of speaking and could handle
people very well. He also had great personal charisma. Of course, it helped that
he used to be a good-looking Hollywood actor.
Try to use the following techniques to help you develop good interpersonal
skills:
(a)
Make You-statements
This technique involves saying things in such a way that you put the
interests of your receiver first. Keep things nice and friendly. The receiver
of your message will warm up to you as he feels that you have his interests
at heart. An example of a You-statement message is „To help customers get
value for their money, we have lowered the price by five percent.‰
Do not use the I-statement as it makes you sound like you are putting your
own interests ahead of everybody elseÊs interests. An example of this is „In
order to sell off our stock quickly, we have lowered the price by five
percent.‰
(b)
Have A Positive Attitude
Demonstrate a positive attitude by developing good relationships with
your superiors, subordinates, co-workers, customers, and clients when you
are at work. Do the same when dealing with family and friends. A cheerful,
optimistic, and enthusiastic outlook will win you points (Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Positive attitude
Source: pensionriskmatters.com
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(c)
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ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
Be A Good Listener
Show that you are a good listener by listening intently, taking notes,
paraphrasing and asking questions.
(d) Keep Things Confidential
A good communicator knows the importance of keeping information
confidential and releasing it to only authorised people at the appropriate
time.
(e)
Be Considerate
Treat people well. Be polite, courteous, honest, and respect the opinions
of others. Use tact and diplomacy especially when dealing with difficult
people.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Change the following I-statements into You-statements.
I-statement
You-statement
1.
For my convenience, I have decided to
open the shop at 10am.
2.
I feel hurt when you scold me.
3.
In order to keep my business going,
you have to work harder.
4.
I feel humiliated when you insult me in
public.
5.
To cut down on my electricity bill,
switch on the air-conditioner only when
necessary.
6.
As it fits my schedule, I am extending
business hours.
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2.4
ORAL COMMUNICATION:SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES
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INTERFERENCE IN COMMUNICATION
According to Devito (2009), there are several types of „noise‰ that might interfere
with the communication process:
(a)
Physical interference;
(b)
Physiological interference;
(c)
Psychological interference; and
(d)
Semantic interference.
These interferences or noise may distract and prevent the receiver from paying
full attention to the message. When this happens, the message may not be heard
and interpreted fully or correctly. Similarly, interferences may cause the speaker
to lose concentration and this can lead to incomplete or erroneous
communication on the part of the sender. As a result, receivers will interpret the
messages wrongly and not as intended by the speaker.
2.4.1
Physical Interference
This kind of interference is external and outside the control of both the speaker
and the receiver. It affects the physical transmission of the message. Examples are
noise disturbances like loud music (Figure 2.10), the sound of traffic from a busy
road, static coming from a faulty loudspeaker system, or loud drilling from a
nearby construction site.
Figure 2.10: Loud music
Source: elmbridge.gov.uk
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Physiological Interference
These are barriers to communication due to physiological challenges on the part
of the speaker or the receiver. The speaker or receiver may be hearing-impaired,
have speech articulation problems, or suffer from short-term memory loss. Even
if a speaker delivers his message clearly and loudly, a listener who has hearing
problems will not be able to understand and receive the message fully. On the
other hand, if a sender speaks with a lisp and cannot pronounce the /r / and /s/
sounds properly, the listener may not be able to understand what has been said.
2.4.3
Psychological Interference
This type of interference stems from the mental makeup of the receiver or sender,
and includes biases, prejudices, narrow-mindedness, and extreme emotional
behaviour. For example, if you are emotionally distracted or preoccupied, you
may find it hard to understand a message. Feelings like anger or hatred may also
interfere with how you interpret a message.
2.4.4
Semantic Interference
These barriers include language, dialectal and cultural differences. When these
interferences are present, the speaker and listener operate on different meaning
systems. What the speaker says can be interpreted differently, thus resulting in
misunderstanding. A computer analyst may use the word „mouse‰ to refer to the
device used to navigate a computer screen. However, a computer illiterate
person may interpret the word „mouse‰ to be a rodent (see Figure 2.11 and 2.12).
Figure 2.11: Mouse (computer device)
Source: fabbrotech.com
Figure 2.12: Mouse (rodent)
Source: freeclipartpictures.com
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ACTIVITY 2.5
Audio 2.1 Types of Interference
Listen to the audio conversations and identify the type of interference
in communication involved in each case.
Dialogue 1: _____________________
Dialogue 2: _____________________
Dialogue 3: _____________________
Dialogue 4: _____________________
Dialogue 5: _____________________
Oral communication is a two-way process that requires a speaker and a
listener. It is most effective when the sender has good speaking skills and the
receiver has good listening skills.
Hearing is different from listening in that hearing is the physical ability to
hear sound and occurs unconsciously, while listening is to hear something
with thoughtful and close attention.
There are two types of listening passive listening and active listening.
Active listening can be improved by paraphrasing the speakerÊs message,
identifying your weaknesses, preparing yourself mentally and physically,
and setting priorities.
The principles of speaking include:
Interpretation of symbols creates meaning.
There are regulative and constitutive rules.
Punctuation affects meaning.
Voice attributes (e.g., volume, pitch, tone, tempo) affect speech quality.
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Possessing good oral communication skills is beneficial not only at a personal
level but also socially and professionally.
The roles and responsibilities of speakers and listeners include the speaker
having to:
Evaluate the communication situation to avoid miscommunication; give
and receive feedback; and maintain goodwill.
Fulfil his own needs as well as the needs of the receiver of the message.
Make use of interpersonal skills, e.g., make You-statements, have a
positive attitude, be a good listener, keep things confidential, and be
considerate.
The barriers to effective communication include physical, physiological,
psychological and semantic interferences.
Active listening
Punctuation
Constitutive rules
Recalling
Hearing
Regulative rules
Interference
Retaining
Interpreting
Voice attributes
Listening
You-statements
Passive listening
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