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Barbarian Experts
Alaric at the Gates
From his camp outside the gates, the barbarian leader Alaric could see the glory that
was Rome. Towering above the city’s stone walls, which stretched for miles, stood great
pillared facades and magnificent statues adorning rooftops. But, soon, all he saw
would fall.
Alaric’s Goths had cut off access to Rome and controlled the city’s 12 gates and all
traffic on the Tiber River. The Romans had not faced such a threat for nearly 800
years. In 391 B.C., when the Roman leader Camillus had left the city, the Gauls had
taken advantage of the situation. They defeated the Roman army just 11 miles outside
Rome and then took the city—except for the fortress on the Capitoline Hill. Only after
citizens begged Camillus to return and save his beloved city did he do so. Ever since,
Rome had resisted invasion.
Now, in the year 410, citizens were spoiled by luxury. Most did not even bother to
enlist their sons in the army. The emperor Honorius had fled to Ravenna in northern
Italy. Rome’s bravest general, Stilicho, had been beheaded. The “Eternal City” was a
house of cards, and Alaric was ready to blow it down.
When Alaric first laid siege, Roman citizens were outraged. Blaming traitors in their
midst, they executed Stilicho’s widow, but that did not drive the barbarians away.
Thus, the people were forced to suffer the siege. Used to getting three pounds of bread
each day, Romans had to make do with half that, then a third, then nothing because
the barbarians food from entering the city. Thousands died of hunger. Others survived
by feeding on the corpses of their neighbors.
The senate finally sent representatives to talk to Alaric. First, the Romans threatened
that if Alaric’s troops did not withdraw, they would be destroyed by the mighty Roman
legions. Alaric scoffed at such an empty boast. “The thicker the hay, the easier it is
mowed,” he replied. Then the Romans asked what Alaric wanted. His demands were
simple. He wanted all the gold, silver, and other wealth in the city, and all the slaves.
“If such, O King, are your demands,” the Romans asked, “what do you intend to leave
us?” “Your lives,” Alaric answered.
In exchange for 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silk robes, 3,000
pieces of fine cloth, and 3,000 pounds of pepper, Alaric would lift the siege. The
Romans paid, and soon the gates were opened and river traffic flowed freely once again.
Alaric’s troops headed north to Tuscany, where they were joined by runaway slaves
and reinforcements. The call was given to turn around and surround Rome once again.
This time, the barbarians numbered 100,000 strong. In the city that once had been
ruled by powerful Caesars and senates, confusion now reigned.
Soldiers sent from Ravenna were slaughtered by other barbarians before they even
reached Rome. Alaric’s troops took the port of Ostia. Frightened citizens there named a
new emperor, who made peace with Alaric. The allegiance of the army, however, was
now divided, and soldiers loyal to each of the two emperors soon took to the battlefield.
The emperor friendly to the barbarians was killed, and Alaric again surrounded Rome.
Unfortunately for Rome, there were many within the city’s walls who did not cheer for
a Roman victory. Thus, one midnight, as Rome teetered on the brink, legions of slaves
gathered at the Salarian Gate. For them, to be a slave was to despise one’s master, to
constantly seek revenge. As they bitterly remembered the whips that had lashed them,
they opened the gate. A barbarian trumpet suddenly sounded, awakening Romans in
their beds. It was too late: The barbarians were already inside the walls.
Mayhem followed, as swords and knives cut down civilians and men ravished women.
Soldiers plundered the glory that was Rome, taking gold and jewels first, then helping
themselves to fine furniture and works of art. On orders from Alaric, a Christian,
troops spared Rome’s churches and holy relics, but laid waste to everything else. For
six days they sacked the city. By the time they left, the streets were littered with bodies
and fine villas lay in ruins, their vases and statues smashed. The Roman Empire,
although it staggered on, had been dealt a blow from which it would never recover.
Barbarian Experts
The Barbarian Threat
The period between 250 and 410 CE, when Alaric invaded Rome, proved to be one of
major changes in Europe. Until then, the Roman Empire had been the dominant
power in the area, but by the mid-200s its leaders and generals were finding it
increasingly difficult to defend Rome’s outlying districts. Tribes beyond these lands
recognized this weakness and began crossing the borders.
Among the tribes who pushed south and west toward Rome were the Goths. Originally
from an area in southern Sweden, they began to move across Europe in the first
century CE until they settled near the Black Sea on the northeastern edge of the
Roman Empire (the area known today as the Ukraine). In 248 or 249, they invaded the
Roman province of Moesia but were successfully repelled. About this time, the Goths
split into two groups, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. By 374, a new group of fierce
invaders—the Huns—had swept out of the east. The contemporary Roman historian
Marcellinus described them as an “ugly” people who lived off plants and half-raw flesh,
“which they warm a little by placing it between their thighs and the backs of their
horses.”
The advance of the Huns set in motion major population shifts, as tribes such as the
Vandals, Burgundians, and Franks were forced to leave their homelands and move
across Europe in search of safe places to settle. Both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths lost
their kingdoms to the Huns. Then, to escape the invaders, more than 200,000
Visigoths crossed the Danube and asked permission of the emperor Valens to settle
inside the Roman Empire.
At the time, it was not uncommon in border regions to have barbarians settle within
the empire. In fact, as the number of Roman citizens serving in the military decreased,
officials welcomed these newcomers, many of whom later served as much-needed
soldiers in the Roman army.
There was, however, a big difference between Roman and barbarian soldiers—a
difference that would eventually lead to the weakening of the Roman army.
Barbarians were warriors, dependent on chiefs and nobles who fed, housed, and led
them into battle. These war bands were always ready to plunder and to seek more
power and more land for their families and herds. Their loyalty rested solely with their
chief. As a result, after they joined the Roman army, discipline suffered, and so, too, did
the effectiveness of the military unit.
Although Rome gave the Visigoths land on which to settle, government officials did not
treat them well. They attempted to disarm the warriors and to hold their sons as
political hostages. Worst of all, at the time of a severe food shortage, the Romans tried
selling the Visigoths food at unfair prices.
In 378, the Visigoths finally rebelled and plundered the province of Thrace. The
emperor Valens forced a battle at Adrianople, but the Visigoths won. Valens was killed,
and two-thirds of the Roman army was destroyed. It was the Visigoth cavalry (soldiers
on horses) that had made the difference. The warriors used saddles with stirrups, a
detail that made them far superior to the Roman saddle. The stirrups gave extra
support and allowed quick charges with swords and javelins (short lances). Ammianus
reported, “The barbarians poured on in huge columns, trampling down horses and
men and crushing our ranks so as to make an orderly retreat impossible. Our men
were too closely packed to have any hope of escape....” Ambrose, the bishop of Milan,
called this catastrophic battle “...the massacre of all humanity, the end of the world.”
Four years later, the emperor Theodosius granted the Visigoths the right to settle
permanently in Thrace as foederati (“equal allies”). For the first time, a foreign power
ruled over land inside the Roman Empire.
Emperor Experts
The Years Before the Fall: From Commodus to Diocletian
At the beginning of his reign, the emperor Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161–180 CE) issued a coin
portraying his twin baby sons on a throne. Since Roman coins crisscrossed the empire, this
was his way of assuring everyone of good successors. Only one son, Commodus, survived, and
he soon dashed his father’s and the empire’s hopes.
Selfish and cruel, Commodus seemed to live for his beloved gladiatorial contests. He left ruling
to his elite guards, who, ironically, hired his wrestling partner to kill him. Commodus’ rule
illustrates some of the problems that ruined the effectiveness of Roman rule: unfit rulers,
assassination attempts, and an overly powerful military.
In 193 CE, four different men became emperor in a one year period. Each used bribery or
military force to achieve his goal. The first three were murdered. The fourth, Septimius
Severus, succeeded to the throne by raising military pay and giving soldiers power—a tactic
that soon became standard procedure. Severus did stabilize the empire, but used brutal
measures to do so. For example, senators who opposed him were killed.
Thus, a strong army was a double-edged sword (both good and bad). Although soldiers
protected emperors and defended the empire’s borders against the increasing number of
barbarian attacks, the military also killed officials and unpopular emperors. As a result,
resentment and hopelessness grew.
As more soldiers were recruited, taxes had to be increased since tax money paid for the army’s
food and supplies. Because the law stated that only Roman citizens could be taxed, Caracalla,
Severus’ son and successor, changed the law. In 212 CE, he made all the empire’s free (nonslaves) inhabitants Roman citizens. Now thousands more were forced to pay taxes for the often
cruel and overbearing armed forces.
The time from Commodus to Diocletian was unstable and even frightening. There were both
victories and defeats in battles against Parthians and Sassanians to the east and Germans
and Goths to the north. There were also rising costs and devastating plagues that made life
even more difficult.
In the 50 years before Diocletian, more than 20 military emperors rose and fell. All but two
were killed in battle or assassinated. The emperors Gallienus and Aurelian both improved the
army and greatly reduced the barbarian threat. Aurelian drove German invaders from Italy,
built a 20-foot-high wall around Rome, and regained territories previously lost. The empire,
however, required more than physical defense. It needed safeguards against bad emperors,
bloody succession, and usurpers. It needed better administration, economic relief, and
military reform.
Usurpers are people who take power or possession by force or without right.
For more background information (to become an even more
knowledgeable expert), look back at your Erratic Emperors Checklist!
Christianity Experts
The Birth of Christianity
At its height, the Roman Empire counted among its citizens people of many races who spoke
numerous languages and followed many religious beliefs. Romans came to know different gods
as new lands were added to the empire, and often included some of these gods among those
they traditionally worshiped (like Jupiter, Juno, etc). Freedom of religion was generally allowed.
There were numerous religious groups that flourished and gained followers. The Christian
religion started as one of these, but with one important difference. Christianity promised
something that other belief systems of the time did not: a chance of salvation (rescue) and
eternal life. Christians believed that their founder, Jesus Christ, was not only a prophet, but
the son of God.
Because Christians put their God above all else—even the emperor—Rome’s rulers did not
look favorably on them. From as early as 64 CE, Christians were punished by those in power.
The bloodiest persecution came under the emperor Diocletian, who issued many edicts
(decrees or laws) calling for Christians to denounce (betray) their faith. Yet because they
believed that eternal life and salvation awaited them, Christians preferred to face death rather
than give up their beliefs.
As a young soldier, the future emperor Constantine witnessed the persecutions and saw how
Diocletian’s attempts to destroy the Christians failed. At the same time, Constantine realized
that loyalty, such as that shown by the Christians to their faith, would be extremely important
for a growing empire. Legend has it that as he prepared to battle his arch rival Maxentius,
Constantine saw an unusual sign in the sky and heard the words, “In this sign thou shall
conquer.” Whether this story is true or not, Constantine did have his soldiers paint a sign
representing the first two letters of Christ’s name on their shields. When he defeated
Maxentius, Constantine resolved to repay his debt. After he was proclaimed emperor, he
passed a law known as the Edict of Milan, which, for the first time in history, proclaimed
freedom of religion as a fundamental right of every person.
Constantine was careful not to alienate those who continued to follow pagan beliefs. He
believed that when the emperor’s support was withdrawn from the older religions, they would
wither and disappear naturally. He also brought about many reforms—everything from laws
for better treatment of slaves to proclaiming Sunday as an official day of rest. By decree, these
laws applied to people of all faiths.
It was under the Roman emperor Theodosius I that Christianity became an official religion of
the empire. Like Constantine before him, Theodosius knew that a strong church was key to a
strong government. Theodosius became known as “the Great” after he passed an edict that
commanded all people to follow the Christian religion. Those who refused to do so were
considered criminals and punished. Soon after Theodosius’ death in 395, the Roman Empire
in the west fell. The Christian Church, however, continued to be powerful and played a key
role in history of western civilization.
For additional background information (to become an even more knowledgeable
expert), see pages 358-359 in the purple History Alive textbook!
Roman Army Experts
All for Power
As a way to get more soldiers, Rome’s third leader, Severius Tullius, divided the citizens of
Rome into five classes based on wealth. This method made the ability to purchase weapons a
qualification for service. The richest recruits served as the cavalry (rode on horses), and the
rest as infantry (foot soldiers). Therefore, military service was required and the wealthy had
better (safer) roles than the poor. What put stress on this system was the continuous warfare
Rome was involved in. In theory, the army was designed for local wars for only short periods of
time.
Yet Rome’s plan to extend its territories meant long wars, many of them to be fought overseas.
In addition, not all generals were masters on the battlefield. This factor, combined with an
increase in deaths and injuries, led to anger among Roman citizens and refusal to serve. The
long absences from home made it hard for soldiers to support their families (they were always
away!). To avoid a crisis, Rome’s officials tried to encourage more men to become soldiers, but
its efforts didn’t work.
One general, Marius, greatly revised (changed) the army’s set-up. He abolished (got rid of)
qualifications and sought volunteers from the lower classes. He also promised land and money
to those who survived the war. In an effort to guarantee their safety, he made improvements in
the quality of the equipment provided to them, instilled discipline in them by providing
training under the watchful eyes of the commanding officers, and had soldiers carry their own
equipment. “Marius's 'mules'”--as his troops were called--displayed the famous silver eagle
standard, an emblem of their unity. Contrary to the expectations of the Senate, Marius's
armies won battles in Africa and Gaul. These victories saved Rome from potentially dangerous
situations, but made many dependent on constantly fighting wars. Soon Rome became
addicted to war and gaining power.
Though Marius created a trained and disciplined army, his troops were loyal to a commander
rather than to Rome and were promised rewards by a general and not the government. Instead
of being loyal to the empire, soldiers supported their generals.
While Marius did not use his army for his own power, future leaders--the generals Sulla,
Pompey, and Julius Caesar--did. Sulla even had his army help him take control of Rome itself.
To win supporters for himself and his policies, Pompey promised recruits land and money.
Caesar had his army accompany him across the Rubicon River into Italy--an action that led to
the end of the Republic/democracy and civil war. War was constant in Rome and led to many
problems, especially when generals fought amongst themselves or competed for power.
Gaul refers to an ancient region in western Europe that now consists mainly of France and Belgium.
For additional background information (to become an even more
knowledgeable expert), read pages 326-333 in the purple History
Alive textbook!
INDICTMENT
OF ROMAN EMPERORS
The Charge:
Your ineffective leadership caused the collapse of the Roman Empire.
In the 500 years Rome was empire, some of the emperors were good, some
were bad, and some were plain crazy. Rome never solved the problem of how to
peacefully transfer political power to a new leader. When an emperor died,
ambitious rivals with independent armies often fought each other for the emperor’s
crown.
Even when the transfer of power happened without fighting, there was no
good system for choosing the next emperor. Often the Praetorian guard, the
emperor’s private army, chose the new ruler. But they frequently chose leaders
who would reward them rather than those who were best prepared to be emperor.
Notorious emperors like Nero and Caligula wasted large amounts of money,
spreading corruption and causing a decline in citizenship. A rise in crime made the
emperor’s cities and roads unsafe. Unemployment was also a serious problem for
many people. Small farmers could not compete with the large landowners. They
fled to the cities looking for work, but there were not enough jobs for everyone.
Instead of fixing these problems, the emperors tended to focus on improving
their own extravagant lifestyle and persecuting Christians, a new powerful religious
group who challenged government beliefs and corruption. Diocletian tried to save
the empire by splitting it into two, but this move was the final straw. With a new
focus on the eastern half of the empire, the west was left to collapse. Your
ineffective leadership is to blame for the fall of the Roman Empire, the greatest
civilization of its time.
INDICTMENT
OF BARBARIANS
The Charge:
Your constant attacks on Roman borders and pillaging of the city of Rome
led to the collapse of the world’s greatest empire.
In the 200s C.E., several Germanic tribes like the Gauls, Ostrogoths,
Visigoths, Vandals, and Franks started gaining power and made it increasingly
difficult to defend Rome’s borders. Your tribes were “uncivilized,” living in small
groups, wearing animal fur, and constantly fighting amongst themselves.
Barbarian literally means “foreigner” or “non-Greek speaker.” You’re considered
filthy, violent, and coldblooded; the Romans definitely feared you.
While the barbarians originally made peace with Rome, your lifestyle
focused on war and the constant need to seek more power and land. Even when
they joined the Roman army, they were not entirely loyal and weakened their
military unit’s effectiveness.
In an attempt to gain control, Rome tried to charge higher taxes on the
barbarians, but the tribes rebelled and attacked. Over the course of two hundred
years, Roman generals were forced to constantly defend the empire’s borders.
Defenses could only hold for so long. In one battle, two thirds of the Roman army
was destroyed and the tribes made their way to Rome.
You were ruthless, murdering innocent civilians (non-fighting men) and
kidnapping women and children. You plundered Rome, taking gold and jewels first,
and then helped themselves to fine furniture and works of art. For six days you
sacked (destroyed) the city. By the time you left, the streets were littered with
bodies and the empire never recovered. When Rome fell, it was broken up into
numerous barbarian-led tribal kingdoms and a dark period (a lack of inventions,
ideas, and peace) fell across Europe for the next thousand years. Your constant
invasions brought about the fall of Rome and the Dark Ages.
INDICTMENT
OF CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES
The Charge:
Your religious beliefs and growing population questioned the emperors’
authority and divided the Roman people, causing the empire to lose power
and collapse.
At its height, the Roman Empire included many races, languages, and religious
beliefs. There were many beliefs that flourished and gained followers, but none had as
much influence and followers as Christianity. Christianity promised something that other
belief systems of the time did not: a chance of forgiveness and eternal life. Christians
believe that Jesus Christ was not only a religious prophet, but the son of God.
At first, Rome was not unfriendly to Christians. What was another god, among so
many? But Christians refused to worship the other Roman gods. Worse, you would not
admit that the emperor was a god. Your way of life seemed to be an insult to Roman
customs. Instead of wealth and luxury, you preferred living simply. Recalling Jesus’
message of peace and love, many of you refused to serve in the army.
As the number of Christians grew, the empire became divided. Romans saw you as
a threat to Roman order and patriotism. Eventually your religion was declared illegal and
Christians were sentenced to die in cruel and painful ways for refusing to honor the
Roman gods. Yet these punishments failed to destroy the new religion since Christianity
gained new followers with its belief that even the poor and slaves could look forward to a
better life after death if they followed the ways of Christ. This growing power made the
emperors seem weak and further caused division amongst believers and non-believers.
Eventually, the Emperor Constantine embraced the church and gave Christians the
freedom to practice their religion openly and by 395, it became the official religion of the
Roman Empire. As the empire was occupied with wars and political matters, the Church
became more and more powerful and many valued its opinion over the empire. The
Church had become more powerful than the state (government), and the empire was
unable to re-establish its control and unify its people. Your religion’s challenge of
authority and division of believers and non-believers helped bring about the fall of Rome.
INDICTMENT
OF THE ROMAN ARMY
The Charge:
Your constant need to expand the empire caused savage wars, problems
between Roman citizens and non-citizens, and massive debts that brought
about the fall of Rome.
From the beginning to its fall in 476 CE, Rome had four periods of expansion.
When Rome was only a small city-state, your soldiers conquered the Etruscans and
gained control of all of Italy. During the second period of expansion, Rome fought
three savage wars against Carthage, a city-state in Northern Africa. While Rome was
eventually victorious against Hannibal and his army, families mourned for the
countless soldiers who had died in the long wars. In addition, people living outside of
Rome suffered huge losses; Hannibal’s army had destroyed thousands of farms and
many soldiers returned home to find nothing waiting for them.
As newly conquered people entered the empire, they were not given the same
rights as Roman citizens and many became slaves. Romans treated slaves very
harshly and many revolts occurred, killing thousands. Incoming slaves also took jobs
away from thousands of farmers and laborers.
Your army’s generals (like Julius Caesar) also used their victories to gain fame in
far-off lands and fight for power in Rome. In one civil war, over 200,000 Romans were
killed. Eventually democracy ended and the empire began with Augustus’s rule.
Though the Pax Romana, a 200 year period of peace, occurred after his rule, Rome’s
large borders constantly needed to be defended. The empire could not afford to send
soldiers to all the places it needed to defend and kept raising taxes to pay for this
constant expansion and defense.
Rome had basically become “too big for its britches.” The empire became too
large too fast and was unable to provide for its citizens and protect its territories.
Constant expansion led to brutal wars, troubles between citizens and non-citizens,
and massive debts. These issues weakened the empire until it was no longer able to
guard itself against barbarian attacks. The Roman army’s greed for more power and
land eventually led to the empire’s collapse.