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The Crimean War
One of first major political developments in Europe
following Year of Revolutions was Crimean War
With the Ottoman Empire in a weakened state,
Russia incr. began to press demands on its
southern neighbour, incl. for special rights
concerning Empire’s Orthodox Christian population
& Orthodox places of worship in Holy Land
The Ottomans resisted these demands & Russia
then occupied the nominally Ottoman provinces of
Moldavia & Wallachia
The Crimean War (2)
Ottoman Empire, by 1854 supported by
Britain & France, & then by Piedmontese
forces too, declared war on Russia
Most of fighting centered around Crimean
peninsula, (therefore the name Crimean War)
Though neither side fought v. effectively the
Russians, (partly fearful of domestic
repercussions from a war-weary population),
ultimately conceded defeat & were forced to
make impt. concessions at an international
conference held in Paris in March 1856
The Crimean War
Consequences of the Crimean War
Perhaps even more impt. than details of the
Crimean War or specific conditions of the
Treaty of Paris were consequences of the war.
These included:
1) Perception of Russia as an invincible colossus
that had existed before the war was erased
2) Russian prestige in the Balkans decreased
3) The Concert of Europe seriously damaged
The Unification of Italy
Incr. weakening of Concert of Europe & lessening faith
in need to preserve Vienna settlement, (partly because
states had been successful in suppressing revolution & so
not now as fearful of prospect of new revolutionary
uprisings), encouraged further dramatic change in
Europe after Crimean War, most importantly substantial redrawing of European political map following national
unification of Italy & Germany.
Italian uprisings of 1848/1849, led largely by romantic
republicans, failed to achieve objective of Italian
unification. Yet, only a decade later, to an impt. extent as
consequence of leadership & diplomatic maneuvers of
Count Cavour of Piedmont, a new, united kingdom of Italy
was successfully established.
The Italian Peninsula – post 1848
Count Camilo di Cavour
Cavour appointed Prime Minister Piedmont in 1852 by new king
Victor Emmanuel II. Cavour liberal, but also loyal to monarchy.
Cavour supported national unification of Italy so long as it
was unified under Piedmontese leadership. To this end he
backed establishment of pro-Piedmontese ‘National Society’
in many different Italian states.
Cavour realized Piedmont could only defeat Austria with
support of a Great Power - specifically he saw France, now
under leadership of pro-Italian Napoleon III as potential ally *
Cavour’s first impt. diplomatic move was to take Piedmont into
Crimean War, thereby incr. Piedmont’s prestige among Italians
& gaining good-will/respect of Britain & France
* Keep in mind Napoleon III was also someone seeking fame & glory, hoping to return
France to great days of his uncle, & saw Piedmont as potential ally vis-a-vis Austria
The ‘Pact of Plombieres’
July 1858 Napoleon III & Count Cavour met at
Plombieres-les-bains where they formulated a
secret deal, signed later in December 1858 &
known as the ‘Pact of Plombieres’
France promised to help Piedmont against
Austria, & in return for its help would receive
provinces of Nice & Savoy from Piedmont.
In line with agreement, Cavour mobilized army
on border of Austrian controlled Lombardy
The Rise of Piedmont
Cavour’s decision to mobilize on the border of Lombardy was
designed to antagonize Austria & find a pretext for going to
war. Unaware Piedmont was in secret agreement with France,
Austria gave Piedmont an ultimatum, which Piedmont rejected,
leading to Austria declaring war & appearing the aggressor.
With backing of France, Piedmont heavily defeated Austrian
forces in the battles of Magenta & Solferino in June 1859, took
over Lombardy & was about to occupy Venetia too.
Meanwhile, encouraged by defeat of Austria, revolutionary
uprisings calling for Italian national unification under
Piedmontese leadership were initiated throughout much of
Italian peninsula. Everything appeared to be going right for
Cavour...
The Treaty of Villafranca
Then, to Cavour’s surprise & disappointment,
Napoleon III changed course, & now signed the
Treaty of Villafranca with Austria (July 11th 1859),.
France would withdraw its support from Piedmont &
Piedmont would get only Lombardy, not Venetia.
Why had Napoleon III abandoned Cavour? Perhaps
a combination of the following:
i) lacked resolve (unlike his uncle)
ii) feared entry of Prussia in war on side of Austria
iii) becoming concerned Piedmont might become
too powerful a southern neighbour for France
Garibaldi
For a while Cavour was helpless, but forces of Italian
nationalism had been set in motion & by end of the year
several central Italian states had voted in plebiscites to
unite with Piedmont.
Then, in May 1860, veteran republican nationalist
Giuseppe Garibaldi, (a leader of nationalist uprisings 1848),
landed in Sicily taking over island held by king of Naples &
later proceeding to take Naples itself.
Fearing Italy might now unite as a republic, or that Garibaldi
might provoke Roman Catholic states in Europe by attacking
Rome, Cavour pre-empted Garibaldi’s movement further
north. He sent troops south, taking over remaining central
Italian states controlled by Pope (i.e. papal states), but being
careful to avoid the region around Rome.
Italian Unification & Rome
Cavour’s caution
regarding Rome was a
consequence of 2 factors:
i) He didn’t want to
offend Catholics
ii) Rome was
protected by French
troops
POPE PIUS IX (1846-1878)
The Kingdom of Italy
Potential for war between Cavour & Garibaldi’s respective
forces, the former defending a united Italian kingdom
under rule of King Victor Emmanuel II, the latter preferring
a united Italy as a republic. Garibaldi, however, apparently
so as not to jeopardize national unification of Italy by
fighting against forces of Piedmont, accepted that a united
Italy could be a kingdom & in late 1860 people of Naples &
Sicily voted in a plebiscite to unite with Piedmont.
17th March 1861 Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king
of the newly united Italy. Less than 3 months later Cavour
had died. But for 2 major exceptions (Venetia & Rome),
Cavour had lived to see his dream come true.
The Kingdom of Italy (2)
Cartoon showing
Garibaldi help
Victor Emmanuel
II wear the “boot”
of a united Italy.
The Formation of a United Italy (1)
The Formation of a United Italy (2)
German Unification
Unification of Germany could be
regarded as most significant
European development till World
War I, one that greatly affected the
political, economical & military
balance of power. It was achieved
largely through military power &
diplomatic maneuvers, rather
than through idealist liberalism of
participants in earlier Frankfurt
Assembly. Leading role played by
Otto von Bismarck, the great
Prussian statesman first appointed
Prime Minister in Sept. 1862 by the
new King of Prussia William I.
OTTO VON BISMARCK
Otto von Bismarck (1)
Bismarck was more of a Prussian patriot
rather than a German nationalist, who aimed to
strengthen Prussia & make sure the people
remained loyal to their king & conservative
institutions rather than follow the liberals who
had begun to dominate Prussian parliament.
For Bismarck successful politics was not
based on ideals or principles or debates or
democratically made decisions, but on
effective exercise of power.
Otto von Bismarck (2)
“The great questions of
the day will not be
decided by speeches &
majority decisions –
that was the mistake of
1848-1849 – but by
iron & blood.”
German Territorial Unification
3 Wars in the Process of
German Unification
Through the process of 3 major wars in
less than a decade, Bismarck ended up
engineering the unification of Germany
Prussia+Austria vs. Denmark  1864
Austro-Prussian War  1866
Franco-Prussian War  1870-71
War with Denmark - 1864
War with Denmark began as result of the Schleswig-Holstein
Problem. These 2 duchies, though not officially part of the
Danish state had come under domination of Denmark even
though they had substantial German populations (a majority
in Holstein) & though Holstein was a member of the Bund.
1863 Denmark tried to annex these territories. Germans
everywhere were outraged & call rose for pan-German war.
Bismarck resisted this call because he didn’t want smaller
German states to gain prestige, & instead arranged for war with
Denmark to be fought by Prussia in alliance with Austria.
Denmark was quickly defeated & in Convention of Gastein it
was agreed that Austria would administer Holstein & Prussia
would administer Schleswig.
Austro-Prussian War of 1866
Bismarck now looked for an opportunity to attack
Austria, he needed to develop right circumstances.
First he purposefully increased tensions between the
two states over administration of SchleswigHolstein, incr. these tensions further when he felt
international circumstances had become suitable.
Bismarck had already gained friendship of Russia
by supporting Russian suppression of new uprising in
Poland in 1863. He now convinced France to
remain neutral in war with Austria & made a deal
with Italy in April 1866, promising it Venetia if it gave
its backing.
Austro-Prussian War of 1866 (2)
When in June 1866 Austria appealed to Bund
over Prussian activities in Schleswig-Holstein,
Bismarck declared that according to Treaty of
Gastein the issue was between the two great
powers, not a matter for Bund; a new German
confederation should be formed, one that this time
excluded Austria. Bismarck (as he had planned),
had tested Austrian patience too much, & the
Austrians now declared war against Prussia.
Known as ‘Seven Weeks War’, Austria was
quickly defeated by superior Prussian military
forces (& technology – incl., e.g., the ‘needle gun’)
The Treaty of Prague & the Results
of the Austro-Prussian War
Outcome of Austro-Prussian War determined in Treaty of
Prague, signed between Prussia & Austria on August 23rd
1866. Accordingly:
1) Austria was to give Venetia to Italy
2) Prussia annexed several German states which backed
Austria in war (incl. Hannover, Hesse, Nassau & Frankfurt)
3) A North German Confederation, dominated by Prussia &
headed by the Prussian king was formed
4) Austria promised not to get involved in German affairs
5) Prussia’s (& Bismarck’s) prestige was further enhanced.
Greater numbers of Germans now looked to Prussia for
leadership & popular support in Prussia shifted from liberals
towards conservative administration of Bismarck.
Crisis of Succession to the
Spanish Throne (1)
Bismarck’s final initiative for unification of Germany
came with his finding of a pretext to go to war
against France (which was becoming incr.
concerned by growing power of Prussia).
Bismarck’s excuse related to succession to
Spanish throne.
Spanish queen Isabella overthrown by a military
coup in 1868, but for almost 2 years Spaniards
could not agree on a suitable replacement as
monarch. Spanish eventually chose Prince
Leopold who accepted offer on June 19th 1870.
Crisis of Succession to the
Spanish Throne (2)
What was special about
Leopold was that he was a
member of the Hohenzollern
family, the royal family ruling
Prussia. For France his
monarchy in Spain was
completely unacceptable.
French did not want another
neighbouring state ruled by
Hohenzollern family.
Prince Leopold
The Ems Telegram (1)
French ambassador Count Vincent Benedetti was sent to
see Prussian king William I at a place called Ems to
resolve the issue. They had civilized gentlemanly
discussions, but issue was not yet resolved.
On 12th July Leopold’s father withdrew his son’s candidacy
for the Spanish throne on behalf of his son. But, not yet
satisfied, Benedetti was sent to meet the king again to ask
for secure guarantees that there would never again be
another Hohenzollern candidate. Even though there was
no intention to support another Hohenzollern candidacy,
this demand, William I said was not possible to accept.
A telegram, later infamously called the ‘Ems Telegram’
was then sent to Bismarck to explain what had happened.
The Ems Telegram (2)
While conversation between the ambassador & the king had
been quite open & frank, it was still civil. Yet Bismarck, the
opportunist that he was, saw a chance to create an excuse
for war with France.
Bismarck noticed that by slightly editing text of telegram, &
leaking it to press, he could make a war almost unavoidable.
By playing with the words of the text, Bismarck made it appear
as if telegram had spoken of a v. hostile meeting where king
was v. offensive to representative of French government.
When telegram, as edited by Bismarck, was released to public,
Germans felt pride in king’s tough stance, while French felt that
their national honour had been attacked. Tensions & pressures
built-up & on 19th of July 1870 France declared war ... Just
what Bismarck had wanted!
Facsimile of the Abeken Text &
Bismarck's editing.*
* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm
The Abeken Text: *
Ems, July 13, 1870.
To THE FEDERAL CHANCELLOR, COUNT BISMARCK, No. 61 EOD. 3:10 P.M. (STATION
EMS: RUSH!)
His Majesty the King writes to me: "M. Benedetti intercepted me on the Promenade in
order to demand of me most insistently that I should authorize him to telegraph
immediately to Paris that I shall obligate myself for all future time never again to give
my approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it be renewed. I refused to
agree to this, the last time somewhat severely, informing him that one dare not &
cannot assume such obligations à tout jamais. Naturally, I informed him that I had
received no news as yet, & since he had been informed earlier than I by way of Paris &
Madrid he could easily understand that my Government was once again out of the
matter."
Since then His Majesty has received a dispatch from the Prince [Charles Anthony]. As
His Majesty informed Count Benedetti that he was expecting news from the Prince, His
Majesty himself, in view of the above-mentioned demand & in consonance with the
advice of Count Eulenburg & myself, decided not to receive the French envoy again
but to inform him through an adjutant that His Majesty had now received from the
Prince confirmation of the news which Benedetti had already received from Paris, &
that he had nothing further to say to the Ambassador. His Majesty leaves it to the
judgment of Your Excellency whether or not to communicate at once the new demand
by Benedetti & its rejection to our ambassadors & to the press. [Signed] A[beken]
13.7.70
* Available at http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/Ems%20Telegram.htm
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71
With nationalist passions incr. by dispute with
France, the southern German states now joined
forces with Northern German Confederation led
by Prussia.
The French armies were destroyed relatively
quickly, though Paris continued to resist till
January 1871.
Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians
following the Battle of Sedan in Sept. 1870 &
eventually sent into exile in England.
The German Emperor
During the war, often under public pressure, leaders
of the southern German states had called upon
William I to become emperor of a united, but federal
Germany, in which they would maintain some
authority within their own territories. On 18th Jan.
1871, William I was crowned emperor of a united
Germany in the famous ‘Hall of Mirrors’ in Palace
of Versailles, which had been home to generations
of French monarchs, (& which therefore was esp.
humiliating for the French – they did not forget! –
n.b. They sought revenge after World War I)
Outcomes of the
Franco-Prussian War
Apart from the key outcome of the formation of a
united German national state, & the exile of Napoleon
III, the war had certain other significant consequences:
In the Treaty of Frankfurt the French were made to
accept payment of reparations & to give the disputed
territories of Alsace & Lorraine to Germany
German forces of liberalism were out-staged by the
conservative forces led by Bismarck
A 3rd republic was declared in France (The first was
in 1792, the 2nd in 1848)
The Dual Monarchy:
Austria-Hungary
Habsburg
Emperor of
Austrian
Empire
Habsburg
Emperor of
Austria

Habsburg
King of
Hungary
Nationalities within Habsburg Empire
The Magyar – German Compromise
Dual Monarchy was basically a compromise
between Magyars & Germans. Empire divided into
2 autonomous halves, Austria in west (dominated
by Germans) & Hungary in east (dominated by
Magyars). A critical tie between 2 halves was that
they would have same monarch, Habsburg ruler
being simultaneously Emperor of Austria & King
of Hungary. (Technically the new name for this
new arrangement was ‘Austria-Hungary’, though
many sources continue to refer to ‘Austrian
Empire’).
Reasons for the Habsburg
Acceptance of the Dual Monarchy
Growing recognition that defeat of Magyar nationalist
demands in 1848 was only temporary & would again
surface unless Magyars were satisfied.
Belief that Magyars (more than e.g. Slavs) were a
noble & ancient nation.
Inability to rely on further Russian support. (Russia
helped Habsburgs in 1848, but Austria failed to
provide support for Russia during Crimean War).
Successive military defeats of Empire (first against
Piedmont (+France) & then especially against Prussia
had increased belief that a domestic reorganization of
Empire was needed.
The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia
As in Austrian Empire, abolition of serfdom in Russia was
again based largely on pragmatic politics, not principles.
Serfdom in Russia officially ended in Feb 1861. In evaluating
military failures of Russia during the Crimean War, it was
decided that a major cause had been low morale &
motivation of serfs fighting for Russian armies, defending a
state in which they had virtually no rights.
Though “officially” freed, circumstances of serfs did not improve
greatly in short term. Had to pay for compensation given to
nobles who had lost their serfs & were not given title to land
they worked till compensation was fully paid. So serfs economic
servitude continued by other means.