Download Triad Helium Nucleus

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Triad Helium Nucleus
Russ McGlenn
1448 Sonya Lane, Santa Maria, CA 93455
e-mail: [email protected]
This paper contrasts the Spinning Ring Model (Bergman/Lucas) with the Standard Model
(Bohr/Einstein) of the Helium Atom. It discusses the dimensions of the electron, a redefinition of the neutron as
a triad made up of two protons and one electron, the relationship of both in the nucleus, and the electric and
magnetic forces that hold the nucleus together. (From Chapter 6 of Design Vs. Chaos, Russ McGlenn, 2004)
1. Introduction
Scientists believe that atoms are made up of smaller and
smaller sub atomic particles, and classical physics should be able
to explain by cause-and-effect what holds the particles together
in a structured way to create matter. Three possibilities have
been considered. The first two apply only to the nucleus, while
the last one has possibilities for holding electrons in place around
the nucleus.
1. Strong nuclear force. This force is assumed to bind protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It was invented to hold atoms together, but it exists only in nuclei
and does not follow the inverse square law of other
forces.
2. Weak nuclear force. This is the second force assumed to
work in atoms. The weak force is supposed to break particles apart and never hold them together!
3. Electromagnetism. This is a combination of magnetism
and electricity. It depends upon the distance and velocity of charged particles. It is a fundamental physical force
that is responsible for interactions between charged particles such as electrons and protons.
[A common misconception is that Gravity holds the
atom together. This is the weakest force in the universe.
Gravity cannot hold the electron in place around the nucleus and it cannot hold the proton and neutron together
in the nucleus.]
2. Which Force Is the Best Candidate?
The following quotation states that, in the Bohr model, electrical charge is not enough to hold the atom together. This quote
is a challenge to Newton’s laws of motion, Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory, and the spinning-ring model of the atom.
The mass of a nucleus has been observed to be less than the
sum of its constituent neutron and proton masses by a small
amount that is known as the binding energy. This mass difference is impossible to understand if only the action of electrical forces
between nucleons (protons and neutrons) is considered. Such
forces, which cause particles of the same charge to repel each other,
would drive the protons apart. Some attractive force must also exist to bind the nucleus together. [This is where electromagnetism solves the problem.] The small size of the nucleus compared to that of the entire atom indicates that this attractive
force, which is called the strong interaction, must have an extremely short range not larger than the nucleus itself.” (Compton’s Encyclopedia Version 3.00, s.v. “nuclear physics,” emphasis mine)
Lucas and Bergman show that, based on Classical Physics,
electromagnetic forces will hold the atom together. Everything
Lucas and Bergman used to construct their model of the electron
and atom has been researched and described in college physics
textbooks for nearly 100 years, but was never brought together in
one theory to explain the atom. It is a truth that has been hidden
by the popularity of Relativity and Quantum Theory.
When the charge of the spinning ring moves at the speed of
light, the electrical force on the surface of the electron increases
the thickness of the ring (based upon Coulomb’s law), while the
magnetic force caused by the spinning of the electrical field causes a compression of the ring (based upon Ampère’s law) (Figure
5.9). When the electric and magnetic forces are in perfect balance, a stable, spinning ring is created—forming the basic building block of all matter. If the Coulomb force increases, the atom
explodes. If the ampere force increases, the atom collapses.
3. Scientifically Proven Properties of the Electron
Table 6.1 lists properties of the electron observed through
many laboratory experiments. From these properties, found empirically, Lucas and Bergman built a model of the atom using
Faraday’s and Maxwell’s electromagnetic-field theory (which
accounts for Newton’s three Laws of Motion). These properties
are demonstrated to be the result of electromagnetic forces working in the spinning-ring model of the atom. The proof of a model’s ability to represent the atom is whether accurate predictions
can be made from it. The spinning-ring model has “correctly
predicted features of the periodic table of elements and the spins
of all 1,500 nuclides that have been measured” (Bergman, Physical Models, 1997, p. 3).
Table 6.1, though technical, is presented to show that the electron is now a well researched and described, three-dimensional
particle. The spinning-ring model takes all the data and builds a
visual picture based on known laws of science and mathematical
equations. This is a derived model, calculated mathematically
and based upon laboratory observations. Every feature of the
model is consistent with every other feature. The model is logical, self-consistent, and consistent with experimental measurements of the electron’s properties.
The Bohr model and others put forth in the past made up mathematical equations and tried to force the data into the equation
instead of the model. This did not work well, and even more
complex theories and assumptions had to be made to make the
McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus
SI Units
1.60218x10-19
Coulomb (Ch.deCoulomb)
2
Mass, m
9.10953x10-31
Kilogram
3
Magnetic mom.
-9.2848x10-24
Current ampere meter
4
Radius, R
3.86607x10-13
Meter
5
Shape, Ln (R/r )
429.931
—
6
Rim speed, c
Speed of light
Meters/second
7
Rotation, ω
8
Current, I
7.75445x1020
-19.773
Amp (Andre M. Ampère)
9
Capacitance, C
3.1281x10-25
Farad (Michael Faraday)
10
Inductance, L
2.0891x10-19
Henry (Joseph Henry)
11
Magnetic flux, Φ
-4.1309x10-15
Weber (Wilhelm Weber)
12
Static energy
4.10312x10-14
Joule (James Joule)
13
Magnetic energ
4.08412x10-14
Joule (James Joule)
Figure 6.1
S
S
W
Electron to Proton
Magnetic Flux Joining
Side View
As if looking out from the center of
the Hydrogen Atom (Figure 6.2)
Spinning positive proton
viewed on edge.
Rad/second
This is the point at
which the North
magnetic flux joins with
the South magnetic flux
N S
SN
SN
Magnetic flux
lines.
N S
Dimensions
Charge, e
there. Another simulation is being developed to discover the
exact geometries for other atoms and molecules.
N S
Characteristic
1
Vol. 6, No. 2
N S
Bohr model work. We end up with theories to explain why the
theories don’t work.
Occam’s Razor is a philosophical principle that says the simplest explanation is probably the correct explanation. The spinning-ring model of the atom is much simpler than the Bohr model and fits Occam’s Razor very well.
Cross section A-B see Figure 6.2 B
2
Spinning negative electron viewed on edge.
Table 6.1—Properties of the Free Electron
4. How the Electron is Held in Place Around
the Nucleus
N
N
Magnetic flux
lines
A
Magnetic Flux Lines Top View
Hydrogen Molecule
Figure 6.2
Magnetic flux lines
top view.
ro
ss
s
Fi ect
gu io
re n A
6. -B
A
1
se
e
N
proton
C
S
Magnetic flux
lines.
S
N
electron
electron
S
N
S
proton
We have already seen that electromagnetism is the best candidate for the binding force within the atom. The charge making
up each electron and proton rotates at high speed, creating a corresponding magnetic field. This field, called magnetic flux, is
non-moving static energy (called magnetostatic by James Clerk
Maxwell). The electron’s magnetic flux either links with or opposes the proton’s flux. North poles couple with south poles—
like two bar magnets that pull together when opposites attract—
or push apart when similar poles are brought together. (Figures
6.1 and 6.2).
Hydrogen provides a simple example of this mechanism
(Figure 6.3). The hydrogen molecule is a balanced combination
of electric attraction (electron attracted to the proton), electric
repulsion (electron repelling electron, proton repelling proton)
and magnetic attraction (north poles coupling with south poles),
and magnetic repulsion (north against north, south repelling
south). This combination of forces determines the allowable stable positions of each electron and proton in any atom, whether
within the nucleus or around it.
In the spinning-ring model, the dominating force holding
particles in their relative positions is the magnetic force. In his
model, Joseph Lucas ignores the electric force assuming it does
not contribute significantly to the positioning of the particles
within the atom. The coupling of magnetic lines of force is what
dominates positioning.
The Common Sense Science Team developed a computer simulation of the hydrogen molecule and showed that the molecule is stable. All the forces combine to place both electrons and
both protons in their positions in the molecule and keep them
N
B
This is the point at which the North flux line joins with the South flux line (See
figure 6.1) Magnetic flux lines are continuous without beginning or end. The "N"
and "S" labels show the flux line direction relative to its source and should not be
confused with electrical fields which are another demension of force in the atom.
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Hydrogen Molecule
Figure 6.3
spinning-ring model
Positive
Negative
3
5. Inside the Nucleus
The Bohr model says that the nucleus is comprised of protons
and neutrons. When the neutron is knocked out of the atom in a
collider chamber, it always breaks up into one proton and one
electron.
This led the Common Sense Science Team to propose that socalled neutrons are simply one proton and one electron. The
spinning-ring model eliminates the neutron as a separate particle
in favor of recognizing that the nucleus is composed of groupings of two protons and one electron bound in place by their
electromagnetic fields. These groupings are called triads (Figure
6.4).
Proton
Figure 6.5
Neon Atom
Electron
1st Shell
Positive
Proton
2nd Shell
Magnetic
Flux Line
Magnetic Flux Line
Negative
Electron
Great Circle
Figure 6.4
The nucleus is made up of one or more triads of 1 electron and 2 protons.
One triad is shown here. The electron is in the center and the two protons
are around the outside. Not shown here, but the negative electric charge
on the electron is a force of attraction to the positive charge of the protons
which compensates for the pushing apart by the magnetic flux. The
magnetic flux generates an equally strong force of repulsion.
The North magnetic flux of the
two protons meet here to push
(repel) the protons away.
The spinning
Electron.
The North magnetic flux of the one
proton and one electron meet here to
push (repel) the nucleus apart.
N
N
Magnetic flux lines.
N
N
N
electron
proton
S
N
S
S
S
proton
S
S
Top View
When the electron and proton's spin velocity is at the speed of light, the triad
remains in stable electromagnetic balance to maintain the structure
of the nucleus. (not to scale see Figure 5.1)
2 electrons balance out
the first shell
The nucleus is made up
of 10 triads (See 6.6)
6. Which Force Is the Best Candidate?
The nucleus of each atom is surrounded by layers of electrons, called shells (Figure 6.5). These shells are held in specific
positions around the nucleus by a combination of electrical attraction (toward the protons collected in the nucleus) and magnetic coupling. The number of electrons in each shell varies with
the atomic number of the element.
The number of shells is largely determined by simple geometric packing, similar to the problem of fitting suitcases in the
trunk of your car. The electrons “pack” around the nucleus wherever they will fit in most easily. This is the same concept that is
McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus
4
involved when we see water flow downhill until it cannot go
down anymore and pools in a lake or ocean.
There can be up to seven shells in the largest atom (Figure
6.6). After the seventh shell, the binding power of the electromagnetic fields is too weak to hold further shells. Common
Sense Science gives a causal explanation for the limit of seven
shells, based on Maxwell’s use of Newton’s inverse square law of
gravity applied to magnetic force (Bergman, Physical Models,
1997, pp. 14–15). This means that the electromagnetic force of the
nucleus can only reach out and hold electrons as far away as the
seventh shell.
7. What Holds the Nucleus Inside the First
Shell?
According to Bergman’s derivations, free protons are more
than 1,836 times smaller than free electrons in diameter (Figure
5.1). If the proton were the size of a golf ball, the electron would
be the size of a Ferris wheel. The proton has the same quantity of
charge as the electron, but it is squeezed into a much smaller
volume. This gives the proton a greater charge density, which in
turn gives it more mass.
Atomic Shells
Figure 6.6
The atom can have up to seven shells. The first two
shells and nucleus below represent the neon atom.
There are 10 electrons in the shells and 10 triads in
the nucleus with a possible arrangement of two
groups of five one group stacked above the other.
Spinning electrons are in a
fixed position in the shell and
do not orbit the nucleus.
(See 6.5 for 3D view)
Shells #1 to 7
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Vol. 6, No. 2
remain either at rest or in motion. The higher the magnetic energy, the more the object will resist being moved. Once moving,
the more it will resist being stopped.
The principle of geometric packing applies to the nucleus also. Electrons in the nucleus are compressed by forces from nearby particles. Electrons are still larger than protons even when
this occurs (See Figure 5.1). The smaller size and greater mass of
the proton allows it to not only pack closer together, but also
creates a stronger magnetic force. This is what binds protons
and electrons together to form a nucleus.
Depending on the arrangement of electrons and protons in
the nucleus, certain forces of attraction and repulsion occur.
These magnetic and electrical forces work together to form a stable, though “springy” arrangement. The characteristic of “springiness” is important, as it allows the atom to absorb and store
energy. If the atom’s parts were rigidly fixed, it could not do
this.
In the same way, atoms need to expand or contract to receive
or give off energy. As more particles (protons in particular) are
added to form heavier and heavier elements, the protons will
pack as closely as their field strengths and geometries will permit.
Electrons outside of the nucleus are attracted to the protons
because of their opposite charge, and pack as closely as possible
around the nucleus. Here, around the nucleus, electrons are
much bigger and so cannot pack as tightly. Because of lack of
room, some electrons remain on the outside and form groupings
that we recognize as shells. In order to balance the electric and
magnetic forces in the atom, the number of electrons around the
outside shells is equal to one-half the number of protons packed
in the nucleus.
An example of this mechanism is like trying to pack four girls
and four boys into a Volkswagen. First we pack four girls
(representing positively charged protons) and two boys
(representing larger, negatively charged electrons) into the car.
The last two boys would not fit inside the car. Because of their
attraction to two of the girls inside, they would ride the front and
back bumpers outside the car (representing the electrons in the
first outer shell). This is an example of how the packing principle works in the helium atom. (Figure 6.8)
8. Atomic Numbers
Nucleus enlarged. The
actual configuration is
still to be determined.
Higher charge density yields higher magnetic and electrical
field density in the area close to the charge itself. Moving the
charged energy around results in higher feedback forces, which
we sense physically as being more massive, or harder to move.
Remember, mass is not weight, but is the tendency of an object to
In the past, the atomic number for any element was defined
as the number of protons in the nucleus. This was based on the
assumption of the existence of separate particles called neutrons.
With the exception of hydrogen which has no nucleus, the spinning-ring model shows that all nuclei are made up of triads containing one electron and two protons each. This gives the new
model twice as many protons as was earlier assumed.
We have already learned that the total number of electrons in
all shells for a given element is equal to the total number of triads
in the nucleus (Bergman, pers. com., February 23, 2000). Therefore, the definition of the atomic number under the spinning-ring
model is the number of electrons in the outer shells. The Bohr
model only recognized half the protons in the nucleus (a number
equal to the number of electrons in the outer shells). Thus, the
actual atomic number does not change with the new model.
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Elementary atoms range from helium (He) with the atomic
number 2 (two shell electrons and two triads in the nucleus) to
uranium, with the atomic number 92 (92 shell electrons and 92
5
triads in the nucleus). Some scientists claim to have made heavier atoms, but these man-made atoms only last a few seconds and
they are beyond the scope of this book.
Periodic Table of the Elements
Figure 6.7b
The top number is the atomic number.
The letter symbol denotes the element. (H = hydrogen)
1
1A
1
1 H
3
Li
13
3A
5
B
14
4A
6
C
6.941
9.01218
10.81
12.011
12
Mg
13
Al
14
Si
15
P
16
S
17
Cl
18
Ar
26.9815
28.086
30.9738
32.06
35.453
39.948
31
Ga
32
Ge
33
As
34
Se
35
Cr
36
K
11
3 Na
19
K
20
Ca
3
3B
21
Sc
39.098
40.08
44.959
47.90
37
5 Rb
Sr
38
39
Y
40
Zr
PERIOD
22.9898
4
85.4678
55
6 Cs
132.905
7
87
Fr
(223)
24.305
87.62
88.9059
56 57
Ba *La
137.33
138.905
4
4B
22
Ti
5
5B
23
V
6
6B
24
Cr
7
7B
25
Mn
50.941
51.996
41 42
Nb Mo
91.22
92.9064
72
Hf
73
Ta
178.49
180.948
95.94
74
W
183.85
8
15
5A
7
N
16
6A
8
O
17
7A
9
F
18
8A
2
He
2
2A
4
Be
1.0079
2
The bottom number is the atomic weight
14.0067 15.9994 18.9984
4.0026
10
Ne
20.179
28
Ni
11
1B
29
Cu
12
2B
30
Zn
58.9332
58.70
63.546
65.38
69.72
72.59
74.9216
78.96
79.904
83.80
45
Rh
46
Pd
47
Ag
48
Cd
49
In
50
Sn
51
Sb
52
Te
53
I
54
Xe
102.905
106.4
107.868
112.40
114.82
118.69
121.75
127.60
78
Pt
79
Au
80
Hg
81
Tl
82
Pb
83
Bi
84
Po
85
At
86
Rn
196.967
200.59
204.37
207.19
208.980
(209)
(210)
(222)
64
Gd
65
Tb
66
Dy
67
Ho
68
Er
69
Tm
70
Yb
71
Lu
157.25
158.925
162.50
164.930
167.26
168.934
173.04
174.967
10
26
Fe
9
8B
27
Co
54.938
55.847
43
Tc
44
Ru
(97)
101.07
75
Re
76
Os
77
Ir
186.207
190.2
192.22
195.09
126.904
131.30
88
89 104 105 106 107 108 109
Ra †Ac Ru Ha Unh Uns Uno Une
226.025 227.028
(261)
(262)
*Lanthanide
series:
†Actinide
series:
(263)
(262)
(265)
(266)
58
Ce
59
Pr
60 61 62 63
Nd Pm Sm Eu
140.12
140.908
144.24
(145)
90
Th
91
Pa
92
U
93
Np
232.038 231.036 238.029 234.048
150.36
151.965
94 95 96 97
Pu Am Cm Bk
98
Cf
99 100 101 102 103
Es Fm Md No Lr
(244)
(251)
(252)
(243)
(247)
(247)
(257)
(258)
(259)
(260)
6
McGlenn: Triad Helium Nucleus
9. The Periodic Table
In the early 1800s, scientists began to see that some elements
had similar characteristics which formed groups based on their
chemical properties. About 1870, scientists in Germany and Russia discovered that similarities tended to be greatest between
elements whose atomic numbers were close together.
This tendency is called the Periodic Law, and its discovery
led to the development of the Periodic Table (Figure 6.7b). The
Periodic Table lists all the known elements grouped according to
their atomic numbers and chemical properties. The Periodic
Table was derived primarily by experimental observations and
measurements. It represents a descriptive layout for convenience, primarily with respect to chemical reactions.
At this time the spinning-ring model of the atom does not
change the Periodic Table. What the spinning-ring model does is
give a cause-and-effect explanation for the arrangement of the
periodic table. The revised Periodic Table shows the relationship
of the seven possible shells for the elements in Figure 6.7.
(Bergman, Physical Models, 1998, p. 15).
10. Magic Numbers
The number of electrons that can fit into a closed shell is
shown in Figure 6.7. “Magic numbers” are the sum of electrons
of complete shell sizes and the atomic magic numbers are 2, 10,
18, 36, 54, 86, and 118. Note that “magic numbers” are different
from shell sizes. Quantum theorists know the “magic numbers”
exist, but have no explanation for them. The Common Sense
scientists have provided a logical, classical-physics answer for
why there is this arrangement of numbers, based on the geometrical packing mechanism described earlier.
Even the term “magic number” is based on the incorrect Bohr
model and the random-chance factor of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. There is a logical reason for these numbers and I
propose that these numbers be called “design numbers” to show
there is a cause for their existence.
11. Why Hydrogen is Unique
Each element consists of a specific number of atomic particles—normally protons or electrons in the nucleus and electrons in outer atomic shells. Bohr-model theorists believe that
the hydrogen atom is made of one electron and one proton—but
such an atom does not exist in nature. Hydrogen molecules,
which are found in nature, each have two electrons and two protons. And not one of these particles is in the center of the molecule. Hydrogen is the only element that has no nucleus.
Hydrogen only exists in structures made of two protons and
two electrons, which they believe is a group of two hydrogen
atoms. However, when these two atoms are separated, they immediately ionize (lose their electrons). This is because the combination of one electron and one proton does not have the proper
magnetic force to create a stable structure, and is why so-called
single hydrogen “atoms” cannot exist alone in nature.
This is also the reason why a nucleus, made of one electron
and two protons must be a triad. The minimum stable atomic
structure is two protons and two electrons—in other words, a
Vol. 6, No. 2
hydrogen molecule. This combination creates the magnetic fields
necessary to hold the hydrogen molecule together.
12. A Need for Further Research
Helium, the next stable structure in the periodic table, consists of eight particles that are tightly and compactly bound together because helium is a noble gas that is chemically inert.
Both of these terms mean that the element is extremely stable
and does not readily deteriorate or combine with other elements.
See Figures 6.8 and 6.9 for a contrast between the two models of
the helium atom.
Helium
Figure 6.8
Spinning Ring Model
Assumption:
Spinning-Ring Model - There are only two basic particles in an atom: electrons
and protons. The forces holding the atom together are the result of the
interaction of electrical and magnetic forces. This diagram deals only with the
magnetic force. The configuration of the Helium atom is shown tentatively
below. The actual configuration is the subject of continuing research by the
Common Sense Science team.
The Bohr Model shows Helium made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons in
the nucleus with 2 electrons in the first shell. However, when neutrons are
knocked out of the nucleus they separate into 1 electron and 1 proton. In the
Spinning-Ring Model, we combine these two particles with the original proton
and redefine the nucleus this way: The nucleus of the helium atom is
composed of 2 triads. Triads are composed of 2 protons and 1 electron bound
by electromagnetism. (See figure 6.4)
1 Triad
Side View
Proton
Electron
Electron
Solid lines
represent repulsive
magnetic flux lines.
Proton
In this top view, these are the same
lines of flux. (See figure 6.4)
As you ascend the periodic chart numerically, adding particle
count, the geometries begin to develop patterns defined by the
size of the particles and the possibilities for balanced electrical
and magnetic repulsion and attraction. These patterns are exhibited by the formation of nuclei. The nuclei are made of triads,
and the triads are made of two protons and one electron. Surrounding the nuclei are “shells” of electrons coupled together
magnetically and held close to the nucleus by the electrical attraction of the protons.
13. To Be Continued
Developing a basic understanding of the electron and using it
to “assemble” a model of the atom is in the early stages of research. Some of the material presented in this paper may be revised as research continues. As the work progresses, it is an exciting and open field of discovery and adventure for physics majors who would like to get involved.
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In the process of development of the spinning-ring model,
hypotheses must be advanced and then falsified by the research
data. This takes much time, energy, and of course, money. One
goal of this book is to get the information to students who will
see the need for this new atomic model and turn their careers
toward physics.
[9]
7
David L. Bergman, “Inertial Mass of Charged Elementary Particles.” Roswell, Georgia: Common Sense Science. 1998.
[ 10 ] David L. Bergman, “Is There Truth in Science?” Foundations of
Science, vol. 1, no. 1, July 1998.
[ 11 ] David L. Bergman, “Models of the Electron.” Foundations of Science,
vol. 2, no. 4, November 1999.
[ 12 ] David L. Bergman, “Validity of Common Sense Science” Founda-
Helium
Figure 6.9
Bohr Model with recent additions. Contrast this
with the Spinning Ring Model.
website, http://CommonSenseScience.org
[ 14 ] David L. Bergman & Charles W. Lucas, Jr., Physical Models of Matter. Roswell, Georgia: Common Sense Science, 1997.
Nucleus
Proton
Electron
P
N
P
N
[ 15 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Experimental Study of Ionized Matter ProNeutron
jected across a Magnetic Field", Physical Review, V104, N2, pp. 292299 (Oct 1956).
[ 16 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Pair Production of Plasma Vortices", Physics of
Fluids, V9, N10, pp. 2078-2080 (Oct 1966).
[ 17 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Morphology of the Electron, Photon, and
Neutron: The Plasmoid Construction of the Superstring", Physics
Proton
Glu
on
Gluon
Essays, V3, N4 (Win 1990).
2 up Q.
[ 18 ] Winston H. Bostick, "Mass, Charge, and Current: The Essence and
Morphology", Physics Essays, V4, N1, pp. 45-59 (Spr 1991).
1 down Q.
[ 19 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron - American Physical Society address (Dec 1917)", Journal of the Washington
Academy of Sciences, pp. 330 (Jan 1918).
Electron
[ 20 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron: I. TheSNeutron
n
so
Bo
Gl
uo
n
on
lu
Boson
cattering of High Frequency Radiation", Physical Review, S2, V14,
N1, pp. 20-43 (Jul 1919).
[ 21 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Size and Shape of the Electron: II. The
G
P
Gluon
Absorption of High Frequency Radiation", Physical Review, S2, V14,
N3, pp. 247-259 (Sep 1919).
[ 22 ] Arthur H. Compton, "Possible Magnetic Polarity of Free Electrons",
Bo
so
n
on
lu
G
The Bohr Model has evolved into the
Standard Model. In this model, the Helium
atom is made up of the following sub-atomic
particles, (parts smaller than the atom):
1. Two electrons orbiting in the first shell.
The electron is called a point particle and
has no length, width, or height
2. The nucleus is composed of two protons
and two neutrons. There is no cause and
effect description of why they remain in a
stable configuration. The Strong Nuclear
Force was invented to hold the nucleus
together.
3. The proton and neutron are composed of
sub sub atomic particles called quarks.
A. There are two up quarks and
B. One down quark.
C. These particles are bound together by the
gluon once called the Strong Nuclear Force.
(Sub,sub,sub atomic) The gluon travels back
and forth between the quarks in a proton and
neutron to hold them together.
4. The Weak Nuclear Force is a particle called
a boson. (Sub,sub,sub atomic and designated
W+, W-, Zo) The boson is ten million times
weaker than the strong nuclear force. It is
responsible for making a proton, electron, and
neutrino when a neutron decays. (or is spilt
apart) This force works over a distance one
hundredth of the diameter of a proton.
(The World of Atoms and Quarks, Scientific
American Source Books, Albert Stwertka,
1995, p.58, 60, 74 -76)
Foundations of Science, vol. 6, no. 2, May 2003.
[ 13 ] David L. Bergman et al. Internet papers, Common Sense Science
Assumed Sub-Atomic Particles of
the Standard Model of Elementary Particles
Assumption:
Standard Model - The particles and forces of
the atom are composed of infinitely
decreasing sized sub-atomic particles and
number more than 500.
tions of Science, vol. 2, no. 2, May 1999; “Elementary Particles”
up Quark
Neutrino
down Quark
Philosophical Magazine, S6, V41 (Feb 1921).
[ 23 ] Arthur H. Compton, "The Magnetic Electron", Journal of the Franklin
Institute, V192, N2, pp. 145-155 (Aug 1921).
[ 24 ] Lars O. Grondahl, "Proceedings of the American Physical Society:
Selected Bibliography
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S2, V10, N5, pp. 586-588 (Nov 1917).
[1]
H. Stanley Allen, "The Case for a Ring Electron", Proceedings of the
[ 25 ] Charles W. Lucas, Jr., “Overview of Electrodynamics Approach to
God’s Creation and Daily Sustaining of the Universe”, Proceedings
[2]
Physical Society of London, V31, N1, pp. 49-68 (Dec 1918).
H. Stanley Allen, "Optical Rotation, Optical Isomerism, and the
Ring Electron", Philosophical Magazine, S6, V40, N6, p. 426 (1920).
[3]
[4]
H. Stanley Allen, "The Angular Momentum and Some Related
Properties of the Ring Electron", Philosophical Magazine, S6, V41, N6,
Particles vs. Maxwell’s Equations, Relativity Theory and Quantum
p. 113 (1921).
Mechanics”, Proceedings of the 1992 Twin-Cities Creation Confe-
Thomas G. Barnes, Origin and Destiny of the Earth’s Magnetic
Thomas G. Barnes, Physics of the Future, El Cajon, California:
Institute for Creation Research, 1983.
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David L. Bergman, “Atoms and Void.” Foundations of Science, Vol.
2, No. 1. February 1999.
[8]
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[ 26 ] Charles W. Lucas, Jr. & Joseph C. Lucas, “Electrodynamics of Real
Field, El Cajon, Calif.: Institute for Creation Research, 1973.
[5]
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David L. Bergman, “Conflict of Atomism and Creationism in History”. Proceedings of The Fourth International Conference on Creationism, Creation Science Fellowship, Inc., Pittsburgh, pp. 53-65,
1998.
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[ 27 ] Alfred L.Parson, “A Magneton Theory of the Structure of the
Atom.” Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collection, vol. 65, no. 11, Publication No. 2371 (Nov. 29, 1915): 1–80.
[ 28 ] David L. Webster, "The Theory of Electromagnetic Mass of the
Parson Magneton and other Non-Spherical Systems", Physical Review, S2, V9, N6, pp. 484-499 (Jun 1917).
[ 29 ] David L. Webster, "The Scattering of Alpha Rays as Evidence on the
Parson Magnetron Hypothesis", Physical Review, S2 (Feb 1918).