Download Influence of Green, Red and Blue Light Emitting Diodes on

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15, 4657-4670; doi:10.3390/ijms15034657
OPEN ACCESS
International Journal of
Molecular Sciences
ISSN 1422-0067
www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms
Article
Influence of Green, Red and Blue Light Emitting Diodes on
Multiprotein Complex Proteins and Photosynthetic Activity
under Different Light Intensities in Lettuce Leaves
(Lactuca sativa L.)
Sowbiya Muneer, Eun Jeong Kim, Jeong Suk Park and Jeong Hyun Lee *
Department of Horticulture, College of Agricultural Life Sciences, Chonnam National University,
300 Young Bong-Dong Buk-Gu, Gwangju, 500-757, Korea; E-Mails: [email protected] (S.M.);
[email protected] (E.J.K.); [email protected] (J.S.P.)
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected];
Tel./Fax: +82-62-530-2069.
Received: 29 January 2014; in revised form: 28 February 2014 / Accepted: 11 March 2014 /
Published: 17 March 2014
Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the response of light emitting
diodes (LEDs) at different light intensities (70 and 80 for green LEDs, 88 and 238 for red
LEDs and 80 and 238 μmol m−2 s−1 for blue LEDs) at three wavelengths in lettuce leaves.
Lettuce leaves were exposed to (522 nm), red (639 nm) and blue (470 nm) LEDs of
different light intensities. Thylakoid multiprotein complex proteins and photosynthetic
metabolism were then investigated. Biomass and photosynthetic parameters increased with
an increasing light intensity under blue LED illumination and decreased when illuminated
with red and green LEDs with decreased light intensity. The expression of multiprotein
complex proteins including PSII-core dimer and PSII-core monomer using blue LEDs
illumination was higher at higher light intensity (238 μmol m−2 s−1) and was lowered with
decreased light intensity (70–80 μmol m−2 s−1). The responses of chloroplast sub-compartment
proteins, including those active in stomatal opening and closing, and leaf physiological
responses at different light intensities, indicated induced growth enhancement upon
illumination with blue LEDs. High intensity blue LEDs promote plant growth by
controlling the integrity of chloroplast proteins that optimize photosynthetic performance
in the natural environment.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4658
Keywords: lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.); light emitting diodes; photosynthesis; stomata;
BN-PAGE
1. Introduction
Plants use light as an energy source for photosynthesis and as an environmental signal, and respond
to its intensity, wavelength, and direction. Light is perceived by plant photoreceptors that include
phytochromes, cryptochromes and phototropins and plants generate a wide range of specific
physiological responses through these receptors. A major challenge to plants is controlled by supplying
sufficient quantity and quality of light intensities [1,2]. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) has been
proposed as a light source for controlled environment agriculture facilities and space based plant growth
chambers because they exhibit desirable characteristics such as small mass, safety and durability [3–5].
Plant development and physiology are strongly influenced by the light spectrum of the growth
environment among which blue light is involved in a wide range of plant processes such as
phototropism, photo-morphogenesis, stomatal opening, and leaf photosynthetic functioning [6]. Most
studies assessing the effects of blue light (blue LEDs) on the leaf or whole plant have either compared
the response to a broadband light source with response to blue deficient light [7] or compared plants
grown under red light alone [5,8]. On the other hand, red LEDs emit a narrow spectrum of light
(660 nm) that is close to the maximum absorbance for both chlorophyll and phytochromes. Although
red light components have a great potential for use as a light source to drive photosynthesis, plants are
adapted to utilize a wide-spectrum of light to control photosynthesis [9]. The green LEDs have reduced
photosynthesis [10]. Several reports have assessed the efficiency and deficiency of green light on
growth and development of plants. Frechilla et al. [11] demonstrated that a brief pulse of green light
could oppose stomatal opening, while stomates open if green light is followed by blue light.
The absorption of blue and red light (LEDs) by plants has been measured as 90% [12] which
indicates that plant development and physiology is strongly influenced by blue or red light [13]. In
contrast, green light has been reported to be negative on physiological and developmental incomes [14].
Many studies have been reported on several crops grown under deficiency/efficiency or using a
combination of red and blue light at different wavelengths [15,16] on growth and development of
plants. Plants grown under blue light exhibit photosynthesis more similar to those grown under
red light, such as chlorophyll a and b ratio [17,18], a greater site f content [18] and a greater
ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) content [19].
However, little is known on the integrity of combined effect of green, red and blue LEDs, with no
experimental evidence available concerning the expression of multiprotein complexes for promotion of
induction of photosynthesis. Presently, we grew lettuce plants (Lactuca sativa L.) under different light
intensities at three wavelengths (given in Table 1) of green, red and blue LEDs and analyzed the
expression of thylakoid multiprotein complex proteins (MCPs), opening and closing of stomata and
major photosynthetic parameters. Photosynthetic-mediated proteins in sub-compartments of
chloroplasts including stomatal opening and closing and photosynthetic activity responded most to
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4659
blue LEDs of high light intensity. The response of photosynthesis was more sensitive in blue LEDs
than red and green LEDs.
2. Results
2.1. Growth Analysis and Leaf Water Potential
We analyzed fresh and dry biomass of roots and leaves and it was observed that the biomass of
plants grown under blue LEDs at high light intensity (238 μmol m−2 s−1) was significantly higher than
low light intensity (80 μmol m−2 s−1). The biomass was observed to be low in plants grown under red
and lowest under green LEDs with a decrease in light intensity (Figure 1A–D).
ΨW (water potential) reached a maximium of −2.3 Mpa in plants grown under blue LEDs at
238 μmol m−2 s−1 (Figure 1E) and a minimum of −0.23 MPa in leaves of plants grown under green
LEDs at 91 μmol m−2 s−1.
Figure 1. Growth parameters (A) Leaf fresh weight; (B) Root fresh weight; (C) Leaf dry
weight; (D) Root dry weight and (E) Leaf water potential as affected by green, red and blue
LEDs at different light intensities—green (70 and 180 μmol m−1 s−1), red (88 and
238 μmol m−1 s−1) and blue (80 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1). Vertical bars indicate ± SE of the
means for n = 5. Means denoted by the different letter are significantly different at p < 0.05
according to the Tukey’s studentized range test.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4660
2.2. Photosynthetic Activity, Stomatal Conductance, Fv/Fm Ratio, and Transpiration
The plants grown at 238 μmol m−2 s−1 showed a significantly higher rate of photosynthesis
(Figure 2A) than plants grown at 80 μmol m−2 s−1 under blue LEDs. However, the plants grown under
red LEDs showed lower rates of photosynthesis with a decrease in light intensity. The lowest rate of
photosynthesis was observed for the plants grown under green LEDs with a decrease in light intensity.
The observations of plants grown under blue LEDs at 238 μmol m−2 s−1 positively showed that
induction of stomatal conductance, Fv/Fm and transpiration rate (Figure 2B–D) occurred moreso than
for the plants grown under red LEDs. Under green LEDs, the stomatal conductance, Fv/Fm and
transpiration rate was reduced compared to red and blue LEDs.
Figure 2. Changes in photosynthetic parameters (A) Net photosynthesis; (B) Stomatal
conductance; (C) Fv/Fm; and (D) Transpiration rate as affected by green, red and blue LEDs
at different light intensities—green (70 and 180 μmol m−1 s−1), red (88 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1)
and blue (80 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1). Vertical bars indicate ± SE of the means for n = 5.
Means denoted by the different letter are significantly different at p < 0.05 according to the
Tukey’s studentized range test.
2.3. Stomatal Observations
We observed stomata at different LEDs and different light intensities (Figure 3A–C). The plants grown
under blue LEDs at 80 and 238 μmol m−2 s−1 showed well organized guard cells with open stomata and
the number of stomata was also observed to be higher (see normalized expression). However, although
the plants grown under green and red LEDs at different light intensities showed well organized guard
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4661
cells, the stomata was observed to be closed and a reduction in the number of stomata was also
observed. We also detected stomatal density (Table 1), and observed that under blue LEDs at 80 and
238 μmol m−2 s−1, stomatal density was higher compared to green and red LEDs at their respcteive
light intensities.
Table 1. Stomatal densities at respective different LEDs with different light intensities.
Light intensity
(μmol m−2 s−1)
70
180
88
238
80
238
Stomatal density (Mean ± SE, mm2)
Green LEDs
Red LEDs
Blue LEDs
0.7 ± 0.11
1.0 ± 0.11
1.4 ± 0.11
1.85 ± 0.11
1.7 ± 0.11
2.3 ± 0.11
2.4. Thylakoid Membrane Proteins
First dimensional electrophoresis run under native conditions on BN-PAGE were used to separate
intact multiprotein complexes from thylakoids isolated from mature leaves as affected by different
light intensities and different LEDs (Figure 4). Gel portions between 1000 and 669 kDa contained PSII
PSII-core dimer super complex bands (band 1). The intensity of these bands was observed highest at
238 μmol m−2 s−1 and lowest at 80 μmol m−2 s−1 in plants grown under blue LEDs (also see normalized
expression). Band 1 at 238 was higher and lower, respectively, at 88 μmol m−2 s−1 in plants grown
under red LEDs. These bands were very faint at 70 μmol m−2 s−1 in plants grown under green LEDs. In
contrast, the intensity of this band was highest in plants grown under blue LEDs than red and green
LEDs at different light intensities. The blue band at 440–232 kDa (band 2 and 3) contained the PSII
monomer/ATP synthase and PSI monomer/Cytb6f. Reduction of this band was marked in green LEDs
at 70 μmol m−1 s−1 and was observed to be highly expressed at blue LEDs at 238 μmol m−1 s−1.
Analogously strong variation was observed at 140 kDa (band 4), which contained LHCII (light
harvesting complex) assembly trimer. This band was expressed in almost all conditions. However, the
intensity was marginally higher in plants grown under blue LEDs at 238 μmol m−1 s−1 and lower in
plants grown under red and green LEDs at different light intensities. A LHCII (light harvesting
complex) monomer was identified at 67 kDa (band 5) remained unaffected under all light sources and
light intensities, except a strong variation was observed at 238 μmol m−1 s−1 under blue LEDs.
For RuBisCo content quantification was performed after sodium dodecyl polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) (Figure 4B,C). The intensity of RuBisCO was observed highest at
238 μmol m−2 s−1 and lowered at 80 μmol m−2 s−1 in plants grown under blue LEDs. The intensity of
RuBisCO was strongly reduced at green LEDs at 180 μmol m−2 s−1 and absent at 70 μmol m−2 s−1.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
Figure 3. (A,B) Representative images; and (C) Normalized expression of stomata as affected by green, red and blue LEDs at different light
intensities green (70 and 180 μmol m−1 s−1), red (88 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1) and blue (80 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1). Thin layer of leaf outer
covering were peeled off carefully and laid on a glass slide, covered with a cover slip and were observed under a light microscope (Leica
CME) at 40× magnification. CW indicates cell wall, ST indicates stoma, GC indicates guard cells, and Chl indicates chloroplast.
4662
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
Figure 4. (A) Analysis of thylakoid protein complex by BN-Page; (B) RuBisCO determination by SDS-PAGE; (C) and quantification as
affected by green, red and blue LEDs at different light intensities green (70 and 180 μmol m−1 s−1), red (88 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1) and blue
(80 and 238 μmol m−1 s−1). Freshly thylakoid membranes from the leaves were solubilized in 1% BDM at a chlorophyll concentration of
1 µg µL−1, and the protein sample was separated by 7%–10% gradient BN-PAGE.
4663
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4664
3. Discussion
The structure and physiology of plants are particularly regulated by light signals from the
environment [4,20], as the primary response of plants during photosynthesis completely depends on
light conditions. Plant growth and productivity depends on the light conditions [21] and photosynthetic
metabolism is detrimentally affected by light intensity. Plants have developed a sophisticated
mechanism to adapt their structure and physiology to the light environment. In this study, we
demonstrate that blue LEDs with high light intensity superimpose over red and green LEDs. Plants
grown under blue LEDs successfully induced maximum ΨW (water potential) to −2.33 MPa and fell to
a minimum value of −0.233 MPa in leaves of plants grown at green LEDs (Figure 1E). Exposure to
green LEDs reduces biomass at low light intensity and a biomass increase was observed under blue
LEDs at 238 μmol m−1 s−1. These results give a clear indication that blue LEDs in combination with
high light intensities are more efficient for biomass production in plants. Red and blue light is
important for expansion of the leaf and enhancement of biomass [22–24]. Yorio et al. [5] reported that
there was higher weight accumulation in lettuce grown under red light supplemented with blue light
than in lettuce grown under red light alone. However, the shoot dry matter weight of leaf lettuce plants
irradiated with blue light decreased compared with that of white light [25]. In the present experiments,
blue LEDs in combination with high light intensity was important for growth elongation and biomass
accumulation compared to plants grown under low light intensities.
Physiological studies of photosynthesis conducted for many years have considered various light
conditions. A combination of red and blue LEDs is an effective source for photosynthesis [16] using
different light intensities and wave lengths. Blue LEDs deficiency can result in acclimations of light
energy partitioning in PSII and CO2 to high irradiance in spinach leaves [7]. Presently, lettuce plants
depended on high light intensity (Figure 2) and LEDs for higher rate of photosynthesis. The higher rate
of photosynthesis at 238 μmol m−1 s−1 in plants grown at blue LEDs indicated that lettuce plants
displayed pronounced acclimation of photosystems for CO2 fixation than plants grown under red and
green LEDs. A lower photosynthetic rate in plants grown under red LEDs has been observed in several
crops including rice [8] and in wheat [3]. The reduced rate of photosynthesis under low light intensity
and red LEDs suggests that vulnerability to a decreased the photosynthetic rate might be associated
with changes in multiprotein complexes (PSI and PSII). The lower rate of photosynthesis in red LEDs
can also be attributed to low nitrogen content in leaves, due to low chlorophyll and carotenoid content,
which was also observed in the present study (data not shown) [26].
The stomata are important channels for the exchange of water and gases with external
environmental conditions. Light influences stomata conductivity and proton motive forces [27]. The
development of stomata has been related to light intensity [28]. Our results agree with these previous
findings and additionally show that blue LEDs are more efficient in stomatal structure and opening and
closing of stomata (Figure 3). The number of stomata increased more in plants grown under blue LEDs
at 238 μmol m−1 s−1 compared to plants grown under low light intensities and other LEDs. The closure
and reduced number of stomata might be due to defoliation of leaves under low light intensity during
growth of lettuce. Indeed, high temperatures under different light intensity conditions might induce
palisade and increased sponge parenchyma cell length and thickness [29]. The closure of stomata with
reduced normalized expression and number might be also the reason for reduction of transpiration rate
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4665
and stomatal conductance in lettuce which were grown under green LEDs more so than those grown
under blue LEDs.
The thylakoid membranes are the sub-compartments in which the primary reactions of
photosynthesis occur. About 100 proteins are involved in these reactions; they are organized in four
major multisubunit protein complexes: PSI, PSII, ATP synthase complex and cytochrome b6/f
(cyt b6/f) complex [30]. Proteomics of the thylakoid membrane are an excellent approach to establish
the number and identity of the proteins localized to this sub-compartment in pigment–multiprotein
complexes, and to study the impact of light intensity and light source on them for increased
photosynthetic metabolism and other physiological process. Several diverse photosynthetic factors
have been observed at different light intensities with inhibition of photosynthetic factors associated
with carbohydrate metabolism in leaves [31]. However, to date there is no information on the
expression of thylakoid proteins under different intensities of light and light sources. Our results show
that the induction in the expression of PSII-core dimer under blue LEDs at 238 μmol m−1 s−1
(Figure 4A). The reduction of these multiprotein complexes at red and green LEDs might limit mineral
nutrient clusters which are associated with the chloroplast membrane [32]. In addition to this, leaves
exposed to green LEDs might reject light due to chlorosis that occurs due to proteolytic loss of
photosystems and the cytb6/f complex [33] and the light-harvesting chlorophylls and carotenoids. The
inhibition of PSI and PSII under red and green LEDs with low light intensity suggests the involvement
of an unidentified problem related to transport of substances in plants are due to reduced amounts of
core antenna Chl-protein complexes [34]. The involvement of blue LEDs at high light intensity leads
to maintenance of PSI and PSII core complexes. In some reports, it has been postulated that the
intensity of blue light for activation of PSII core protein content in Arabidopsis acting via
cryptochromes, along with non-blue specific activation signals
Our data clearly show that RuBisCO was expressed at 238 μmol m−1 s−1 whereas it was absent in
plants grown under green LED light sources (Figure 4B,C) which were positively paralleled with other
multiprotein complexes. The enhancement of RuBisCO under high intensity of blue LED might be
associated with an increase in the amount of N content accompanied by induction of chlorophyll content or
it might be also due to wider and thinner expansion of palisade and sponge parenchyma. The induction
of RuBisCO in plants grown under blue LED light might be also due the expansion of palisade and
sponge parenchyma. Reduction of thylakoid protein complexes and photosynthetic parameters under
green and red LEDs at low light intensity indicate a close dependence of the photosynthetic
metabolism on the source of light and its intensity. The proteins of chloroplast sub-compartments
under blue LEDs at high light intensity optimize photosynthesis and provide an advantage for higher
growth and development of plants than those grown under red and green LEDs at low light intensities.
4. Material and Methods
4.1. LEDs of Different Light Intensities
All combined LEDs had different spectra of green, red, and blue light. Light treatments for young
lettuce plants were 70 and 180 μmol m−2 s−1 for green, 88 and 238 μmol m−2 s−1 for red, and 80 and
238 μmol m−2 s−1 for blue. Photon flux density (PPFD) was measured using a LI-250 quantum sensor
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4666
(LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA) and was separately controlled by adjusting both electric currents and
number of light bulbs for the LEDs. The wavelengths of different light intensities are shown in Table 2.
All treatments were done in a culture room, employing separate plots for the different light intensities.
The room was ventilated to maintain the CO2 level the same as that of the outside atmosphere. The
relative humidity was maintained at 70% ± 10% with a 16 h photoperiod and a temperature of 25 °C
during the light period and 18 °C during the dark period.
Table 2. Major light wavelengths of different light intensities.
Light sources
Green
Green
Red
Red
Blue
Blue
Light intensity (μmol m−2 s−1)
70
180
88
238
80
238
Peak wave length λp (nm)
522
522
639
639
470
470
4.2. Plant Material and Growth Conditions
Red-wrinkled lettuce seeds (“Hongyeom”, Sakata Korea Seed, Seoul, Korea) of Lactuca sativa L.
were sown in 240 cells of Rockwool tray with electrical conductivity of 1.5 dS m−1 and were
germinated at 25 °C under florescent light. The seedling with 5 true leaves seven days after sowing
was transplanted on the growing system of deep flow technique (DFT) using commercially solid
nutrient [35] (Global Coseal, Limited, Seoul, Korea) diluted in tap water with EC 1.53 dS m−1 with
pH 5.9. The plants were randomized into eight groups and were placed under 8 light treatments for
15 days. All measurements were carried out using the fully expanded mature leaf of the plant.
4.3. Growth Measurements and ΨW Potential
Plants were uprooted carefully from the hydroponic solution and blot-dried with soft lint free paper.
Each plant was separated into roots, stem, and leaves using a sharp scalpel and forceps in moist paper
sheets. The biomass of the leaf, root, and stem fractions was determined. For dry biomass determination,
plant material was dried at 65 °C for 2 days and weighed on an electronic weighing balance.
After fresh and dry weight of samples following formula was used to calculate leaf water potential.
Relative water content (RWC) % = (FW − DW)/(TM − DW) × 100
where FW indicates fresh weight, DW indicates dry weight and TM indicates turgid weight.
4.4. Measurement of Photosynthetic Activity
Photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate, and stomatal conductance were measured using a LI-6400XT
portable photosynthesis measurement system (LI-COR, John Morris Scientific, Sydney, Australia).
Gas exchange was measured on the fully expanded mature leaves at 20 °C inside the clutch with CO2
concentration maintained at 600 μmol mol−1. Chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) was measured by using
a PAM 2000 chlorophyll fluorescence meter (Heinz Walz GmbH, Effeltrich, Germany). The leaves
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4667
were adapted to dark conditions for 30 min before measurement. The maximum fluorescence (Fm) and
minimum fluorescence (F0) were determined by applying a saturating light pulse (20 kHz) of
1100 μmol·m−2·s−1 PPF for 3 μs. The maximum PS II quantum yield (Fv/Fm) was calculated as
Fv/Fm = (Fm − F0)/Fm.
4.5. Observation of Stomata
For stomatal observation, thin layers of leaf tissues were carefully cut and were laid on a glass slide,
covered with a cover slip by adding a few drops of glycerine, and were observed using a DM4000 light
microscope (Leica, Wetzlar, Germany) at 10× and 40× magnification. The number of stomata was
observed by counting the number in the present leaf area. The stomatal density was calculated by
dividing the number of stomata counted by 10 times the area of 1 grid square.
4.6. Multiprotein Complex Proteins
Blue native-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) of integral thylakoid proteins was
performed as previously described [36]. Five grams of fresh leaf tissues were homogenized in liquid
nitrogen and thylakoid membranes were extracted using an extraction buffer (pH 7.8) containing 20 mM
Tricine-NaOH, 70 mM sucrose, and 5 mM MgCl2 and were filtered through miracloth/cheesecloth
before centrifugation at 4500× g for 10 min. The thylakoid pellet was resuspended in the same buffer
(pH 7.8) and centrifuged again. The resulting pellet containing thylakoid membranes was washed and
extracted with each proper buffer. An equal volume of resuspension buffer containing 2% (w/v)
n-dodecyl-β-D maltoside (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) was added under continuous mixing and
the solubilization of membrane-protein complexes was allowed to occur for 3 min on ice. Insoluble material
was removed by centrifugation at 18,000× g for 15 min. The supernatant was mixed with 0.1 volume of
5% w/v Serva blue G, 100 mM Bis Tris-HCl (pH 7.0), 30% w/v sucrose, and 500 mM €-amino-n-caproic
acid and loaded onto a 0.75-mm-thick 5%–12.5% w/v acrylamide gradient gel (180 × 160 mm).
Electrophoresis was performed at 4 °C by increasing the voltage from 100 to 200 V overnight.
4.7. RuBisCO Determination by SDS-PAGE
Leaf tissues were homogenized at 4 °C in 100 mM Tris buffer (pH 7.5) containing 5 mM of DTT,
2 mM iodoacetate and 5% (v/v) glycerol at a leaf; buffer ratio of 1:5–10 (g:mL). For this extraction,
a buffer without sodium or potassium ion was recommended for SDS-PAGE analysis because those
cations reduce the solubility of DS (dodecyl sulfate). Before centrifugation, a TritonX100 (25%, v/v)
was added to a portion of leaf homogenate to make a final concentration of 0.1% (v/v). An addition of
TritonX100 was effective for the extraction of RuBisCO bound to the membrane fraction. The
homogenates were centrifuged at 5000× g for 3 min at 4 °C. A lithium DS solution (25% w/v) and
2-mercaptoethanol were added to the supernatant fluid to a final concentration of 1.0% (w/v) and 1%
(v/v), respectively. This preparation was immediately treated at 100 °C for 1 min, and was then stored
at −30 °C until the analysis of SDS-PAGE. The samples containing 2–10 μg RuBisCO were loaded
onto 12% polyacrylamide gel. After electrophoresis, the gels were stained in 0.25% (w/v) CBB-R. The
stained bands corresponding to larger and smaller subunits of RuBisCO were cut out of the gels with a
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4668
razor blade and were eluted in 1–2.5 mL of formamide in a stoppered amber test tube at 50 °C for 5 h
with shaking. The absorbance of the resultant solution was read at 595 nm with a spectrophotometer.
RuBisCO content was determined by using the standard curve calculated from the absorbance of a
known amount of purified RuBisCO.
4.8. Statistical Analysis
A completely randomized design was used with five replicates for six treatments. An individual
Student’s t test and Tukey’s studentized range test was employed to compare the means of separate
replicates by using SAS version 9.1 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA).
5. Conclusions
Finally, we conclude that blue LEDs at high light intensity promote plant growth by controlling the
integrity of chloroplast proteins that elevates photosynthetic performance in the natural environment.
Further analysis in multiprotein complex proteins followed by the second dimension along with
genomic data will provide important information for development of plants with better with-standing
potential under different light intensities and LED conditions.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by iPET (Korea Institute of Planning and Evaluation for Technology in
Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries), Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries,
Republic of Korea. The authors would like to thank editor harrisco.co.kr. for editing the English.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. Dong, C.; Fu, Y.; Liu, G.; Liu, H. Low light intensity effects on the growth, photosynthetic
characteristics, 2 antioxidant capacity, yield and quality of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 3 at
different growth stages in BLSS. Adv. Space Res. 2014, doi:10.1016/j.asr.2014.02.004.
2. Samuoliene, G.; Brazaityte, A.; Jankauskiene, J.; Virsile, A.; Sirtautas, R.; Novičkovas, A.;
Sakalauskienė, S.; Sakalauskaitė, J.; Duchovskis, P. LED irradiance level affects growth and
nutritional quality of Brassica microgreens. Cent. Eur. J. Biol. 2013, 8, 1241–1249.
3. Yano, A.; Fujiwara, K. Plant lighting system with five wavelength-band light-emitting diodes
providing photon flux density and mixing ratio control. Plant Methods 2012, 8, 46.
4. Kim, K.; Kook, H.S.; Jang, Y.J.; Lee, W.H.; Kamala Kannan, S.; Chae J.C.; Lee, K.J. The effect of
blue-light-emitting diodes on antioxidant properties and resistance to Botrytis cinerea in tomato.
Plant Pathol. Microbiol. 2013, 4, 49.
5. Yorio, N.C.; Goins, G.D.; Kagie, H.R.; Wheeler, R.M.; Sager, J.C. Improving spinach, radish, and
lettuce growth under red light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with blue light supplementation. Hort. Sci.
2001, 36, 380–383.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
4669
Whitelam, G.; Halliday, K. Light and Plant Development; Blackwell: Oxford, UK, 2007.
Matsuda, R.; Ohashi-Kaneko, K.; Fujiwara, K.; Kurata, K. Effects of blue light deficiency on
acclimation of light energy partitioning in PSII and CO2 assimilation capacity to high irradiance
in spinach leaves. Plant Cell Physiol. 2008, 49, 664–670.
Matsuda, R.; Ohashi-Kaneko, K.; Fujiwara, K.; Goto, E.; Kurata, K. Photosynthetic
characteristics of rice leaves grown under red light with or without supplemental blue light.
Plant Cell Physiol. 2004, 45, 1870–1874.
Kang, J.H.; Krishnkumar, S.; Sua Atulba, S.L.; Jeong B.R.; Hwang, S.J. Light intensity and
photoperiod influence the growth and development of hydroponically grown leaf lettuce in a
closed-type plant factory system. Hort. Environ. Biotechnol. 2013, 54, 501–509.
Sun, J.D.; Nishio, J.N.; Vogelmann, T.C. Green light drives CO2 fixation deep within leaves.
Plant Cell Physiol. 1998, 39, 1020–1026.
Frechilla, S.; Talbott, L.D.; Bogomolni, R.A.; Zeiger, E. Reversal of blue light-stimulated
stomatal opening by green light. Plant Physiol. 2000, 41, 71–176.
Terashima, I.; Fujita, T.; Inoue, T.; Chow, W.S.; Oguchi, R. Green light drives leaf photosynthesis
more efficiently than red light in strong white light: Revisiting the enigmatic question of why
leaves are green. Plant Cell Physiol. 2009, 50, 684–697.
Olle, Margit.; Virsile, A. The effects of light emitting diode on greenhouse plant growth and
quality. Agric. Food Sci. 2013, 22, 223–234.
Folta, K.M.; Maruhnich, S.A. Green light: A signal to slow down or stop. J. Exp. Bot. 2007, 58,
3099–3111.
Fan, X.X.; Xu, Z.G.; Liu, X.Y.; Tang, C.M.; Wang, L.W.; Han, X.L. Effect of light intensity on the
growth and leaf development of young tomato plants grown under a combination of red and blue
light. Sci. Hort. 2013, 153, 50–55.
Lin, K.H.; Huang, M.Y.; Huang, W.D.; Hsu, M.H.; Yang, Z.W.; Yang, C.M. The effects of red,
blue and white light-emitting diodes on the growth, development, and edible quality of
hydroponically grown lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. Var. Capitata). Sci. Hort. 2013, 150, 86–91.
Buschmann, C.; Meier, D.; Kleudgen, H.K.; Lichtenthaler, H.K. Regulation of chloroplast
development by red and blue light. Photochem. Biol. 1978, 27, 195–198.
Leong, T.Y.; Anderson, J.M. Effect of light quality on the composition and function of thylakoid
membranes in Atriplex triangularis. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1984, 766, 533–541.
Eskins, K.; Jiang, C.Z.; Shibles, R. Light quality and irriadiance effects on pigments, light
harvesting proteins and Rubsico activity in a chlorophyll and light harvesting deficient soybean
mutant. Physiol. Plant 1991, 83, 47–53.
Raju, S.; Shah, S.; Gajbhiye, N.; Effect of light intensity on photosynthesis and accumulation of
sennosides in plant parts of senna (Cassia angustifolia Vahl.). Indian J. Plant Physiol. 2013, 3,
285–289.
Avala, J.A.; Ravetta, D.A. Allocation of photoassimilates to biomass, resin and carbohydrate in
Grindelia chiloensis as affected by light intensity. J. Field Crop. Res. 2001, 69, 143–149.
Li, H.M.; Xu, Z.G.; Tang, C.M. Effect of light emitting diodes on growth and morphogenesis of upland
cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) plantlets in vitro. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 2010, 103, 155–163.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15
4670
23. Hogewoning, S.W.; Trouwborst, G.; Maljaars, H.; Poorter, H.; Leperen, W.V.; Jeremy, H.
Blue light dose-responses of leaf photosynthesis, morphology, and chemical composition of
Cucumis sativus grown under different combinations of red and blue light. J. Exp. Bot. 2010, 61,
3107–3117.
24. Johkan, M.; Shoji, K.; Goto, F.; Hashida, S.; Yoshihara, T. Blue light-emitting diode light
irradiation of seedlings improves seedling quality and growth after transplanting in red leaf lettuce.
Hort. Sci. 2010, 45, 1809–1814.
25. Ohashi-Kaneko, K.; Matsuda, R.; Goto, E.; Fujiwara, K.; Kurata, K. Growth of rice plants under
red light with or without supplemental blue light. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2006, 52, 444–452.
26. Kim, H.H.; Goins, G.D.; Wheeler, R.M.; Sager, J.C. Green-light supplementation for enhanced
lettuce growth under red- and blue-light-emitting diodes. Hort. Sci. 2004, 39, 1617–1622.
27. Timperio, A.M.; D’Amici, G.M.; Barta, C.; Francesco, L.; Zolla, L. Proteomics, pigment
composition, and organization of thylakoid membranes in iron-deficient spinach leaves. J. Exp. Bot.
2007, 58, 3695–3710.
28. Hattori, T.; Sonobe, K.; Inanaga, S.; An, P.; Wataru, T.; Hideki, A.; Eneji, E.A.; Shigenori, M.
Short term stomatal response to light intensity changes and osmotic stress in sorghum seedlings
raised with and without silicon. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2007, 60, 177–182.
29. Kim, H.H.; Wheeler, R.M.; Sager, J.C.; Goins, G.D.; Norikane, J.H. Evaluation of lettuce growth
using supplemental green light with red and blue light-emitting diodes in a controlled
environment—A review of research at Kennedy Space Center. Acta Hort. 2006, 711, 111–119.
30. Fernandez, V.; Eichert, T.; del Rio, V.; Lopez-Casado, G.; Heredia-Guerrero, J.A.; Anunciacion, A.;
Heredia, A.; Abadia, J. Leaf structural changes associated with iron deficiency chlorosis in
field-grown pear and peach: Physiological implications. Plant Soil 2008, 311, 161–172.
31. Hippler, M.; Klein, J.; Fink, A.; Allinger, T.; Hoerth, P. Towards functional proteomics of
membrane protein complexes: analysis of thylakoid membranes from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.
Plant J. 2001, 28, 595–606.
32. Stitt, M.; Schulze, D. Does RuBisCO control the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth?
An exercise in molecular Ecophysiology. Plant Cell Environ. 1994, 17, 465–487.
33. Imsande, J. Iron-sulfur clusters: Formation, perturbation, and physiological functions.
Plant Physiol. Biochem. 1999, 37, 87–97.
34. Briat, J.F.; Curie, C.; Gaymard, F. Iron utilization and metabolism in plants. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol.
2007, 10, 276–282.
35. Kraty, B.A. Three non-circulating hydroponic methods for growing lettuce. Acta Hort. 2009, 843,
65–72.
36. Kugler, M.; Jansch, L.; Kruft, V.; Schmitz, U.K.; Braun, H.P. Analysis of the chloroplast protein
complexes by blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE). Photosyn. Res. 1997,
53, 35–44.
© 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).