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BONES Osteology= study of bones • Tissue: Connective • Functions: – Support – Protect soft tissue – Points of attachment for muscles – House blood producing cells – Store inorganic salts • 206 bones • 2 main divisions – Axial – Appendicular Axial • • • • • • Head, Neck, Trunk Skull Hyoid bone Vertebral column Thoracic Cage (ribs, 12 pairs) Sternum APPENDICULAR • limbs and bones connecting the limbs to the: PECTORAL GIRDLE (scapula & clavicle), UPPER LIMBS (arms) PELVIC GIRDLE (coxal bones), LOWER LIMBS (legs) Bone Classification • Long bones • Short bones • Flat bones • Irregular bones * Sesamoid bones 1. Long Bones- have long longitudinal axes ad expanded ends • EX: forearm, thigh bones 2. Short Bones- cube like with lengths/ widths roughly equal • Ex: wrist, ankles 3. Flat Bones- platelike structures with broad surfaces Ex: Ribs, scapulae 4. Irregular bones- variety of shapes, connected to several bones Ex: vertebrae, facial bones 5. Sesamoid or round bones- small and nodular Ex: kneecap Long Bone • Epiphysis- expanded portion at each end of bone, articulates (forms a joint) • Diaphysis- shaft of bone • Articular cartilage- layer of hyaline cartilage – Proximal epiphysis – nearest to torso – Distal epiphysis- end furthest from torso • Periosteum- bone covered in a tough vascular covering of fibrous tissue pg 194 • Processes- bony projections for sites of attachment – Provide attachment sites, grooves/openings for passageways of blood vessels and nerves 2 Bone Types 1. Compact bone (Cortical) - tightly packed tissue, solid, strong - Wall of diaphysis 2. Spongy Bone (cancellous) - many branching bone plates, covered with a layer of compact bone. • Medullar Cavity- hollow chamber within the diaphysis connects to spaces in spongy bone. Filled with soft specialized tissue called bone marrow. • Endosteum- thin membrane containing boneforming cells lining medullar cavity • MarrowRed Marrow - mainly in spongy bone in adults. Produces blood cells Yellow Marrow - fat storage. Replaces much of the red marrow in diaphysis through childhood Microscopic Structures pg 196 • Bone Extracellular Matrix = collagen / inorganic salts • Osteocytes- located in tiny bony chambers called lacunae – Transport nutrients and waste Compact Bone • Osteon- (harversian system) cylinder unit around central canal – Contain blood vessels, nerve tissue, loose CT • Central canals – extend longitudinally through bone • Perforating canal (Volkmann’s canals)transverse canals connect central canals – Contain blood vessels and nerves Spongy bone • Cells lie within trabeculae • Nutrients from subs. diffusing into the canaliculi BONE DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH Two types of bones based on development • 1. INTRAMEMBRANOUS BONES = broad, flat bones of the skull. • form from membrane-like sheets of connective tissue • 2. ENDOCHONDRAL BONES =masses of cartilage that are later replaced by bone tissue • EX: long bones Intramembranous Bones • Osteoblasts appear in CT • Bone forming cells • Fibers appear in matrix • Calcification occurs – Deposits of salts in matrix • Osteoblasts become osteocytes Endochondral • Skeleton in cartilage • Bone replaces cartilage • Ossification centers – Areas where bone formation starts – Blood vessels penetrate cartilage • ALL BONES START AS HYALINE CARTILAGE, areas gradually turn to bone • PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER (shaft) • SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTER (ends) • Epiphyseal disk (growth plate) is a band of cartilage b/w the epiphysis and diaphysis • These areas increase bone length as the cells ossify • Cartilage becomes osteoblasts become osteocytes • RESORPTION • OSTEOCLASTS - dissolve bone tissue to release minerals, process is called RESORPTION Factors Affecting Bone Growth • Absence of Calcium – Deforms bones – children= rickets – Adults= osteomalacia • Lack/Excess of growth hormone – Lack - Child= pituitary dwarfism – Excess- child= pituitary gigantism • Stress- causes bones to grow, lack of exercise causes bone tissue to waste away BONE FRACTURES Axial • Skull Cranium and facial bones • Hyoid bone- floats, helps with swallowing/ supports tongue • Vertebral Column – Sacrum – Coccyx • Thoracic Cage- 12 pairs of ribs and sternum Appendicular • Pectoral girdle- scapula – Clavicle • Upper limbs- humerous, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges • Pelvic girdle- coxa, pelvis • Lower Limbs- femur, tibia(large), fibula(slender), patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges 3 Basic Types of Joints (articulations): 1. SYNARTHROTIC – immoveable joint, such as bones in the skull, these junctions are called SUTURES 2. AMPHIARTHOTIC – slightly moveable joint, vertebrae 3. DIARTHROTIC – freely moveable joint, such as shoulders, hips, knees, elbows, wrists, fingers… --these joints are enclosed within a fibrous capsule which contains a lubricating fluid called SYNOVIAL fluid. These are called SYNOVIAL JOINTS. Cranium Bones 1. Frontal - anterior portion above eyes 2. Parietal – one on each side of the skull, just behind frontal bone 3. Occipital – forms the back of the skull and base of the cranium 4. Temporal – forms parts of the sides and base of cranium 5. Sphenoid – wedged between several other bones in anterior portion of the cranium 6. Ethomoid – form roof of nasal cavity Sutures • 1. Coronal – between frontal and parietal bones • 2. Lambdoidal – between occipital and parietal bones • 3. Squamous – between temporal and parietal bones • 4. Sagittal - between parietal bones Facial Bones immovable and 1 movable jawbone 1. Maxillary bones 2. Palatine bones 3. Zygomatic bones 4. Lacrimal bones 5. Nasal bones 6. Vomer bones 7. Inferior nasal conchae 8. mandible Foremens • Allow blood vessels/nerves to travel through bone • Supraorbital foremen • Infraorbital foremen • Mental foremen Vertebral column • • • • 26 bones Composed of vertebrae Intravertebral discs connected by ligaments Protects spinal cord Vertebrae • • • • • Cervical = 7 bones Thoracic = 12 bones Lumbar= 5 bones Sacrum=5 fused into 1 bone Coccyx= 4 fused into 1 bone Parts to know • • • • • • • • Body Intervertebral notch Lamina Pedicle Spinous process Superior articular process Transverse foramen Transverse process Sacrum • • • • • • • Sacral promontory Superior articular process Anterior sacral foramen Posterior sacral foramen Sacral hiatus Tubercle of median sacral crest coccyx Thoracic Cage • Ribs = 24 or 12 pairs • First 7 rib pairs= true ribs, joined to sternum • Last 5 rib pairs= false ribs, – Upper 3 pairs attached by cartilage – Lower 2 pairs= floating ribs • Sternum • 3 parts – Upper manubrium – Body – Xiphoid process • Jugular notch Pectoral Girdle • 2 clavicles • 2 scapulae • Supports upper limbs and attachment for muscles that move them Clavicles • Articulate with sternum and scapulae Scapulae – Supraspinous fossa – Infraspinous fossa – Acromion process – Coracoid process – Glenoid cavity – Superior border – lateral border (axillary) – Medial border (vertebral) Upper Limb • • • • • • • • Framework of arm, forearm, hand Provide attachments for muscles Humerus Radius Ulna Carpals Metacarpals phalanges Humerus • Long bone, extends from scapulae to elbow • Head fits in glenoid cavity of scapula • • • • • • • • • • • • Greater tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular groove Anatomical neck Surgical neck Deltoid tuberosity Coronoid fossa Lateral epicondyle Capitulum Olecranon fossa Medial epicondyle Trochlea Radius • Thumb side • Shorter than ulna • Top is disk like – Radial tuberosity – Styloid process Ulna • Longer than radius – Trochlear notch – Olecranon process – Coronoid process – Styloid process Hand • Carpals (8) • Mass of 8 bones = carpus – – – – – – – – Scaphoid Capitate Trapezoid Trapezium Lunate Hamate Triquetrum pisiform • Metacarpals = 5 bones • Thumb is opposable (#1) • • • • Phalanges- finger bones Proximal/middle/distal phalanx Thumb lacks middle Fingers= 14 bones Pelvic Girdle • 2 coxae (hip bones) • Pelvis- coxae, sacrum, coccyx • Supports trunk of body, provides attachments for lower limbs, protects organs Coxae • Illium, Ischium, Pubis= fuse to form acetabulum • Illium- largest – Illiac crest – Illiac fossa – Posterior superior iliac spine – Greater sciatic notch – Lesser sciatic notch • Ischium- lowest portion of coxa – Ischial tuberosity – Ischial spine • Pubis- anterior portion of coxa – Symphysis pubis – Pubic arch – Obturator foramen Differences b/w male and female Female bones are broader Lower Limbs • • • • • Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Foot Femur • • • • • • • • • Longest bone in body Fovea capitis Neck greater trochanter/ lesser trochanter Linea aspera Lateral/medial condyles Medial epicondyle Lateral epicondyle Gluteal tuberosity Tibia • • • • Intercondylar eminence Medial condyle/lateral condyle Tibial tuberosity Medial malleolus Fibula • • • • Smaller than tibia Connects to ankle Lateral malleolus head Foot • Ankle= tarsus • 7 bones – Talus – Calcaneus- largest – Navicular – Cuboid – Lateral cuneiform – Intermediate cuneiform – Medial cuniform • • • • • Metatarsals = 5 Phalanges- shorter than fingers Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx