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UNEP(DEC)/CAR WG.27/2
27 June 2005
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Original: ENGLISH
Regional Workshop of Experts on the
Development of the Marine Mammal Action
Plan for the Wider Caribbean Region
Bridgetown, Barbados, 18 – 21 July 2005
PRELIMINARY DRAFT
ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF MARINE MAMMALS IN
THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION
i
ANNOTATED TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Marine mammals are a part of the Wider Caribbean Region’s (WCR) natural and cultural
heritage. The WCR enjoys a great diversity of marine mammals, with over 32 species recorded in
the region. In many areas they contribute significantly to the tourism industry, making their
protection and conservation a socio-economic priority.
1.1 Global Context
1.2 Regional Context
1.3 Objectives—What is the Marine Mammal Action Plan (MMAP) intended to achieve?
Criteria for Priority Actions
1.6 Operational Definitions
1.7 Timetable for Actions
2. ISSUE-LED ACTIONS
The following list of issues is in approximate order of priority for conservation action in the
WCR.
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
Fisheries Interactions
Coastal Development and Habitat Degradation
Pollution and Marine Mammal Health
Protection/Management Areas
Research
Tourism
Marine Mammal Strandings
Marine Mammals in Captivity
Acoustic Disturbance/Underwater Noise
Vessel Strikes
Climate Change
3. SPECIES-LED ACTIONS
The following list of species and species groups is in approximate order of priority for
conservation action in the WCR.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
Species General
Humpback Whale
Sperm Whale
Common Bottlenose Dolphin
Short-finned Pilot Whale
Baleen Whales
Toothed Whales and Dolphins
West Indian Manatee
Pinnipeds
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4. SYSTEMS AND ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
It is important to give guidance for the conservation and management of marine mammals so that
legislation and infrastructure reflect evolving knowledge, human interactions, public opinion and
government policies concerning marine mammals.
National Legislation and Governance
Internal Structures and Systems
Institutional and Technical Capacity
4.4 Information Management
4.5 Partnerships
4.6 Public Awareness and Education
4.7 Regional and Global Issues
4.8 Compliance and Law Enforcement
5. REPORTING AND MONITORING PROGRESS
Planning, reporting information, monitoring progress, and reviewing results underpin any attempt
to conserve and manage marine mammals in a centralized manner.
5.1 Planning and progress on implementation of the MMAP by the Parties
5.2 Regular reporting to SPAW’s Regional Activity Center (RAC)
5.3 Coordinating mechanism to follow up progress and barriers experienced
5.4 Meeting for review/updating/ drawing up work plans/priority activities
6. APPENDICES
Appendix I:
Appendix II:
Appendix III:
Marine Mammal Species of the Wider Caribbean Region
Activities from Informal Consultation Summarized by the SPAW’s
Regional Activity Centre (RAC)
References
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ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION
OF MARINE MAMMALS IN THE WIDER CARIBBEAN REGION
1.
INTRODUCTION
The marine mammal fauna of the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) is diverse and has significant
ecological, aesthetic and economic value to the countries and territories of the region. Regional
success in managing and conserving marine mammals is ultimately rooted in countries’
commitment to build their internal capacities and to commit to a regional concept by establishing
conservation priorities, standards, and strategies for marine mammal conservation and education.
At least 34 species of marine mammals have been documented from the region—six species of
baleen whales (Mysticeti), 24 species of toothed whales (Odontoceti), one sirenian (the West
Indian manatee), and three pinnipeds (the Caribbean monk seal, the hooded seal, and the
California sea lion) (See Appendix I). Waters of the region serve, for many species, as primary
habitat for critical activities that include feeding, mating and calving. Although some species
have been studied extensively elsewhere, data concerning the biology, life history, distribution
and behavior of most cetacean (whale and dolphin) populations in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of
Mexico are scarce. The WCR is the one of only two locations in the world to have experienced
the extinction of a marine mammal species (the Caribbean monk seal) in the past 250 years.
1.1
GLOBAL CONTEXT
Several species of marine mammals found in the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico are listed
in Annex 1 to Article 64 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS,
1982) and are also listed as endangered or vulnerable in the annexes of multilateral agreements,
including UNEP’s Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol (SPAW, 1990), the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES,
1973), the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS,
1979, also known as the Bonn Convention) and the International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling (ICRU, 1946).
Under Article 65 of UNCLOS, States are to “co-operate with a view to the conservation of
marine mammals and in the case of cetaceans shall in particular work through the appropriate
international organizations for their conservation, management and study.” Article 194(5) states
that “measures must be taken to protect and preserve rare or fragile ecosystems as well as the
habitat of depleted, threatened or endangered species” Article 244(2) encourages States to
“actively promote the flow of scientific data and information and the transfer of knowledge
resulting from marine scientific research.” CITES lists all of the baleen whales, the sperm whale,
the tucuxi and the West Indian manatee in Appendix I as species in danger of extinction that are
or may be threatened by trade. Most other small cetaceans that occur in the WCR are in Appendix
II, as species that may become threatened with extinction unless trade is regulated.
The CMS lists all great whales on Appendix I as “endangered” and most small cetaceans on
Appendix II which means that their conservation would benefit significantly from international
cooperation. The CMS provides a mechanism for the development of legally binding regional
agreements on marine mammals.
Currently, the Schedule of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), the body created to
implement the ICRW, treats the baleen whales and the sperm whale as protected species. Some
members do not recognize the IWC’s competence over small cetaceans. However, the IWC
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Scientific Committee’s Subcommittee on Small Cetaceans reviews the status of populations and
strategies for addressing specific conservation problems facing them.
The large, commercially important baleen whales, the sperm whale, the West Indian manatee and
some species and populations of small cetaceans are included in the IUCN’s Red List of
Threatened Animals. Humpback and sperm whales are listed as Vulnerable while the Bryde’s
whale is considered as Data Deficient meaning that insufficient information exists to assess its
risk of extinction (owing in part to taxonomic difficulties e.g., there are at least two species of
Bryde’s whales).
Many Caribbean nations are parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD/Rio
Convention), a convention inspired by the world community’s growing commitment to
sustainable development. While not specifically referring to marine mammals, the CBD
identifies the sustainable use of marine and coastal living resources as one of its thematic areas of
action. This agreement encourages regional and/or international cooperation in conserving and
managing species and habitats, monitoring populations and fostering public awareness.
Finally, the Global Plan of Action for the Conservation, Management and Utilization of
Marine Mammals, adopted in 1984 and subsequently endorsed by the UN General Assembly,
calls for governments to implement programs to maintain and conserve marine mammals and
their associated marine biodiversity.
1.2
REGIONAL CONTEXT
During the past two decades, awareness of marine mammals and their habitats in the Caribbean
Sea and the Gulf of Mexico has increased. The Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)
Protocol, born out of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment for the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention), came into force in 2000
and is now the only regional biodiversity agreement for the advancement of the conservation and
protection of the marine environment in the Wider Caribbean.
Articles 11 and 21 of the SPAW Protocol call for the development and implementation of
programmes for protected species, as well as guidelines and criteria for the management of
protected species, including migratory species. Annex II of the SPAW Protocol lists all species of
marine mammals of the Wider Caribbean as threatened and endangered. In this context,
governments have agreed on the need to develop a regional management plan for the
conservation of marine mammals, through Decisions IV (2) and 2 of the First and Second
Meetings of the Contracting Parties of the SPAW Protocol (Havana, Cuba, 27-29 September
2001 and Montego Bay, Jamaica, 6 May 2002, respectively); Decision 1 of the Tenth
Intergovernmental Meeting of the Caribbean Environment Programme and the Seventh Meeting
of the Contracting Parties of the Cartagena Convention, 7-11 May 2002; and the results of the
informal consultation summarized by the Regional Activity Centre for SPAW (SPAW/RAC) in
UNEP(DEC)/CAR WG.25/CRP.2 and presented to the Second Meeting of the Scientific and
Technical Advisory Committee (STAC 2) in Curaçao in 2003 (Appendix II).
In this process, governments of the region have reviewed and considered the following
information documents which outline the status of marine mammal conservation in the region,
propose priorities for action, and form the basis of the proposed activities in the MMAP. They
are available from the UNEP website at:
http://www.cep.unep.org/pubs/meetingreports/MMAP/mmap.php.
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
Elements for the Development of a Marine Mammal Action Plan for the Wider
Caribbean: A Review of Marine Mammal Distribution {UNEP (DEC)/CAR
IG.20/INF.3}, and

Marine Mammals of the Wider Caribbean Region: A Review of Their Conservation
Status {UNEP (WATER)/CAR WG.22/INF.7}

Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus. CEP
technical Report No. 35. 1995.

UNEP Regional Seas Programmes
1.3 OBJECTIVES—WHAT IS THE MMAP INTENDED TO ACHIEVE?
The immediate goal is to assist participating governments in the region in their efforts to develop
and improve marine mammal conservation policies and practices. The Plan is intended to provide
a framework for activities at the national level and regional or international co-operation, on the
basis of respect for the sovereign rights of the participating governments.
The MMAP consists of five target areas: increases in scientific knowledge, enhancement of
public understanding, protective measures, policy development, and improvement of law and its
application. The long-term objectives are:

Conservation and recovery of all species and populations of marine mammals and
protection of their habitats in the region (e.g., feeding, breeding, and calving grounds,
movement corridors, etc.). Workshop participants need to develop criteria by which to
judge when conservation and recovery are successful or not.

Establishment of regional cooperation programs to increase scientific, technical, and
educational exchange among relevant national, regional, and international organizations.
While the SPAW Protocol gives a general mandate for the protection and management of marine
mammals in the WCR, this MMAP focuses on the following two broad aims:
1.3.1





1.3.2

Management of human interactions and use.
Identify and assess all significant threats to marine mammals (in general and as
species and populations);
Address and mitigate human-related threats to marine mammals and the viability
of their populations and habitats;
Manage stranded marine mammals;
Manage the holding and taking of marine mammals; and,
Address risks and uncertainty when making decisions, and ensure that a
precautionary approach is taken.
Species protection:
Improve understanding of the biology of all marine mammals, especially those
that are threatened currently or that have been affected by past or present human
activities;
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


Maintain, and where appropriate, seek to restore, the distribution, abundance and
diversity of marine mammals in the WCR;
Protect habitats in the WCR that are “significant” to marine mammals; and,
Seek to ensure that there are self-sustaining populations of all marine mammals
throughout their natural range.
While the above aims are closely linked, the first aim takes an issues led-approach whereas the
second is a species-led approach. To fulfill these aims, it is essential to have effective institutions
(e.g., systems and administrative structures) in place, staffed by competent managers and
scientists, as well as systems for reporting information and monitoring progress toward the
management goals (e.g., reporting and monitoring progress).
1.4
STRUCTURE OF THE MMAP
The MMAP is separated into four sections to broadly reflect the aims specified above:




Management of human interactions with and use of marine mammals (issue-led
approach);
Species protection (species-led approach);
Systems and administrative structures; and,
Reporting and monitoring progress of MMAP.
Each section has an executive summary, key objectives, previous conservation actions or
legislation, and actions needed including but not limited to: planning and strategy, science,
relationship and community, management and resourcing and capacity
For each action, a priority level is given, and it is also noted whether or not each action is a new
initiative, an expanding one, an ongoing one, or a declining one. This “generic WCR model”
addresses regional prioritization for issues and species, which can then be modified and
applied to a National Recovery Plan (NRP). The prioritization of actions will be completed at
the Workshop or a later date. For the National Recovery Plans a section may be added to
designate “authority” or the main office/Ministry, etc. responsible for ensuring that an action
is carried out (noting that most actions likely will require involvement from multiple parties.)
1.5
CRITERIA FOR PRIORITY ACTIONS
Assessing the extent to which different species are threatened or endangered, or prioritizing
actions is extremely complex. Prioritizing “species of concern” for the WCR is a difficult task
because many of the species have not been studied. To assist this process the Contracting
Parties could propose developing a Regional Marine Mammal Red List Workshop or an
electronic Red List Experts Group following this MMAP Workshop.
Actions Needed Legend:
The following symbols are used in the ‘priority action’ statements:
A. = Actions that are both very important and urgent, and therefore highest priority. Work
should be carried out within the first 5 years.
B. =
Actions that are moderately important, but urgent, and need to be done or:
 As the opportunity arises or in conjunction with other work; or,
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

Initiated within 5 years and completed within 10 years; or,
If additional resources are provided (e.g. external research opportunities/funding).
All priority action approaches should consider an adaptive approach to planning, decisionmaking, and management.
1.6
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
To be determined at the Workshop.
1.7
TIMETABLE FOR ACTIONS
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
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2.
ISSUE-LED ACTIONS
Known or suspected threats facing marine mammal populations in the WCR include: incidental
killing as a result of entanglement in fishing gear and vessel collisions; degradation and loss of
habitat; directed killing of some species for food or other products; removal of live animals from
small coastal populations to supply aquaria; and, the disruption of food webs and depletion of
prey resources as a result of industrial or intensive artisanal fishing. Exceptionally high levels of
chemical contaminants in the tissues of cetaceans may be affecting the animals’ immune and
reproductive systems. Longstanding concerns about the disturbance caused by ship noise, seismic
operations, dredging and drilling, and other acoustic inputs to the environment have expanded to
encompass the likelihood that new types of military sonar can have injurious and even lethal
effects on deep-diving cetaceans. Some risks are often impossible to distinguish, particularly
where pernicious threats such as pollution and climate change are concerned.
Threats to marine mammals and marine ecosystems persist and new threats are emerging. Some
marine mammals face multiple threats to their existence, Conservation measures that are already
in force need to be evaluated and re-evaluated, and new approaches need to be developed to
address threats that were unrecognized or non-existent until recently.
The issues addressed are arranged in their approximate order of priority for conservation action
based on the:





Range and conservation status of the species that they affect and the level of impact they
cause to species populations;
Numbers of animals affected;
Need for active protection and management;
Need for knowledge; and,
Potential for improved protection and threat mitigation.
The ranking of “threats” of issue-led actions that follow is arbitrary. Workshop participants
will prioritize the order for the regional “generic” WCR MMAP; countries will prioritize issues
and species for their National Recovery Plans separately.
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2.1
FISHERIES INTERACTIONS
Potential fisheries interactions include:




Deaths of marine mammals caused by incidental capture in nets or by becoming hooked
on lines;
Depredation by marine mammals on fish catch and fishing gear;
Directed catches in fisheries that target marine mammals; and,
Ecological effects (e.g. competition for food, occupation and disturbance of habitat).
Direct Interactions
The population-level significance of marine mammal mortality or injury due to bycatch is
generally unknown in the WCR. Useful estimates of incidental mortality or bycatch (e.g., total
kill and kill rate) are difficult to obtain, especially where small-scale or artisanal fisheries account
for a high proportion of bycatch. There are instances where marine mammals are injured during
fishing operations so that their survival probability or reproductive potential is compromised.
Tuna purse seines, pelagic trawls, and gill nets have been highlighted as fishing methods where
bycatch is a cause for concern. Bycatch also occurs in longline fisheries, may occur in pot
fisheries, and by derelict fishing gear (e.g. “ghost nets”). An improved understanding of the
magnitude and impact of bycatch is needed for fisheries in the WCR. Fundamental questions
need to be addressed in relation to bycatch:



How do marine mammals get caught in fishing gear?
How can the magnitude of marine mammal bycatch in fisheries be estimated without
onboard observer programmes?
What gear types or fishing techniques can reduce bycatch while still allowing
economically feasible fishing?
Depredation is another form of direct interaction with fisheries in which marine mammals
remove or damage fish captured in the gear, thus reducing the value of the catch and impairing
fishing operations. They may also cause significant (i.e. costly) damage to fishing gear. Little
scientific research has been conducted on ways to reduce the extent or impact of marine mammal
depredation. Although depredation by marine mammals may be unavoidable at some level, it
should be possible to reduce its frequency and mitigate its effects. Scientific information is
necessary to ensure that perceptions about depredation are accurate and that lethal or otherwise
harmful methods are not used against marine mammals.
Direct exploitation is usually driven by the demand for products, whether this means food to be
consumed or exchanged at the local “subsistence” level, or commodities to be sold (e.g., meat,
blubber, oil). With the exception of the humpback whale fishery in Saint Vincent, the directed
fisheries in the WCR usually target small or medium-sized cetacean species. Given the resistance
of some IWC member states to recognize that body’s competence for managing the exploitation
of most small and medium-sized cetacean species, there is no international regime with a clear
mandate for doing so. This means some populations that inhabit the high seas beyond any coastal
state’s jurisdiction, or that exist as “transboundary” stocks and require coordinated management
by more than one nation, are, in a sense, not covered by an appropriate regulatory mechanism.
Another problem is that some populations with limited coastal distribution are subject to
unmanaged, poorly documented hunting.
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Indirect Interactions
Biological effects encompass all the consequences of the large-scale removal of animal biomass
from the marine ecosystem through fishing activities, including, although not limited to, possible
competition for resources between fisheries and marine mammals.
Key Objectives
Improve Understanding: To develop public awareness materials to address issues regarding
fishing-related mortality of marine mammals.
Mortality Assessment: To monitor and assess the magnitude and significance of marine
mammal fishing-related mortality in the WCR through observer programmes.
Mortality Reduction: To prevent, mitigate and minimize marine mammal fishing-related
mortality, taking a precautionary approach to conserving species where information on magnitude
and significance is sparse or lacking.
Depredation Assessment: To improve knowledge about depredation (e.g. on longline fisheries).
Fish Stock Assessment: To review fish stock assessment data to try to correlate with food needs
of marine mammals.
Previous Conservation Actions

To be determined at the Workshop or a later date
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
2.1.1 Complete Species Management Plans and Population Management Plans for priority
species.
2.1.2
Seek and support reduction and mitigation of fishing-related mortality of cetaceans.
Science
2.1.3 Develop procedures for thorough documentation of fishing-related deaths.
2.1.4
Produce annual status and summary reports of the known interactions between marine
mammals and fisheries.
2.1.5
Establish or improve monitoring of gillnet, purse seine, longline and trawl fisheries to
enable statistically robust estimates of fishing-related marine mammal mortality. This
might require onboard observer coverage.
2.1.6
Obtain data on the frequency of depredation by marine mammals, the associated costs,
and any correspondence between the frequency and severity of depredation and the
characteristics of the different fishing vessels.
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ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
Relationships and Community
2.1.7 Develop working relationships with Fisheries authorities and stakeholders in order to
address matters relating to protected species fishing-related mortality.
2.1.8
Provide support to the industry with regard to mitigation measures to reduce fishingrelated mortality.
2.1.9
Develop public awareness material about fishing-related mortality, discarded nets and
other gear.
2.1.10 Promote or organize beach cleanups to remove discarded or lost fishing debris to reduce
the risk of entanglement.
Management
2.1.11 Seek and support guidelines and promote best practices for fisheries with regard to
protection and management of marine mammals.
2.1.12 Continue to investigate options for addressing and mitigating fishing-related mortality,
including marine mammal sanctuaries, closed seasons/areas, modification of fishing
gear, alternative fishing practices, and mitigation by such devices as pingers, etc.
2.1.13 Seek and implement restrictions on fishing activity in areas that marine mammals use
for breeding and nursing with consideration to alternative livelihoods as appropriate.
Resourcing and Capacity
2.1.14 To be determined.
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2.2
COASTAL DEVELOPMENT AND HABITAT DEGRADATION
Broadly interpreted, habitat encompasses the entire ecosystem upon which a species or
population depends. Some marine mammals occupy a relatively well-defined habitat yearround or have narrow feeding niches that restrict them to particular kinds of habitat
(e.g. manatees need access to aquatic vegetation and warm water). Others, such as large
migratory whales, have a strong seasonal dimension to their habitat requirements or are
relatively flexible and appear able to adapt to a fairly wide range of environmental conditions
(e.g., coastal bottlenose dolphins).
Marine mammal habitat is degraded and lost through coastal development; the introduction of
pathogens, contaminants, and other pollutants; increased noise from shipping, seismic testing
and sonar; some fishing practices; climate change; and, other human activities. The potential
range of effects is immense and coastal marine mammal species are particularly vulnerable.
Many species may suffer from multiple (cumulative) effects. The effects of human activities
on coastal and offshore habitats are inadequately monitored and understood. This section
includes issues related to the allocation and occupation of coastal space (including marine
farming and port development).
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve Understanding. To improve knowledge of occurrence and habitat use of marine
mammals in the WCR.
Impact Assessment. To monitor and assess the nature and magnitude of degradation and losses
of coastal habitats of significance to marine mammals and their prey in the WCR.
Mitigation and Avoidance of Effects. To maintain and strengthen existing efforts and to
stimulate new initiatives at the regional, national and/or local level to use coastal zones and
related ecosystems and protect habitats of significance to marine mammals in the WCR.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Science
2.2.1 Describe the natural distributions of marine mammals and investigate how those vary
over time or as a function of other natural factors (e.g., oceanic conditions, forage base).
2.2.2
Seek a thorough and rigorous description of interaction areas where the potential exists
for human activities to affect marine mammal habitat, including indirect and
downstream effects.
2.2.3
Develop multivariate tools that make it possible to assess cumulative or otherwise
interactive effects of a variety of human activities on marine mammal habitat.
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2.3
POLLUTION and MARINE MAMMAL HEALTH
Nearshore environments, in particular, are exposed to a wide range of pollutants including
persistent organochlorines, heavy metals, litter, oils (hydrocarbons) and nutrients from a variety
of marine and land-based sources, including industrial and agricultural activities. Some of those
pollutants concentrate in the food web. Although evidence for links between chemical pollutants
and the health of ecosystems remains largely circumstantial, there is a growing concern that
exposure to contaminants can increase susceptibility to disease and affect reproductive
performance in marine mammals. Besides these possible indirect effects on populations, some
pollutants (or their breakdown and combustion products) are toxic, and high levels can be lethal.
Nevertheless, more research is needed to elucidate the relationships between cetacean health and
contaminant exposure.
Oil pollution can have toxic effects when cetaceans ingest contaminated prey or breathe
contaminated air, but it also has the potential of causing mechanical damage through the fouling
of the baleen, which impairs the animal’s ability to feed. The impact of pollution on marine
mammals can occur throughout the entire chain from exposure, uptake, metabolism and
excretion.
Declining trends in marine mammal populations can result from increased mortality
(e.g., bycatch, ship strikes, acute diseases), decreased reproduction and recruitment into the
breeding population (e.g. due to reduced fecundity from exposure to contaminants, inadequate
nutrition to sustain pregnancy and lactation), or some combination of both. As long-lived
predators at the top of the food chain, marine mammals accumulate some contaminants in their
tissues. Contaminants can predispose marine mammals to disease by compromising immune
function, and they can reduce reproductive success. The concentrations and distributions within
tissues depend on the type of contaminant and the animal’s age and sex. A better understanding
of the influence of contaminants on susceptibility to infectious disease will likely emerge from
continued studies.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Impact Assessment. To implement a multidisciplinary approach which includes improved
diagnostic tools for assessing health and linking health indicators to stress factors, and better
distinction between natural and human-caused mortality.
Mitigation and Avoidance of Effects. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the
regional, national and/or local level to use and protect coastal zones and related ecosystems in
ecologically sustainable ways and protect habitats of significance to marine mammals in the
WCR.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Science
2.3.1 Research and monitoring should be undertaken to assess various threats and provide the
information needed for formal risk assessments.
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ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
Relationships and Community
2.3.2 Encourage educational and waste management programmes on board and in ports
through a concerted effort with the fishing, cruise line and shipping industries
publicising best practice facilities for marine waste reception at ports, marinas and
boat harbors.
2.3.3
Provide incentives to compliance with national and international legislation for pollution
prevention on land and at sea.
Resourcing and Capacity
2.3.4 Specifics to be determined.
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2.4
PROTECTION/MANAGEMENT AREAS
The designation of specially protected areas (e.g., reserves, sanctuaries, parks) is a tool
increasingly used to achieve conservation goals. Precautionary management requires mitigation
and protection strategies that compensate for the extensive uncertainty associated with virtually
all aspects of marine mammal science. The establishment of protected areas that exclude certain
types of human activity can be economically costly in the short term, but such areas also provide
substantial immediate and long term economic benefits, ranging from fishery enhancement to
recreational and educational opportunities for the public. Moreover, protected areas represent
control sites for experimentation and comparative analyses. Management of discrete areas is an
important way to achieve the MMAP objectives. Included in this section are legal mechanisms
such as the establishment of marine mammal sanctuaries, restricted fishing areas, seasonal
closures, and marine protected areas.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To educate tourists and stakeholders on the conservation value of
marine protected areas for marine mammals.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to protect areas of significance to marine mammals.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Management
2.4.1 Additional marine protected areas should be designated and developed to conserve
marine mammals and protect their habitat. This includes “sister sanctuary” relationships
that promotes protection for transboundary and migratory species.
2.4.2
Review existing MPAs to incorporate any appropriate measures specifically to increase
their value to marine mammal conservation.
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2.5
RESEARCH
Research (including surveys, monitoring, and information management) should form an integral
part of any recovery plan for a species or population. Research needs to be coupled closely with
conservation initiatives such as the establishment of protected areas and public awareness and
education programmes. In the WCR, research and assessment effort has been inadequate to
describe the status of most marine mammal populations or the direct or indirect effects of human
activities on them. Emphasis should be placed on:



Acknowledgement of scientific uncertainty; and, quantifying and incorporating such
uncertainty into decision-making. This requires not only the development and application
of new scientific methods but also the inculcation of new perspectives into the sociopolitical culture.
Non-invasive monitoring through direct observation and the use of appropriate
technology.
Socioeconomic research to ascertain how local communities may benefit from the
conservation process and be encouraged to protect marine mammals and their habitat.
All forms of invasive research should meet with internationally accepted standards, scientific
methodologies, etc. prior to funding and implementation. The results of all scientific research
should be encouraged to be made available through the RAC and disseminated through relevant
scientific and public forums in the WCR and internationally.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To educate stakeholders on the conservation value of marine protected
areas for marine mammals.
Impact assessment. To monitor and assess the range and magnitude of impacts on marine
mammals from human-related activities.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to protect marine mammals.
ACTIONS NEEDED to be determined at Workshop.
14
2.6
TOURISM
Successful tourism must benefit local populations both economically and culturally while giving
incentive to protect the natural resources that are “tourist destinations.” This is particularly
important in sensitive, dynamic areas such as coastal zones. In many coastal areas, increased
development from tourism can destroy or marginalize habitats for marine mammals and their
prey (e.g., through increased unregulated vessel activity, inadequate wastewater treatment and
increased fishing).
Over the past few decades, cetacean-oriented tourism has been promoted as a non-consumptive or
low-consumptive use that promises monetary rewards to people without requiring that the
animals be killed or removed from their natural environment. The effects of tourism are important
to consider, within the overall context of human-caused threats to cetaceans, to ensure that whaleand dolphin-watching is conducted in a manner that is respectful of the animals, local human
communities, and fellow tourists. Intensive, persistent and unregulated vessel traffic that focuses
on animals while they are resting, feeding, nursing their young, or socializing can disrupt those
activities, and possibly cause long-term problems for populations. Although there is little
evidence to indicate that whale- watching has a negative effect on cetacean populations, it is
important for the tourism industry and government agencies to develop and/or adopt guidelines,
codes of conduct, or regulations to preclude or minimize such effects.
Potential negative effects include:




Destruction/pollution of habitat from coastal development;
Noise pollution from increased vessel traffic;
Increased likelihood of vessel strikes; and,
Disruption of behavior.
Previous Conservation Actions
 Designation of Silver Bank Humpback Whale Sanctuary in the Dominican Republic.
 Regulations for marine mammal watching in the Dominican Republic, St. Lucia, and
Puerto Rico.
 Establishment of CARIBWHALE, an association of Eastern Caribbean whale watch
operators.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To educate tourists and tourism stakeholders on marine mammal
natural history, conservation, and codes of conduct for marine mammal viewing.
Impact assessment. To monitor and assess the range and magnitude of impacts on marine
mammals from tourism activities.
Impact minimization. To prevent, mitigate and minimise marine mammal tourism-related
impacts (e.g., guidelines and regulation), taking a precautionary approach to conserving species
where information is sparse or lacking.
Quality Industry. To promote the development of a responsible marine mammal tourism
industry.
15
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
2.6.1 Design tourism developments with local stakeholders to complement the ecological
characteristics of the area and ensure low-impact tourism development.
2.6.2
Develop best practices and training within public and private sector.
Management
2.6.3 Designate sensitive areas where development is restricted or not allowed.
2.6.4
Establish regional network of marine protected areas with an accompanying database for
information sharing and problem solving regarding marine mammals.
2.6.5
Provide opportunity for local communities to benefit economically from tourism.
2.6.6
Establish permitting system for vessel activities.
2.6.7
Establish codes of conduct for marine mammal watching.
2.6.8
Establish associations of whale watch operators.
Science
2.6.9 Studies of vessel activity and ‘swim-with’ program impacts on marine mammals.
Relationships and Community
2.6.10 Engage community through public outreach and education programs on marine mammals
and the local marine environment.
2.6.11 Train locals as marine tour guides.
2.6.12 Develop partnerships with tourism service providers for effective implementation of
guidelines and regulations.
Resourcing and Capacity
2.6.13 Establish national/regional naturalist training programmes.
16
2.7
MARINE MAMMAL STRANDINGS
Marine mammal strandings provide scientists with a means to obtain certain basic information
(e.g. what species occur in a given location.) Strandings can also contribute to basic biological
knowledge (e.g., life history, feeding habits, and pathology); provide a means to monitor adverse
human interactions with marine mammals (e.g. net marks indicate bycatch); and, provide a
source of materials for monitoring levels of anthropogenic contaminants (pollution) in marine
systems.
Unusual mortality events can provide insight into ocean health if there is timely on-the-ground
response and relevant data are collected and analyzed. In the WCR, there is an urgent need for
capacity building in this area, including standardized protocols, training in methods of sample
collection, archiving of samples, and establishment of an on-line database for findings. Because
many marine mammals move across national boundaries, cooperation among countries in the
region is necessary. Response efforts provide the individuals involved with experience in dealing
with distressed animals, and can generate significant public interest and involvement.
Previous Conservation Actions
 Local/national or regional stranding networks.
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve Understanding. To educate stakeholders on the knowledge value that strandings of
marine mammal can provide.
Impact Assessment. To monitor and assess the range and magnitude of strandings of marine
mammals from human-related activities and natural causes.
Impact Minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to develop marine mammal stranding networks with effective response systems
in place.
ACTIONS NEEDED to be determined at Workshop.
17
2.8
MARINE MAMMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Marine mammals are held in captivity throughout the Wider Caribbean Region for public display
and interaction—including programs for touching, feeding and swimming with dolphins. Eleven
member states of the Caribbean Environment Programme have facilities that hold dolphins in
captivity. Of the 12 Parties to the SPAW Protocol, seven have such facilities with public access.
Other Parties are considering proposals for such programs.
The captivity industry has both welfare and conservation implications for marine mammals.
Removal of live cetaceans from the wild, for captive display and/or research, is equivalent to
incidental or deliberate killing, as the animals brought into captivity (or killed during capture
operations) are no longer available to help maintain their natural populations. When unmanaged
and undertaken without a rigorous program of research and monitoring, live-capture can become
a serious threat to local cetacean populations.
Welfare implications: Both the scale and complexity of the physical environment is drastically
reduced in captivity. The number of animals sharing a pool or sea pen can be high and subject to
frequent change. Most, if not all, of the captive programs involving marine mammals in the WCR
involve interactions between humans and the animals. The human and marine mammal health
risks associated with such programs include physical injury and the potential for disease
transmission.
Conservation implications: Although many captivity facilities endeavor to breed cetaceans and
carry out research and education programmes, animals continue to be taken from wild
populations to supply the growing demands of the captivity industry. The removal of animals,
particularly when captures target a specific sex or age group can have an impact on the viability
of the wild population when that population is small and has a very limited distribution.
Assessment of source populations is generally lacking and live capture often adds to the pressure
on populations already at risk from hunting, fisheries, habitat degradation and other factors.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To improve understanding on the effects of marine mammals in
captivity.
Impact assessment. To monitor and assess the impact of live captures on marine mammals
populations in the WCR.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to develop marine mammal stranding networks with effective response systems
in place.
Regulation of live capture, trade and possession: Regulate such activities through
implementation of the marine mammal action plan.
18
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
2.8.1 Support an end to the live capture of marine mammals in the WCR through
implementation of the SPAW Protocol’s prohibition on the capture and killing of
these animals.
2.8.2
Regulate possession and commercial trade in marine mammals in the WCR; improve
existing facilities through national/regional standards; prevent importation into the
WCR through implementation of the SPAW Protocol’s regulation of these activities.
Management
2.8.3 Produce annual status reports of the marine mammals currently in captivity in the
WCR, including a public inventory of information on births, deaths and illness of
individual animals and injuries incurred by the animals and public through
participation in interaction programs.
2.8.4
Produce annual reports on any live captures, including permit information, numbers
of animals taken, deaths occurring during capture and the final destination and status
of individuals taken.
2.8.5
Support the development of strict national legislation for the keeping of marine
mammals in captivity, implementing the findings of the research referred to below.
2.8.6
Support programs for manatees focused only on the rescue and rehabilitation of
injured individuals, ensuring the programs have a significant education provision.
2.8.7
Support the strict implementation of CITES by national governments in the WCR,
including CITES’ Article IV, which provides that: “the export of any specimen of a
species included in Appendix II shall require the prior grant and presentation of an
export permit” and that “an export permit shall only be granted when, in addition to
other conditions, a Scientific Authority of the State of export has advised that such
export will not be detrimental to the survival of that species”; and CITES Res. Conf.
10.3, which recommends that: “the findings and advice of the Scientific Authority of
the country of export be based on the scientific review of available information on the
population status, distribution, population trend, harvest and other biological and
ecological factors, as appropriate, and trade information relating to the species
concerned.”
2.8.8
Adopt guidelines for the language and process of the SPAW Protocol’s Article 11
exemptions provision.
Science
2.8.9 Develop and support research on the impact of live captures on marine mammals in
the WCR.
2.8.10 Support research on the status of marine mammals targeted by live captures and the
range of threats they face. Publish and disseminate findings and data.
19
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
2.8.11 Support research to determine the impact of marine mammal sea pen facilities on
coral reef ecosystems. Publish and disseminate any findings and data.
2.8.12 Support research looking at the impact of live capture on the ecosystems from which
marine mammals are proposed for removal or have been removed. Publish and
disseminate findings and data.
Relationships and Community
2.8.13 Support surveys to determine the level of demand for captive marine mammal
programs among local people and tourists.
2.8.14 Support studies that identify the economic, conservation and educational value of
captive marine mammal programs to the countries in which they are situated.
2.8.15 Develop working relationships with stakeholders in order to address matters relating
to the live capture, possession and trade in marine mammals.
2.8.16 Develop public awareness material about the impact of live captures on marine
mammals and encourage the reporting of sightings and strandings.
Resourcing and Capability
2.8.17 Resourcing for implementation and training information management system.
To be determined at Workshop.
20
2.9
ACOUSTIC DISTURBANCE/UNDERWATER NOISE
Anthropogenic sound is introduced into the marine environment both intentionally and
unintentionally. Such sound can be high-intensity and acute or low-level and chronic. Noise
pollution affects both coastal and continental shelf waters.
Noise can degrade habitat and alter the behavior of marine mammals. A range of human
activities introduce sound into the marine environment including commercial shipping and
transportation, oil and gas exploration and drilling, military operations, dredging and coastal
construction, scientific research and fishing.
Marine mammals may be disturbed by anthropogenic sound, and such disturbance could interrupt
important activities (e.g. nursing, breeding, resting), impair communication (i.e. by masking their
signals), and even drive animals away from critical habitat (e.g. feeding grounds, migration
routes). There is considerable uncertainty as to how marine mammals use sound and how noise
alters their behavior and physiological health. High intensity sounds can have damaging even
fatal consequences for marine mammals, as is implicated from mass-stranding events,
predominately of beaked whales (e.g. Bahamas). Further research is essential to determine these
effects and mitigate or eliminate those that are harmful.
Effects that are not immediately lethal still may be significant and harmful if they lead to changes
in reproduction, migration or movement patterns, distribution, foraging, social behavior,
communication, or lead to increased mortality over longer time periods. The identification and
assessment of such effects are a challenge because of a lack of baseline information and the
complexity and expense of studying highly mobile animals in the marine environment.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve Understanding. To develop education programmes so people understand and
acknowledge the seriousness of the threat of underwater noise.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to develop public awareness regarding noise pollution and its effects on marine
organisms. Legislation intended to protect cetaceans and their habitats should refer explicitly to
sound energy and the need to manage it appropriately.
ACTIONS NEEDED to be determined at Workshop.
21
2.10
VESSEL STRIKES
Vessel strikes can cause death and injury to marine mammals. The extent of this problem in the
WCR is poorly understood. Possible factors contributing to vessel strike, but not limited to,
include: the density of whales and vessels; the ability of whales and vessel operators to detect one
another; and the ability of whales or vessel operators to maneuver to avoid collisions. Outreach
and education efforts will raise the visibility of the threat and potentially assist in understanding
the magnitude of the problem.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To educate stakeholders on the risk of injury and death to marine
mammals.
Impact assessment. To monitor and assess the range and magnitude of vessel strikes in the WCR
particularly for endangered large whales.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level to develop reporting schemes for vessel strikes.
ACTIONS NEEDED to be determined.
22
2.11
CLIMATE CHANGE
Effects of climate change are complex, making them analytically almost intractable. Although the
potential effect of climate change on marine mammals has been little investigated and its
consequences are considered less imminent than those caused by other factors, this matter
deserves concern. Although it is difficult to establish direct links between climate change and
health of individual marine mammals, or indirect links between climate change and the
availability of prey resources, it is important to exercise the precautionary principle.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Key Objectives
Improve understanding. To educate stakeholders on the direct links and long-term effects of
climate change and natural disturbance on marine mammal health and critical habitat, and the
indirect links between climate change and prey availability.
Impact minimization. To stimulate on-going and initiate new actions at the regional, national
and/or local level.
ACTIONS NEEDED to be determined at Workshop.
23
3.
SPECIES-LED ACTIONS
Conserving populations requires coordinated effort among agencies, organizations and
communities within the animals’ ranges. Conservation actions are predicated on research and
education activities. In many instances, basic information is needed about the species present in
an area and their abundance, habitat use, and mortality factors before appropriate conservation
measures can be proposed. In other instances, we need to improve the state of knowledge and
develop means of conveying important information to decision-makers and the general pubic to
gain support for conservation initiatives. In this section, the species are addressed approximately
in order of conservation priority based on the:





Nature and level of impact from human influences;
Need for active management in order to achieve SPAW goals and objectives;
Need for improved knowledge; and,
Potential for recovery or other conservation benefits.
Threatened species ranking system of classification proposed at the Workshop.
The priority species summary will be filled in at the WORKSHOP or date to be determined.
PRIORITY SPECIES SUMMARY
PRIORITY 1 SPECIES
PRIORITY 2 SPECIES
PRIORITY 3 SPECIES
The species-led actions’ sections that follow pertain to the regional “generic model” whereas
country-specific species-led actions will be developed after the Workshop through the National
Recovery Plans (NRP). Note: the species order is NOT prioritized at this point; the DRAFAT
MMAP is simply giving examples (e.g. general section).
24
3.1
SPECIES GENERAL
Key Objectives
Ecology: To better understand the ecology, habitat requirements and threats to the species in the
WCR.
Human Impacts: To understand through science how best to mitigate human-related effects.
These activities include but are not limited to fishing, coastal development and habitat
degradation, pollution, and tourism (e.g., whale watching and captivity acoustic disturbance,
vessel strike, and climate change/natural disturbances.
Population Protection: To define /protect significant areas for marine mammals, particularly
vulnerable species, and to ensure the protection of that population.
Pubic Awareness: Improve public awareness in all sectors regionally, nationally and locally on
marine mammal conservation and management issues.
Stranding Management: To manage stranding events safely and humanely, and make optimal
use of specimen material to achieve a better understanding of species biology, pathology, and
cause-effect relationships.
Enforcement: To promote broad awareness of understanding of, support for, and compliance
with codes of conduct, guidelines, or regulations.
Previous conservation actions

Annex II of the SPAW Protocol
ACTIONS NEEDED
This section could also offer suggestions of “how to” under the “needed actions,” as means of
guiding how Parties or partners could help in addressing the actions needed.
Planning and Strategy
3.1.1 Review the ranking and conservation status of species in the WCR at least every five years.
(A, New)
3.1.2
Establish national polices on whale- and dolphin-watching, holding in captivity,
rehabilitation of marine mammals, and stranding protocols. (B, Ongoing)
Science
3.1.3 Determine high-use habitat and habitat needs for each species. (A, New)
3.1.4
Produce a report to define the basic biology of marine mammal species in the WCR with
intention of outlining species/population conservation value. (B, New)
25
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
Relationships and Community
3.1.5 Create a GIS-based map of current and future human activities. (A, New)
3.1.6
Create and distribute widely a map of significant marine mammal concentration areas and
of human activities known or likely to be harmful to marine mammals. (B, New)
3.1.7
Identify existing educational materials (and gaps) and facilitate publication and
dissemination. (B, New)
3.1.8
Identify national organizations working with marine mammals to promote and facilitate
public awareness efforts, scientific cooperation, and harmonized standards for issue-driven
actions. (C, New)
Management
3.1.9 Establish marine mammal sanctuaries or marine protected areas for critical marine
mammal habitat. (B, Ongoing)
3.1.10 Develop an information system especially for sightings, strandings and incidents
(such as fishing related mortality, behavioral observations, injuries, etc) that links those
elements that properly underpin management and scientific information needs for the
conservation of marine mammals. (B, Ongoing)
3.1.11 Establish national/regional stranding networks to develop capacity to respond to strandings
by conducting local and regional workshops, and establishing local networks of trained
volunteers. (B, Ongoing)
Resourcing and Capacity
3.1.12 Develop WCR Red List of Marine Mammal Species. (A, New)
3.1.13 Create a network of WCR Marine Mammal Experts in the WCR. (B, New)
3.1.14 Implement training programmes such as regional stranding training response workshops.
(B, Ongoing)
Needs to be filled in for all species at the Workshop or date to be determined
26
3.2
HUMPBACK WHALE
Megaptera novaeangliae
In the North Atlantic, the humpback whale ranges from tropical waters in the Caribbean and
around the Cape Verde Islands to Arctic waters. During the winter, the majority of the population
congregate to mate and calve on offshore banks and off insular coasts of the Atlantic margins of
the West Indies. The largest winter concentrations occur in the waters of the Dominican Republic,
on Silver Bank, Navidad Bank, and in Samana Bay. Lower densities are found on Virgin Bank,
Mouchoir Bank, and in the Mona Passage, Puerto Rico. Farther south along the Antillean arc
through the Windward Islands to Trinidad and Tobago, humpback whales appear to occur
sparsely today, despite the historical significance of this region as a whaling ground in the mid1800s. Although commercial whaling seriously depleted all humpback stocks, the species has
demonstrated a remarkable resilience and many of those stocks are recovering. The estimated
population size for the North Atlantic humpback whale population is approximately 12,000
individuals. Its seasonal inshore distribution makes humpbacks vulnerable to a range of potential
threats, including entanglement in fishing gear, collisions with vessels, and disturbance from
tourism.
Previous conservation actions and conservation-related research
 Collation of anecdotal reports to investigate the current status of humpback whales in
the WCR.
 Extraction and analysis of data from whaling logs to assess pre-exploitation
distribution and abundance.
 Visual and acoustic surveys of humpback whales in the Greater Antilles
(YONAH/MONAH) and eastern Caribbean region.
 Establishment of the Silver Bank Humpback Whale Sanctuary in the Dominican
Republic.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.2.1 Determine threats and management issues for protection in breeding areas (e.g.. all
aspects of winter reproductive behavior, from singing/lekking, to copulation, to giving
birth, to early phases of nursing).
3.2.2
Consider options for managing whale watching and providing legal protection to
humpback whales.
Science
3.2.3 Identify the gaps in knowledge of humpback whale distribution.
3.2.4
Study occurrence and movements through photo-identification, land-based or vesselbased surveys, acoustic monitoring, and/or genetics.
3.2.5
Identify critical breeding areas and migratory corridors.
3.2.6
Assess present and potential anthropogenic impacts to humpback whales.
27
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
Relationships and Community
3.2.7 Encourage whale watch operators and public to report sightings of humpbacks to
contribute to photo-ID data.
3.2.8
Promote regional advocacy for humpback conservation through public awareness
programmes focusing on humpback whale ecology/behavior.
3.2.9
Improve public awareness of best practices to prevent and minimize disturbance
including those related to viewing etiquette and approach distances.
3.2.10 Develop partnerships with private sector and community groups in areas of common
interest for humpback conservation and habitat protection.
Management
3.2.11 Protect humpback whales from identified threats in critical breeding areas through the
establishment of sanctuaries.
3.2.12 Develop best practices for tourist-based activities.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.2.13 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
3.2.14 Training to conduct abundance surveys.
28
3.3
SPERM WHALE
Physter macrocephalus
The range of sperm whales includes the deeper basins of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
They tend to inhabit pelagic waters but come close to shore where there are seamounts,
submarine canyons, or steeply shelving waters near the coast. Social groups are composed of
matrilineally related females, which are confined to tropical and temperate waters. Adult males
move into high-latitude temperate and polar waters and lead comparatively solitary lives. Mature
males return to the mixed breeding groups.
In the Gulf of Mexico, the sperm whale is the most abundant large cetacean. It occurs throughout
the oceanic (>200 m deep) northern Gulf of Mexico. Concentrations have been found along the
continental slope (200–2000 m). Sperm whales have been sighted or stranded in every month of
the year in the Gulf, suggesting that at least some females, calves, and immature whales are
resident in the region. Sighting and stranding data suggest that sperm whales are present in the
northeastern Caribbean year-round. Surveys of sperm whales in the southeastern Caribbean (in
Dominica and Grenada) reveal high proportions (55%) of re-sighted individuals, within and
between years. Within-year matches between Guadeloupe and Dominica indicate that some
individuals or groups travel between island states.
Previous conservation actions
 Maintaining best practices on whale watch operations in some areas.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.3.1 Determine threats and management issues and adopt measures for protection in
WCR especially management for whale watching and permitting for research.
Science
3.3.2 Assess the population ecology, life history parameters, population numbers and
foraging ranges. Some of these factors have been studied extensively elsewhere. In
terms of prioritizing, do you make this sort of thing a high priority (over other
activities) or do you accept findings from elsewhere in order to gain completely new
information on other topics?
3.3.3
Continue photo-identification studies and acoustic monitoring.
3.3.4
Investigate critical breeding areas and migration patterns.
3.3.5
Assess potential human impacts to sperm whales.
Relationships and Community
3.3.6 Promote regional advocacy for sperm whale conservation.
3.3.7
Improve public awareness and best practices to prevent and minimize disturbance
including those related to viewing etiquette and approach distance.
29
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
Management
3.3.8 Careful ongoing management of whale watching.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.3.9 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
3.3.10 Training to conduct abundance surveys.
30
3.4
COMMON BOTTLENOSE DOLPHIN
Tursiops truncatus
The bottlenose dolphin is the most common delphinid in the nearshore and outer shelf-edge
waters of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea southwards to Venezuela. It has been
recorded throughout the WCR. The species is observed year-round and strandings occur
frequently in the Gulf of Mexico. The bottlenose dolphin is the most common cetacean species in
captivity; hence, it is the target of live-capture fisheries.
Two forms of Tursiops are recognized in the western Atlantic, coastal and offshore. The offshore
form occurs between the 200- and 2000-m isobaths in distinct Gulf of Mexico and western North
Atlantic stocks, whereas one or more coastal forms inhabit inshore waters (Wells et al. 1999).
Coastal forms are usually observed shoreward of 20 m contour.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.4.1 Determine threats and management issues and adopt measures for protection.
3.4.2
Consider ongoing management for whale watching and legal protection options to
protect bottlenose dolphins from human impact.
Science
3.4.3 Conduct studies to monitor status and trends.
3.4.4
Investigate taxonomic and genetic status to confirm stock structure.
3.4.5
Compilation of data on past, ongoing and planned live-capture operations to identify
localities of concern and determine numbers of animals removed and numbers caught
and released.
3.4.6
Photo-identification and biopsy sampling to obtain data for abundance estimation and
for use in investigating stock structure.
Relationships and Community
3.4.7 Raise public and tourism awareness about boating etiquette around bottlenose dolphins
to minimise risk of boat strike and harassment.
3.4.8
Assess and improve educational and environmental interpretation on tourism boats.
Management
3.4.9 Work with industry to develop local codes of practice for tourism operators based on
best practice and seek their adoption.
3.4.10 Enable sightings and photo ID to be entered into national/regional database.
31
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
3.4.11 Protect against present and future cumulative effects of tourism. Methods include close
liaison with operators, education and codes of practice, and research on effects,
monitoring, conservative conditions on permits.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.4.12 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
3.4.13 Training to conduct abundance surveys.
32
3.5
SHORT-FINNED PILOT WHALE
Globicephala macrorhynchus
Short-finned pilot whales have a wide distribution in the WCR. They prefer deep waters, such as
those found at the edges of the continental shelves and over submarine canyons, but have been
sighted in a wide range of water depths greater than 500 metres. Pilot whales have been reported
from the Gulf of Mexico during all months of the year and are probably the most common species
of ‘blackfish’ in these waters. Elevated abundance estimates may be due to misidentifications of
other ‘blackfish’ species (e.g., false killer, killer, pygmy killer, and melon-headed whales). No
pattern of seasonal migration is evident. Short-finned pilot whales are thought to be fairly
common in the Caribbean, although their status and abundance is not known, and directed takes
are common (but unquantified) throughout the Lesser Antilles, especially Saint Vincent and Saint
Lucia, where the combined catch was in the hundreds annually until at least the mid-1970s.
Fishermen report that they are seen in all months of the year. They mass strand and are taken
incidentally in fishing gear throughout their range.
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.5.1 Determine threats and management issues.
Science
3.5.2 Assess the ecology, distribution, movements, foraging behavior, habitat use, etc. of
pilot whales.
3.5.3
Continue to investigate the causes of mass strandings.
3.5.4
Encourage genetic analysis of directed caught or stranded.
3.5.5
Assess the foraging ecology of pilot whales and interactions with fisheries.
Relationships and Community
3.5.6 Ensure that communities near known hotspots for mass strandings events have adequate
information and resources for future events.
Management
3.5.7 Establish regional stranding networks and National/Regional Stranding Contingency
Plans.
3.5.8
Maintain procedures to optimize the resources used during stranding events.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.5.9 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
3.5.10 Training to conduct abundance surveys.
33
3.6
BALEEN WHALES (OTHER THAN THE HUMPBACK WHALE)
This group includes the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus),
sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis), common Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera cf. brydei), common
minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), and North Atlantic Right whale (Eubalaena
glacialis). These species are generally migratory in the WCR, with the likely exception of the
Bryde’s whale. Information on these species needs to be filled in and at the Workshop or a
future date.
Previous conservation actions
 Most available information consists of opportunistic sightings and stranding records or
historical accounts.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.6.1 Protect baleen whales from identified threats in critical breeding areas through seasonal
regulation and the establishment of sanctuaries.
Science
3.6.2 Assess the distribution and ecology of baleen whales in the WCR.
Relationships and Community
3.6.3 Encourage the public to report sightings of baleen whales.
3.6.4
Promote national/regional advocacy for conservation.
3.6.5
Improve public awareness of baleen whale behavior and ecology, and best practices to
prevent and minimize disturbance including those related to viewing etiquette and
approach distances.
Management
3.6.6 Protect baleen whales from identified threats in critical breeding areas through seasonal
regulation and the establishment of sanctuaries.
3.6.7
Develop best practices for tourist-based activities.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.6.8 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
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3.7
OTHER TOOTHED CETACEANS
The status of these species varies but generally few conservation or management issues
have been identified that pertain to them. This group includes the following species:
These species could be prioritized with associated species-led actions (or not).
Family KOGIIDAE
Kogia breviceps
Kogia sima
The pygmy and dwarf sperm
Pygmy sperm whale
Dwarf sperm whale
Family ZIPHIIDAE
Ziphius cavirostris
Mesoplodon densirostris
Mesoplodon europaeus
Mesoplodon bidens
Mesoplodon mirus
The beaked whales
Cuvier’s beaked whale
Blainville’s beaked whale
Gervais’ beaked whale
Sowerby’s beaked whale
True’s beaked whale
Family DELPHINIDAE
Orcinus orca
Peponocephala electra
Feresa attenuata
Pseudorca crassidens
Steno bredanensis
Lagenodelphis hosei
Delphinus delphis
Delphinus capensis
Stenella attenuata
Stenella frontalis
Stenella coeruleoalba
Stenella longirostris
Stenella clymene
Grampus griseus
Sotalia fluviatilis
The marine dolphins
Killer whale
Melon-headed whale
Pygmy killer whale
False killer whale
Rough-toothed dolphin
Fraser’s dolphin
Short-beaked common dolphin
Long-beaked common dolphin
Pantropical spotted dolphin
Atlantic spotted dolphin
Striped dolphin
Spinner dolphin
Clymene dolphin
Risso’s dolphin
Tucuxi
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Planning and Strategy
3.7.1
Determine threats and management issues and adopt measures for protection in
critical habitat areas.
3.7.2
Consider ongoing management for whale watching and legal protection options to
protect small cetaceans from human impact.
Science
3.7.3 Assess the ecology of toothed cetaceans (e.g., distribution, movements, foraging
behavior, habitat use, etc.).
35
ACTIONS NEEDED (continued)
3.7.4
Continue to investigate the causes and prevention of mass strandings.
3.7.5
Assess and monitor human-related threats.
3.7.6
Assess the foraging ecology of small cetaceans and interactions with fisheries.
Relationships and Community
3.7.7 Ensure that communities near known hotspots for mass strandings events have adequate
information and resources for future events.
Management
3.7.8 Establish regional stranding networks and National/Regional Stranding Contingency
Plans.
3.7.9
Maintain procedures to optimize the resources used during stranding events.
Resourcing and Capacity
3.7.10 Create sources of private and government funding that will allow highest priority
conservation needs to be addressed.
3.7.11 Establish expert recovery groups where needed.
3.7.12 Maintain procedures to optimize the resources used during stranding events.
36
3.8
WEST INDIAN MANATEE (To be filled in at Workshop.)
3.9
PINNIPEDS (To be filled in at Workshop.)
37
4.
SYSTEMS AND ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES
It is important to give guidance for the conservation management of marine mammals so that
legislations and capacity infrastructure continue to reflect the evolving knowledge, human
interactions, public opinions and government policies relating to marine mammals.
Capacity building refers to the enhancement of human capabilities through a combination of
education and infrastructure improvement. It is vital that local scientists be able to provide
impetus and expertise for cetacean conservation in their own regions.
The SPAW/RAC (or another institution) can serve as a centre to manage whale and dolphin
sighting reports, the dissemination of public outreach and education materials, and the promotion
and supervision of cetacean research, and provide a public education service.
38
4.1
NATIONAL LEGISLATION AND GOVERNMENT POLICY
Marine mammal conservation and management is governed by a range of legislation and
government policy including:

National Legislation (to be filled in at Workshop or later date)
These documents aim to give guidance for the conservation management of marine mammals. It
is important that they continue to reflect the evolving knowledge, human interactions, public
opinion and government priorities relating to marine mammals.
National legislation may seek to issue marine mammal permits to manage the ‘taking’ (e.g.
approaching, catching, disturbing, possessing) of live and dead marine mammals, including for
the purposes of tourism, science, oceanographic investigation, cultural materials and display, and
consumptive needs. Key objectives in this section pertain to effectively developing permitting
protocols and managing permits in accordance with legislation; and, to integrate and optimize the
scientific, cultural and other needs for marine mammal materials.
Key Objectives
National Guidance: To develop and adopt national legislation pertaining to marine
mammals where lacking but complementary with relevant regional and international
legal instruments. To develop and/or implement existing national guidance for the
conservation of marine mammals.
Legal Protection: Maximize legal protection for marine mammals in WCR (or country).
Previous Conservation Actions To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
ACTIONS NEEDED
Seek a review of Marine Mammal Protection Regulations (A).
Review current management tools for a range of issues including:
 Whale-and dolphin-watching
 Holding of marine mammals in captivity;
 Marine mammal strandings
 To be filled in.
Review current legal framework, departmental policy and interagency
management of fisheries interactions and fishing-related mortality to ensure effective
protection of marine mammals (e.g. population management plans etc.). (B)
39
INTERNAL STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Establish and maintain structures and systems to develop, implement and update within
national marine mammal recovery plans.
Ensure quality, effectiveness, consistency and efficiency and compatibility with the SPAW
Protocol.
INSTITUTIONAL AND TECHNICAL CAPACITY
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Establish a WCR Red List which identifies marine mammal conservation status
(e.g., as either threatened, vulnerable or conservation dependent, insufficient data, etc.) in
recognition of their position within the marine ecosystem.
Declaration and management of marine protected areas which are critical habitats for
marine mammals in the WCR.
Development and implementation of National Recovery Plans for Marine Mammals. In WCR.
INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Information underpins the management of marine mammals and comes from wide-ranging
sources including stranding events, tourism operations, sightings, local knowledge, consultations
and scientific study.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Develop a centralized accessible structure and mechanism to maximize the collection of
information and safeguard information resources for the long-term.
Promote and conduct scientific surveys and disseminate publications.
Develop national and regional databases.
PARTNERSHIPS
40
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Develop relationships with other agencies, associates and the public (e.g., with private
sector such as tourism service providers, support from local businesses, community
involvement in conservation, science organizations and universities, fishing industry and
recreational fishers, and local communities and local authorities).
PUBLIC AWARENESS, EDUCATION AND OUTREACH
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
Develop and conduct effective education and awareness programmes about
species/habitats and their management issues.
4.7
REGIONAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
4.7.1
Work with international and regional agencies to maintain strong conservation
advocacy in international forums, founded on scientific research.
4.8 COMPLIANCE AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
While education of the public or relevant persons is often the preferred way to ensure compliance
with marine mammal legislation, stronger law enforcement actions is sometimes necessary to
control adverse affects of marine mammals.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
4.8.1
Promote a broad awareness, understanding and support for the legislative
provisions.
5.
REPORTING AND MONITORING PROGRESS
41
Planning, reporting information, monitoring progress, and reviewing work plan underpins the
management of marine mammals in a centralized accessible manner. Points for consideration
include but are not limited to the following:
To be determined at the Workshop.
ACTIONS NEEDED
To be determined at the Workshop or a later date.
5.1
Planning and progress on implementation of the MMAP by the Parties.
5.2
Regular reporting to SPAW’s Regional Activity Center (RAC).
5.3
Coordinating mechanism planned to follow up progress and barriers experienced.
5.4
Planning for review/updating/developing work plan/priority activities (at STAC
meetings, EGROUP or network).
42
6.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I: SPECIES LIST OF MARINE MAMMALS OF THE WIDER CARIBBEAN
ORDER CETACEA
Suborder MYSTICETI
Family BALAENOPTERIDAE
Balaenoptera musculus
Balaenoptera physalus
Balaenoptera borealis
Balaenoptera cf. brydei
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Megaptera novaeangliae
The Rorquals
Blue whale
Fin whale
Sei whale
Common Bryde’s whale
Common Minke whale
Humpback whale
Family BALAENIDAE
Eubalaena glacialis
The Right Whales
North Atlantic right whale
Suborder ODONTOCETI
Family PHYSETERIDAE
Physeter macrocephalus
The Sperm Whales
Sperm whale
Family KOGIIDAE
Kogia breviceps
Kogia sima
The Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales
Pygmy sperm whale
Dwarf sperm whale
Family ZIPHIIDAE
Ziphius cavirostris
Mesoplodon densirostris
Mesoplodon europaeus
Mesoplodon bidens
Mesoplodon mirus
The Beaked Whales
Cuvier’s beaked whale
Blainville’s beaked whale
Gervais’ beaked whale
Sowerby’s beaked whale
True’s beaked whale
Family DELPHINIDAE
Orcinus orca
Peponocephala electra
Feresa attenuata
Pseudorca crassidens
Globicephala macrorhynchus
Steno bredanensis
Lagenodelphis hosei
Delphinus delphis 1
Delphinus capensis 1
Tursiops truncatus
Stenella attenuata
Stenella frontalis
Stenella coeruleoalba
Stenella longirostris
Stenella clymene
Grampus griseus
Sotalia fluviatilis
The Marine Dolphins
Killer whale
Melon-headed whale
Pygmy killer whale
False killer whale
Short-finned pilot whale
Rough-toothed dolphin
Fraser’s dolphin
Short-beaked common dolphin
Long-beaked common dolphin
Common bottlenose dolphin
Pantropical spotted dolphin
Atlantic spotted dolphin
Striped dolphin
Spinner dolphin
Clymene dolphin
Risso’s dolphin
Tucuxi
43
Suborder SIRENIA
Family TRICHECHIDAE
Trichechus manatus
West Indian manatee
Order CARNIVORA
Suborder PINNIPEDIA
Family PHOCIDAE
Monachus tropicalis 2
Cystophora cristata
West Indian monk seal (extinct)
Hooded seal (extralimital)
Family OTARIIDAE
Zalophus californianus
California sea lion (introduced)
1
Because of recent addition of Delphinus capensis species listing and difficulty in differentiating between
previous sighting records of Delphinus delphis, both Delphinus spp. are listed to note the occurrence of
separate species, but sightings and strandings are combined and do not differentiate between species.
2
Boyd and Standfield (1998) report some indications that monk seals might still survive off Jamaica and Haiti.
44
APPENDIX II: ACTIVITIES FROM INFORMAL CONSULTATION SUMMARIZED
BY THE SPAW’S REGIONAL ACTIVITY CENTRE (RAC)
Outlined below are the results of the informal consultation summarized by the Regional Activity
Centre for SPAW (SPAW/RAC) in UNEP(DEC)/CAR WG.25/CRP.2 and presented to the
Second Meeting of the Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee (STAC 2) in Curaçao in
2003. The key objectives and activities are divided into four sections: Legislation; Research and
Monitoring; Management; and, Education, Outreach and Training.
I.
LEGISLATION
Key Objectives

To maintain national guidance and provide consistency and certainty of the
conservation of marine mammals.

Maximize legal protection for marine mammals in the WCR.

To advance marine mammal conservation by working with international and
regional agencies.

Broad awareness, understanding and support for the legislative provisions relating
to marine mammals.
Activities
1.1 Build capacity in relevant national and local agencies to ensure implementation of
conservation measures and enforcement of protective regulations.
1.2 Review existing legislation for the conservation of marine mammals in participating
countries. Where deemed necessary, suggest modifications, or in instances where such legislation
is lacking, propose appropriate legislation.
1.3 Provide technical support to facilitate the development of appropriate legislation.
1.4 Encourage and facilitate accession to and/or ratification of the SPAW Protocol and other
Protocols under the Cartagena Convention whilst recognizing their linkages.
1.5 Develop collaboration with other agreements that address marine mammal conservation.
45
11.
RESEARCH AND MONITORING
Key Objectives

Foster science that contributes to the conservation and management of marine
mammals.

Ensure that marine mammal science is consistent with legislation and considers
other conservation management objectives.

Secure information from scientific activity and make it publicly available.
Activities
2.1 Review existing knowledge of marine mammals in the region (e.g. biology, distribution,
seasonal movements, population dynamics, habitat and ecology), especially in poorly studied
areas.
2.2 Identify and assess present and potential threats (e.g. entanglements in fishing gear, hunting
and vessel strikes).
2.3 Identify gaps in scientific knowledge and make recommendations for immediate and longterm research and monitoring, including at least the collection of base-line population data,
capture and by-catch statistics and other related data.
2.4 Develop standardized protocols for data collection and analysis.
2.5 Identify most vulnerable species and populations as well as critical habitats.
2.6 Assess beneficial and detrimental socio-economic aspects of marine mammal- centered
tourism.
III.
MANAGEMENT
Key Objectives

Ensure quality, effectiveness, consistency and efficiency in marine mammal
management in the WCR.

Maximize collection of information to underpin management.

Safeguard information resources long-term in a centralized accessible manner.
Activities
3.1 Make information available on a timely basis through the development and implementation of
an information management strategy to include, for example, websites with relevant links,
newsletters, and regional databases aimed at, but not limited to, decision makers, media,
community groups and the private sectors.
46
3.2 Define criteria for granting exemptions relating to captive marine mammals pursuant to
Article 11(2) of the Protocol, as well as guidelines for the subsequent acquisition, transport and
maintenance according to established best practices.
3.3 Provide technical, economic and logistical support to new and existing marine protected areas
that relate to marine mammals; ensure that they have well-conceived management plans and that
such plans are implemented.
3.4 Develop and implement appropriate management measures to address threats to marine
mammals based (at least in part) on a review of best practices.
IV.
EDUCATION, OUTREACH AND TRAINING
IV.
Key Objectives

Maintain good communication and participation with community and
stakeholders to improve conservation measures.

Reflect and foster public commitment to the protection of marine mammals in
WCR, and actively seek to achieve it.
Activities
4.1 Identify, strengthen, and link existing networks, organizations, programs and materials that
are being used in the region to educate and inform people about marine mammals and
conservation.
4.2 Identify education, awareness and training gaps and promote initiatives that will help fill
them.
4.3 Ensure that local knowledge, attitudes and interactions with marine mammals are integrated,
where appropriate, into educational materials, programs, curricula and strategies.
4.4 Develop and implement training activities to build regional capacity at many levels, using
formal and informal education systems.
4.5 Develop guidelines and criteria for responsible operations, and subsequently propose
regulation/legislation framework.
4.6 Prepare and disseminate information on responsible whale and dolphin watching, and in the
process attempt to assure that this activity contributes to local economies, facilitates scientific
research, and gives impetus to habitat and species protection efforts.
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APPENDIX III: REFERENCES
Dolphins, Whales and Porpoises. 2002-2010 Conservation Action Plan for the World’s
Cetaceans. IUCN/SSC Cetacean Specialist Group. IUCN 2003.
Hoyt, E. Marine Protected Areas for Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises. A World Handbook for
Cetacean Habitat Conservation. Earthscan. London. 2005.
Elements for the Development of a Marine Mammal Action Plan for the Wider Caribbean:
A Review of Marine Mammal Distribution. {UNEP (DEC)/CAR IG.20/INF.3.
Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. 2002. Eds. Perrin, W., B. Wursig and J.G.M. Thewissen.
Academic Press.
Marine Mammals of the Wider Caribbean Region: A Review of Their Conservation Status.
{UNEP (WATER)/CAR WG.22/INF.7}
Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus. CEP technical
Report No. 35. 1995.
Report of the Marine Mammal Commission Consultation. Future Direction in Marine Mammal
Research. August 4-7, 2003.
Report of the Marine Mammal Commission Consultation. Future Direction in Marine Mammal
Research. July 2004.
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