Download Those who lived through the Great War of 1914

The Causes of
WWII
Mr Todd’s group
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The Origins of WWII
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The Origins of the War can be split into the following eight categories: These will be your themes in
any answer
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After the themes is the chronology of the causes which can be used as examples or evidence to support
your themes. As you go through each cause try to think what theme it comes under.
Themes
1. The Legacy or effects of Versailles
2. The failure of the League
3. The Isolation of the USA
4. The Wall St. Crash
5. Hitler’s Foreign Policy
6. Appeasement
7. The Nazi-Soviet Pact
1. The Legacy of Versailles
The terms of the 1919 peace treaty were deeply resented by Germans. In particular they disliked the fact that
Germany had lost around 13 per cent of its European land and population. Alsace and Lorraine were taken by
France, for instance, and a strip of land given to Poland (‘the Polish corridor’ even cut off East Prussia from the
rest of the country). They had to pay large reparations, as compensation for damage the war had caused. There
was to be an allied occupation of the Rhineland for 15 years, after which time the Germans were forbidden ever
to station troops there. The German army was to be restricted to 100,000 men, 6 ships, no submarines or airforce. Furthermore, Germany had to accept the blame for causing the war (Article 231). All German
governments from 1919 were determined to revise Versailles.
Why is this a cause of the War?
2. The failure of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was founded on the belief that disputes among nations could be settled in a rational
spirit. The Covenant of the League, which formed part of the Treaty of Versailles, set out in rather vague terms
the organisation’s commitment to ‘take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the
peace of nations’.
From the start, the League was beset with significant limitations. Although the principal founder of the League
was U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty that established the League’s
covenant and so the United States never became a member. Germany did not join the League until 1926 and
withdrew in l933. The USSR was not invited to join until after Germany had left. Taken together, these facts
meant that the League lacked the membership of several important world powers and its effectiveness was
thereby limited. Additionally, the League lacked armed forces to enforce the terms of the covenant. As such, it
was essentially powerless to deal with aggressive states.
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When the Japanese army invaded Manchuria in 1931, the weakness of the system became evident. The League
proved unable to force one of its own members (Japan) to uphold the terms of the covenant, demonstrating that
it lacked the power to enforce its principles. The League was further undermined in 1935 with Mussolini’s
invasion of Abyssinia. Economic sanctions broke down, partly because the United States and Germany (who
were not League members) could not be expected to carry out such sanctions, and partly because it was feared
that sanctions might push Italy further into the arms of Germany. Meanwhile, the leakage to the press of the
Hoare-Laval plan for the division of Abyssinia outraged public opinion and further discredited the system of
collective security.
Why is this a cause of the War?
3. American Isolationism and the Road to War
Following its decisive intervention in the First World War, America retreated to a position of isolation and
confirmed its traditional desire to avoid foreign entanglements. Such a policy was reinforced by the onset of the
Great Depression and the policies of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although America did not officially enter the Second World War until 1941—two years after the conflict had
erupted in Europe—American policy in the inter-war years nevertheless had a significant impact on the origins
of the war. American isolationism, it can reasonably be argued, influenced British and French decisions about
appeasement and, both indirectly and directly, encouraged the ‘have-not powers’ (Germany, Italy and Japan) to
pursue policies of expansion. America’s failure to join the League of Nations similarly limited the ability of that
organisation to preserve the peace.
Why is this a cause of the War?
4. The Wall Street Crash and Great Depression
The American stock market crash on Wall Street helped to cause worldwide economic depression. Several
states hoped to solve their problems by gaining extra territory - to provide valuable raw materials or a market
for exports, or at least to distract the attention of the public from problems at home. Japan attacked Manchuria,
in mainland China, in 1931; and in 1935 the Fascist dictator of Italy, Benito Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia, in
East Africa. Yet the League of Nations was unable to provide effective resistance to such aggression, and as a
result was discredited. The Great Depression of 1929 played a large role in destroying the economic and
political stability that had been achieved in the 1920s. The Depression led the Great Powers to pursue policies
of economic nationalism, and it encouraged political extremism, contributing greatly to Hitler’s rise to power
in Germany.
5. Hitler’s Foreign Policy
Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. From the very beginning he was determined
to remove what remained of the Treaty of Versailles, and then to achieve a ‘Greater Germany’ (so that all
German-speaking peoples should be in a single state) and finally to expand and conquer the territories of other
states, especially in the East. He had written this quite clearly in his autobiography, Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle,
1925). But at first he had to proceed carefully, owing to German economic weakness and to a lack of allies.
Only when Germany had recovered from depression could he be more aggressive and provocative.
One of his first moves was to leave the League of Nations, in October 1933. He followed this up by introducing
conscription in March 1935 and by sending troops into the Rhineland in March 1936. None of these actions had
involved violence, though Hitler introduced a Four-Year Plan in 1936 to put the German economy on a war
footing. In March 1938 he sent his troops to Vienna and brought about the union (Anschluss) between Germany
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and Austria, though this had been expressly forbidden by Versailles. But again there was no aggression, and
Austrians soon voted by a large majority to accept what had happened. Hitler then sought to bring the Germanspeakers in the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia into Germany, threatening war against the Czechs. In
September 1938, at the Munich conference, Britain and France agreed that Hitler should have the Sudetenland.
Yet in March 1939, his troops marched into what remained of Czechoslovakia, territory to which he had no
moral claim. Finally, Poland was invaded in 1939 which proved to be the event which triggered the War.
Why is this a cause of the War?
7. Appeasement
The victors of the First World War took no actions to prevent Germany becoming strong again. Partly this was
due to their reaction against the slaughter of 1914-18. Another war, they reasoned, would be even more
destructive than the first, and therefore had at all costs to be avoided. Also, they believed that Hitler had just
grievances, which ought to be removed. By the 1930s it was widely thought that the First World War had not
been caused by German aggression: therefore Versailles had been built on false premises and ought to be
revised. Why should Germans be forced to limit the size of their army? Why should they not have troops on
their own territory, including the Rhineland? Why shouldn’t all Germans be united in a single state, if that was
what they wanted? On the other hand, the British and French governments, while hoping that Hitler would soon
cease to make demands, did prepare for the worst by rearming in case they had to fight. This British and French
policy of ‘appeasement’ (trying to avoid war by seeking agreements with Germany and Italy and giving them
what they wanted) has been seen as a major cause of WWII.
Why is this a cause of the War?
8. Nazi-Soviet Pact
Hitler had no respect for the appeasers, judging that their willingness to make concessions was sheer cowardice.
Hence the Sudetenland was not the last of his demands. After Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in
March 1939, Britain and France guaranteed Poland, pledging to declare war against Hitler if he invaded Polish
territory. Yet this attempt to dissuade Hitler from further aggression did not succeed. On 23 August 1939 he
signed a pact with the Soviet Union, to prevent Germans - as in 1914-18 - having to fight a war on two fronts;
and on 1st 1939September he invaded Poland. Two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany, and
another conflict between the Great Powers had begun.
Why is this a cause of the War?
Events leading to WWII: (chronology)
All the following events can be placed under one of the seven categories above. They can be used as examples
for each of the categories.
1919 Treaty of Versailles
Detail
The Treaty of Versailles crippled Germany; gradually dissolving its land, economy, and military into Europe.
The Treaty was seen as a prejudiced peace where its main goal was to paralyze Germany while simultaneously
humiliating it. The allies presented self-determination; Germany’s land was divided and distributed, to be ruled
under new governance. Some of the land that was taken from Germany was where the majority of the people
were of German origin. Over 7 million Germans were surrendered to other nations: the most punishing being in
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the Polish Corridor where 2 million Germans were handed over to Poland. Germany’s military was restricted to
100,000 men; the size of a police force. This in turn meant that Germany could not even realistically defend
itself if it was aggressed by one of its neighbours. The allies also obligated Germany to pay 6.6 billion pounds
as a compensation for the damages it brought upon the European people. However, many critics of the Treaty,
which included economists working at Versailles, declared such a sum unrealistic and would subsequently
bankrupt the country. Finally, the most austere aspect of the Treaty was Article 231, where it placed entire
blame on Germany for the initiation and prolongation of the war. This in turn, labelled Germany as the ‘villain
of Europe’ and humiliated the nation.
Why a cause of War?
The Treaty established a foundation from which anger and desire for revenge could be built on. The Treaty
instigated a propaganda frenzy against it which fuelled resentment and in the eyes of the Germans; necessitated
revenge. The Treaty was directly responsible for enabling Hitler to come to power, where he based his initial
policies on the reprisal of Germany for their excessively harsh treatment from the Treaty.
Locarno Treaties 1925
This follow-up to Versailles was designed to promote the security of Western Europe. France and Belgium
promised never to invade the Ruhr again and in return, Germany agreed not to invade France and Belgium. It
also confirmed the Rhineland as a neutral, demilitarised zone.
Why a cause of War?
German nationalists were furious at their government for signing the Treaty because in doing so they again
agreed to the terms of Versailles – they saw it as a sign of treason. Although these claims were unheard of
initially as Germany was enjoying economic growth, in the Great Depression the Treaties helped spark and
justify the anger of the German population regarding the Weimar republic, and thus helped the rise of the Nazi
party to power. They also created a false sense of security in Europe and held back the Allies from relying on
force to uphold the terms of Versailles. Most importantly, as they ignored the borders in the east as laid down at
Versailles, it gave future German leaders the idea that the West did not care about the East and that those
borders could be revised.
Wall St. Crash 1929
Detail
Stock market crash on New York’s Stock Exchange, Wall Street, in October 1929. Prices of shares fell rapidly
and millions of ordinary Americans and companies went bankrupt. This event started an economic crisis known
as the Great Depression, in which world trade, industrial output and employment declined drastically.
Why a cause of War?
Due to the construction of the government, the Weimar republic was unable to take tough and unpopular
measures that might have helped. Thus, the aftermath of the Wall Street Crash shattered Germany’s economic
and political stability - unemployment rose particularly sharply. As more and more became disillusioned by the
current government, Hitler, who was given the opportunity to pose as the saviour of Germany, rose rapidly.
Furthermore, the Depression decreased international trade; there was simply nothing left to trade! Because
nations had no longer a reason to talk to each other, diplomatic relations suffered in the early 1930s.
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Hitler comes to power 1933
Detail
Hitler and the Nazi Socialist party win 33% of the votes in Reichstag. (They won more than any other party)
Why a cause of War?
When Hitler and the Nazi Socialist party won the elections, this was a major contributory factor in the outbreak
of war in Europe in 1939. This was due to Hitler introducing his Foreign Policy. Hitler had aims to dismantle
the treaty of Versailles which would win back Germany’s right to conquer land she had lost in 1919 when the
Treaty was signed. Hitler wanted to extend the frontiers of Germany beyond their pre-1919 limits to include all
people of German race (e.g. the Sudetenland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Russia’s Black Earth areas).
In 1934 the Austrian Nazi’s murdered Chancellor Dollfuss to force a union with Germany. However this early
attempt failed.
Conscription and Luftwaffe March 1935
Detail
Hitler decided to rebuild his air force in 1935, against the wishes of the allied powers. According to the Treaty
of Versailles, this was strictly forbidden. The allied powers didn’t actually do anything to prevent or impede the
introduction of the Luftwaffe. The same went for the conscription introduced in 1935. Hitler did not respect the
conditions of the Versailles Treaty which dictated that Germany could not exceed 100, 000 men.
Why a cause of War?
Hitler was ‘pushing the limits’ and he was constantly testing the tolerance of the Allies. The Luftwaffe was
simply another way in which he did this. The introduction of conscription was much like this. It simply angered
the Allied powers, and proved that War was on Germany’s agenda. In addition, the larger army naturally ended
up aiding Germany in provoking war.
Saar returned April 1935
Detail
The Saar was returned to Germany by plebiscite, which was, in effect a free vote of confidence in Nazism.
Hitler now felt strong enough to openly violate the Treaty of Versailles
Why a cause of War?
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Nazi propaganda made the most of the success, and Hitler announced that now all causes of grievance
between France and Germany had been removed.
The Nazis became more secure in their overall control of Germany and were willing to go out and fight
for more land to increase the size Germany.
By 1935 all civil liberties had been destroyed, a free press was strangled and Germans lived under a
permanent state of emergency with no restrictions on what Hitler could do.
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One of Germany’s objectives was the establishment of an air force which would be strong enough to
repel attacks on Germany at any moment, and thus strong enough to guarantee Germany's absolute
security in the air.
Abyssinia Crisis 1935
Detail
Mussolini invaded the only non-colonized area of Africa, with the aim of reinstalling the might of the former
Roman Empire. After disputes between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers over water holes, Mussolini declared his
aims of destroying the nation. The Abyssinian government referred the trouble to the League of Nations so that
sanctions can be placed upon the aggressor state. Even though popular opinion was to impose economic
sanctions, Hoare and Laval, the British and French representatives made a secret deal, giving Mussolini more
Abyssinian land than he had all ready conquered. Economic sanctions were implemented, however, none
concerned vital war effort materials, such as coal, oil or steel. The French and British run Suez Canal was still
open for Italian shipping of resources to Abyssinia. In October the Abyssinian capital had all ready been
captured, by May the country was made part of the Italian empire. The Abyssinian crisis proved that the League
was failing in its attempts to produce “collective security”, the League was not able to keep the peace and as a
result it was completely discredited.
Why a cause of War?
The Abyssinian crisis was what many consider a “green light for further aggression”. This statement is not far
from the truth. The results of the crisis helped evoke World War II only 7 years later. The League of Nations
was perhaps the hardest hit. By ignoring it Mussolini had effectively destroyed its power. With its inconsistent
and weak stand on sanctions it lost tremendous amounts of face. At the same time Hitler used this lull in the
League’s power to re-militarize the Rhineland. What limited power the League once had was lost because
countries no longer trusted it to keep them safe. Perhaps more importantly the Stresa front was broken. By
alienating Italy the former allies lost the encirclement they once had. Hitler was no longer surrounded on all
sides by hostile powers. In fact Mussolini was pushed towards Hitler, thus giving Hitler an avenue of escape
and an ally in case of war. Perhaps this was the true beginning of war, the realization on Hitler’s part that a war
could be fought, indicated by the weakening of the league and the advent of a Nazi ally.
Rhineland reoccupied March 1936
Detail
On 7th March 1936 Hitler sent German troops into the demilitarised Rhineland. By so doing, he was clearly
violating both the Treaty of Versailles and the Treaty of Locarno, freely accepted by Germany in 1925. Hitler's
excuse was the ratification by the French Senate of the 1935 Franco-Soviet alliance, which he claimed was a
threat to Germany and incompatible with the Locarno Treaty. Furthermore, now that the allies were
preoccupied with Italy's invasion of Abyssinia, Hitler had decided to act. Crucial to the success of his plan was
the attitude of Italy. Mussolini, isolated from the other Stresa Powers because of his Abyssinian policy, had
little option but to reassure Germany that he would not co-operate with the British and French to enforce
Locarno if German troops entered the Rhineland.
Why a cause of War?
The remilitarisation of the Rhineland was a tremendous boost for Hitler -both in terms of his popularity (he
achieved a 99 per cent approval rating in the 29th March plebiscite) and his self-confidence. Indeed he had
exposed the exclusively defensive nature of French thinking and this had serious consequences for France's
allies. Belgium immediately renounced its alliance and in October reverted to neutral status. Hitler had once
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again gambled and won. His troops remained in the Rhineland and began to build fortifications along the
French frontier. Henceforward it would be even more difficult for Britain or France to take action against
Germany. In retrospect, many historians have claimed that Germany's march into the Rhineland was 'the last
chance' to stop Hitler without war, and thus the point at which he could and should have been challenged. It is
possible that the threat of force might have forced him to back down and that he might, in consequence, have
suffered a disastrous blow to his prestige.
Spanish Civil War begins April 1936
Detail
Hitler’s Condor Legion destroyed Guernica with continuous bombing from dive bombers. During the Spanish
Civil War, Britain, France and the United States adopted the policy of non-intervention. These powers believed
that if they opposed Franco and sent help to the Republicans of Spain, they might provoke Germany (who was
sending troops and resources to Franco) into a war or cause the civil war to spread and become a European war.
Why a cause of War?
Hitler was able to try out his Luftwaffe, and trained his air force to near perfection. This demonstrated to the
world his power. Western powers were weakened due to divided public opinion. The non-intervention of
Britain, France and the United States proved that they were ready to prevent and back away from war in any
shape or form. Germany and Italy, who had supported Franco and the Nationalists, felt that, no matter what they
did, Britain, France and the United States would not oppose them for fear of war. Germany and Italy were
therefore more confident that ‘non-intervention’ would always be the policy adopted by the other powers if they
became aggressive.
Anschluss March 1938
Detail
Since the abortive putsch of 1934, Hitler had been cautious towards Austria, even more so from 1936 as he did
not want to jeopardise the growing friendship with. On November 6th: Mussolini had told him that he accepted
that Austria was a German country. Without Italian support Austria had little chance of sustaining her
independence. Moreover, she could expect little support from Britain either. When Lord Halifax visited
Germany on 19 November 1937, he stated that certain changes in Eastern Europe, notably with regard to
Austria, Czechoslovakia and Danzig, 'could probably not be avoided in the long run’, Accordingly, Hitler was
convinced that Britain would not intervene, and when Halifax subsequently became Foreign Secretary in
February 1938, this only served to reinforce his view. The opportunity to intervene in Austria arose early in
1938 and was precipitated by the destabilising activities of the Austrian Nazis and the Austrian Chancellor's,
Schuschnigg's, exasperation with them. He came to Berchtesgaden on 12 February 1938 to discuss the matter
with Hitler and there followed a remarkable meeting. Schuschnigg was forced to accept ten demands (including
the appointment of an Austrian Nazi, Seyss-Inquart, in the politically important post of Interior Minister) which
would make Austria into a virtual satellite of Germany. Schuschnigg tried to retrieve the situation by a
desperate move: on 9 March he announced a plebiscite for 13 March on whether or not the Austrian people
wanted 'a free and German, an independent and social, a Christian and united Austria'. Hitler was stunned. He
demanded the cancellation of the plebiscite, whipped-up opposition amongst the Austrian Nazis and threatened
war. Goring effectively took charge of events and argued for military intervention. In the event this was not
needed, as the matter was all settled on 11th March by telephone calls and telegrams. Britain was noncommitted, seemingly accepting that Anschluss was inevitable and desired by the majority. France, not
unusually, was paralysed by a ministerial crisis. Schuschnigg, therefore, postponed the plebiscite and resigned.
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On 12 March the German army marched in. Thus Austria was annexed and became a province of the Reich, a
fact that was subsequently confirmed by an all too predictable 99 per cent of the vote in a plebiscite
Why a cause of War?
The hostile takeover of Austria by Germany was very important in causing the eventual outbreak of war
because it gave Hitler several reasons to continue his expansion. Firstly Hitler gained a strategic advantage over
Czechoslovakia, outflanking her western defences, which would make it easier to take Czechoslovakia in the
future. Because France and Britain did not intervene, Hitler was given more confidence that they would not act
against him in future. Germany was now ideally placed to dominate the Balkans, and she shared a common
frontier with her Italian ally, a frontier which would allow ease of communication and also one that would not
have to be watched in the event of war. From Austria, Hitler gained access to her steel resources, economy,
reserves of gold, industrial production, 100,000 more troops and more population from which a larger army
could be conscripted. In short Hitler gained more fuel for his war effort and expansion. Besides violating the
Treaty of Versailles, which specifically forbade the union of Germany and Austria, Hitler had used force for the
first time against an independent state and put himself in a position from which to threaten Czechoslovakia..
The Czechoslovakian problem September 1938-March 1939
Background
Czechoslovakia had come into existence with the break up of the Austrian Hungarian empire in 1918. Its
existence was confirmed and its boundaries laid down in the provisions of the treaties of St Germain and
Trianon in 1919. By the 1930's it was a successfully functioning democracy with a powerful army and arms
industry. She was the most industrialized state in central Europe and her independence was guaranteed by both
the Russians and the French. On the other hand, Czechoslovakia has several important weaknesses:
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There was some friction between the two main racial groups - the Czechs and the Slovaks. The
Czechs made up just over half the population, and they dominated the political life of the republic.
There were important national minority groups. The Sudeten Germans were not the only
discontented minority in the country. Three quarters of a million Hungarians in Southern Slovakia
hoped for re-unification with their own country.
Similarly, the 90,000 Poles in the Teschen region sought union with Poland. The resentment in
Slovakia and Ruthenia focused on the demand for autonomy. The Ruthenes had been promised a
devolved administration in the Czech, constitution but this had never been implemented.
The Germans were the most vociferous and best organised of the minorities. Their general
acceptance of the Czech, state began to evaporate, from 1930 onwards with the onset of the
depression.
The economic depression affected German speaking areas with their export based consumer
industries suffering much higher levels of unemployment than the Czech, districts where
employment was sustained by an expansion of arms production. It was not, however, until the
Czech, elections of 1935 that the Sudeten German Home Front under the leadership of Konrad
Henlein, became the majority party among the German speaking population, gaining two thirds of
the votes.
While defending the grievances of the Sudeten Germans some of which were justified, Henlein was
in fact a willing tool of Hitler's in the aims of weakening the Czechoslovak state from within. From
1935 Henlein received clandestine finance from Berlin. Henlein's tactic was to demand more
autonomy for the Germans while rejecting any concrete proposals put forward by the Czechoslovak
government.
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What did Hitler do?
He had been quick to support Henlein and in the spring of 1938 he told the Reichstag in Berlin that it was his
intention to give the Sudeten Germans the same right of self determination that every other race, except the
Germans, had been granted by the Peace Treaties and ordered his military staff to prepare for war.
The Czechoslovak government, led by Benes, offered some considerable privileges to the minority and were
prepared to consider Henlein's claim for greater independence within Czechoslovakia - but he was adamant that
the Sudetenland would not be handed over to Germany. There were several reasons for this:
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Such a change in their border would drastically weaken her defences.
Much valuable industrial territory would be lost.
She had alliances with France (1925) and Russia (1934-5) - though she had no territorial boundary
with either.
The Czechoslovak army, though modern and powerful, was small.
Benes's determination is shown by his reaction to the May Crisis.
The May Crisis
He claimed that he had information of German troop movements near to the frontier and immediately ordered
mobilisation of his forces. He sufficiently convinced France and Britain of the seriousness of Hitler's alleged
intentions because they then proceeded to warn Hitler about the consequences of any move against the
Czechoslovak state. Actually, on this occasion Hitler had not been planning anything, but he was furious at
being accused of doing so. On the 30th May Hitler issued a new directive, ordering military preparations in the
German army to be completed by October 1st 1938.
Meanwhile, though the May crisis had apparently abated, the seriousness of the situation had been brought
home to Neville Chamberlain. Chamberlain had become British Prime Minister in May of 1937. Basically
Chamberlain felt that he could bring about a solution of the Czechoslovak problem.
Chamberlain himself made a series of personal visits (diplomacy versus collective security?) by plane, to
Germany. It was considered at the time that he was a very enterprising politician, who had only one short
excursion by plane before, to attempt such an exhausting programme. Generally the British public supported
him in what they felt was a crusade to maintain peace in Europe.
1. Visit one to Berchtesgaden, 15th September 1938. Hitler insisted that the Sudetenland became part of
Germany but promised Chamberlain time to talk to France. Britain and France forced the Czechs to agree to
Hitler's demands by saying that they would not help if Czechoslovakia was attacked.
2. Visit two: to Bad Godesberg, 22nd September 1938. Chamberlain told Hitler that the Czechs would accept
but Hitler now said that Germany must march into the Sudetenland immediately. Britain and France did not
agree and began to prepare for war. Hitler magnanimously agreed to extend his limit to the 1st October. The
Czech government, newly elected, stood firm and began mobilising. Hitler paused - with Mussolini getting cold
feet and his own generals none too keen on war, he wrote to Chamberlain asking him to "bring the Czechs, to
reason at the very last hour". Through the intervention of Mussolini, a meeting was arranged in Munich between
Germany, Italy, France and Britain. This request Chamberlain was to treat with immense relief and he
immediately flew to the ....
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3. Visit Three: the Munich conference, September 29th-30th 1938. Chamberlain flew off to meet Hitler for a
third time with the "prayers of the nation" (the Times).The conference was attended by Daladier of France,
Mussolini of Italy, Hitler and Chamberlain - but neither Benes or Stalin were invited. It was eventually decided
that Hitler would occupy the Sudetenland in four stages between the 1st and 7th of October, instead of all at
once on the 1st. The four powers would then guarantee the new Czech frontiers - but only after the Czechs had
also met Polish and Hungarian claims on their territory. Benes was shattered - "We are abandoned. We stand
alone", he broadcast to the Czech nation. With no alternative open, he gave in and then resigned. Next day
Chamberlain persuaded Hitler to sign the following statement: "The agreement signed last night and the Anglo
German Naval Agreement are symbols of the desire of our two peoples never to go to war with one another
again. We are resolved that the method of consultation shall be the method and we are determined to continue
our efforts to remove possible sources of difference and thus to contribute to the assurance of the people of
Europe"
This was the so called piece of paper which Chamberlain waved to crowds on his return to the UK. He had
hoped that by getting Hitler's signature on this, that the latter would be deterred from making any further
demands abruptly or aggressively. "It is the last territorial claim which I have to make".
Contemporary reaction to the Munich settlement
There is no doubt that the settlement at Munich was a further damaging blow to the prestige of the western
powers and particularly to France which had felt its betrayal of Czechoslovakia deeply. A large group of French
politicians had opposed the Munich agreement as a betrayal of France's formal obligations. Daladier had a clear
understanding of what he and Chamberlain had done at Munich and when crowds met him at the airport on his
return, he thought that they were there to demonstrate against him - he was relieved and surprised that they had
come to cheer him. France's military weakness and British unwillingness to defend Czechoslovakia "a far away
country" meant that Daladier had had little option but to accept the settlement. Chamberlain was greeted with
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wild enthusiasm on his return. He declared to the crowds in Downing Street - "This is the second time in our
history that there has come back from Germany to Downing Street a peace with honour. I believe it is peace for
our time." The Czechs had not got any real choice, deserted as they were by the guarantors of their security.
Stalin's Russia was left in complete isolation by the Munich agreement. Stalin's overtures to the western powers
had been rebuffed and cooperation with France to defend Czechoslovakia nullified. Stalin gained the impression
that Germany and the western powers were ganging up against the Soviet Union.
Occupation
German troops occupied the Sudetenland between 1 and 10 October, followed by plebiscites in mixed areas. On
10th October the Poles took the Teschen district. The plebiscites agreement is ignored.
Move two: the final destruction of Czechoslovakia: 1939
15 March 1939 German troops march into Prague; Bohemia-Moravia is incorporated into the Reich
16 March 1939 Slovakia asks for German protection; German troops are sent to establish the satellite state of
Slovakia. The Hungarians take over Ruthenia
Why was the issue of Czechoslovakia a major cause of war?
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Because Russia wasn’t included in the meetings it felt isolated and Russia’s exclusion implied that
he wouldn’t be part of any alliances or decisions. This pushed Russia to form the Nazi-Soviet pact
in August 1939, thus removing a major obstacle in the quest for Poland.
It marked the point where Britain and France realized that Hitler could no longer be appeased
through compromise. Hitler wounded Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement. It showed how the
agreements that the allies had had with Hitler were worthless. He had by his actions, ‘destroyed’ the
Munich agreement, he could no longer be trusted.
Hitler had ignored many issues in the treaty of Versailles and none of the allies had taken action to
uphold the demands of the treaty. Therefore, from his point of view the Treaty had become
meaningless and Hitler knew that he could disregard it. This was a dangerous position for the
western powers: what would he do next?
When Germany took Prague unexpectedly on March 15, 1939, it could be seen as both a major
cause and trigger of WWII, as it was the first time that Hitler had invaded land that had not
originally belonged to Germany. This marked a major turning point. The allies realized Hitler’s
aims were much greater than simply reclaiming land that had once belonged to Germany.
The brutal occupation of Prague showed Britain and France the true nature of the Nazi regime.
They finally noticed him setting his eyes on the Polish Corridor and Danzig. It was for this reason
that they signed a military agreement with Poland saying that they would protect in the case of a
German aggression: this was what eventually triggered the war!!
Hitler’s occupation of Czechoslovakia is undoubtedly a contributing factor in the outbreak of this war!
Nazi-Soviet Pact August 1939
Detail
The pact was signed on August 23rd. Russia was being cautious about the negotiations (only offering a nonaggression pact) but Hitler wanted to avoid Russia making an agreement with Great Britain or France, and also
was adamant that Germany would invade Poland in September. So he pushed forward the negotiations to a
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rapid conclusion, but in doing so he was forced to make the pact more in Stalin’s favour: Finland, Estonia,
Latvia and Eastern Poland would be controlled by Russia, while only Lithuania and Western and Central Poland
would be under German control.
Why a cause of War?
It was a cause of the war because as Hitler declared, the pact was his ‘master-stroke’ which would enable him to
eliminate Poland without the intervention of the Western powers who would now, he assumed, realize that the
Polish position was beyond help. It was the ‘gate’ which was opened. There was nothing kleft to prevent him
going to War.
Invasion of Poland WWII begins September 1939
The outbreak of war
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On 31 August Mussolini proposed that a conference should meet to try to resolve the Polish crisis. This
sounded ominously like a second Munich. However, before there could be a response, the Panzers rolled
into Poland, it was 1st September 1939.
The British government did not declare war immediately. Chamberlain still had faint hopes of a
negotiated settlement.
On the 2nd September- a day and a half after the German attack -Britain still had not declared war or
even sent an ultimatum to Germany. The reason for this delay was almost certainly Chamberlain's wish
to keep in step with France. The French were anxious to complete their general mobilisation process
before declaring war. However, it seemed to many British politicians as though the Prime Minister was
trying to evade his commitments.
Both Labour and Conservative MPs made clear their opinion that war must be declared at once. Even
Chamberlain's supporters were angry. There was a similar revolt in the Cabinet for the same reason. At a
Cabinet meeting later that evening Chamberlain accepted the inevitable. At 9.00am on 3 September
Britain finally delivered an ultimatum to Germany. Germany made no reply and at 11.00am Britain
declared war.
Case Study: Why did Britain follow a policy of Appeasement?
At first it seems madness that Britain did not stand up to Hitler in the 1930s. It seems obvious to us that he
intended war. However, it was not that simple: there are many reasons why Britain followed the foreign
policy that it did in the 1920s and 1930s.
1) Concerns with the Empire
More than a million men from the Dominions served in the various theatres of war, and 140,000 of them were
killed. This debt had to be acknowledged. The Statute of Westminster of 1931 granted the Dominions complete
independence. The Dominions remained well-disposed towards Britain, but they could not be relied on for
unwavering support if Britain entered into another major conflict. It was therefore clear that with a complex
empire to run, numerous problems with her dominions and territories and unsure of their support if war
came, Britain would try her hardest to stay out of continental entanglements for the sake of her empire.
Therefore, if Britain stayed out of continental conflicts, she could once again focus on her Empire and
regain her great power status.
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2. The Legacy of Versailles
By May 1919, the British were already having doubts about a Treaty that they regarded as too harsh on the
Germans. These worries were reinforced by the publication in 1919 of an influential book by the Cambridge
economist, John Maynard Keynes, called The Economic Consequences of the Peace. Keynes argued that the
political and economic prosperity of Europe depended on German recovery. Therefore, a feeling grew that the
harshness of the Treaty could be progressively modified by negotiation and concession. In addition, by the
1930s most historians were contending that Germany was not solely responsible for the war, thus removing any
remaining moral justification for the Treaty.
All of this meant that when other issues arose concerning the treatment of Germany, Lloyd George and all the
other prime ministers who followed him, tended to be kinder towards Germany. British appeasement of
Germany began at Versailles. Britain had gained everything they wanted. They felt Germany had been
“hard done by” and therefore were keen to appease or please Germany as they felt guilty towards them.
3. Anglo-French Differences
The tensions that arose between Britain and France over how to treat Germany continued throughout the interwar period were damaging. The British believed that French harshness over the Treaty contributed to Hitler's
rise to power by making extreme nationalism more popular in Germany. To the French, the readiness of the
British to revise the Treaty facilitated the revival of German power. Britain and France were therefore rarely
able to co-operate when faced with aggressive actions in the 1920s and 1930s. Britain followed a policy of
appeasement as they felt that French treatment of Germany was pushing Europe towards war and not
against it. They therefore needed to balance French treatment to Germany with appeasement.
4. The League of Nations
The French wanted it to act as an international policeman, but the British saw it more as a talking shop in which
disputes could be discussed and resolved. This is why Britain consistently resisted French attempts to give the
League more teeth. British statesmen and service chiefs were appalled at the notion of allowing foreigners to
decide where and when Britain's already over-stretched military resources should be applied. Britain therefore
followed a policy of appeasement towards Germany, as they feared that the League might drag them into
a war. If they appeased Germany and by-passed the League they would be safe from any major
commitment to the other major powers.
5.Fear of the Soviet Union and Communism
For most of the 1920s and 1930s British governments, dominated by Conservatives, had shown no wish to
reach an agreement with the Soviet Union. British governments were very hostile to the Soviet Union. The
harshness of Stalin’s regime and the purges meant that people were unwilling to deal with a dictator who many
saw as worse than Hitler. If Hitler was kept strong and friendly, then he would always be a useful barrier
against Soviet Expansion in Europe.
6. Pacifism: The war to end all wars
Britain suffered 722,000 dead and 1,676,000 wounded in the First World War. These losses were unprecedented
and created a widespread feeling that carnage on such a scale should never be allowed to happen again. The
general feeling was that never again should Britain send an army to fight on the continent. It was widely
believed to have been an accidental, futile and avoidable conflict. This implied that future wars could be averted
by disarmament and open diplomacy conducted in the League of Nations. Britain in the 1920s and 1930s was
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therefore keen to avoid war at all costs. Appeasement could easily be justified if it avoided another war like
WWI. Furthermore, the anti-war feeling was so high among the population that Appeasement was bound
to find supporters amongst the public. To go to War the country has to want War. The British politicians
of the 1930s were presented with much evidence that the British people did not want War. The logical
policy was therefore to avoid war at all costs. Appeasement was the logical choice.
7. Strategic and military difficulties
a) The RAF
The First World War created exaggerated fears of the destructive potential of air power in any future conflict. It
followed that the only way to prevent destruction was to build a bomber fleet large enough to deter an enemy
attack. Despite developing greater confidence that an enemy air assault could be warded off, British planners
continued to believe that German bombers could inflict terrible losses. They had hard evidence of this from the
destruction of the Basque town of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. Therefore the RAF could not have
backed any aggressive stance towards Germany in the 1930s as it was essentially a defensive force and the
fears of destruction by enemy bombers was so great that appeasement was a natural policy to follow
considering the threat to civilian populations in war.
b) The Royal Navy
After the First World War the Navy resumed its place as Britain's principal service. Its peacetime functions
were to protect Britain's sea-borne trade route and defend the territories of the Empire. The commitment to
defend the Dominions and the Empire meant that the Navy could not be relied upon to deter Hitler. It had to be
kept in home waters as well just to keep him at bay. Therefore, with too many commitments around the
world, the government could not rely on the Navy to defend Britain if there was another war. Therefore a
peaceful alternative had to be sought: Appeasement.
c) The Army
The number of territories the Army was expected to defend had increased but, after 1918, its size was rapidly
cut and by 1920 there were fewer men serving than there had been ten years earlier. British people remembered
the costly losses of the battles such as the Somme and Passchendaele rather than the spectacular victories of
1918. Therefore, the Army was ill prepared, badly lead and backward in its strategy. It was therefore
nowhere near ready to fight a war on the continent. Appeasement had to be followed if Britain was to
avoid a catastrophe.
8. Economic Problems
The First World War did immense damage to Britain's economy and accelerated the decline that had begun in
the late 19th century. The number of unemployed in Britain between the wars never fell below a million. During
the 1930s the Treasury maintained that Britain's economy was 'the fourth arm of defence'. They argued that, as a
country dependent on imports for food and many industrial raw materials, Britain needed to maintain a healthy
balance of payments. They argued that rapid rearmament would cause a balance of payments deficit because the
normal pattern of trade would be upset. Appeasement seemed to be the only policy to follow when facing the
economic arguments. To rearm too quickly was impossible and too expensive. The unemployed, sick and
the poor of Britain must be looked after first. If Appeasement was followed this would buy time and
allow Britain to rearm slowly and less expensively. She was in no shape economically to confront Hitler in
the 1930s.
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In summary Britain followed the Policy of Appeasement for these reasons:
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The impact of the First World War: the popular feeling that there must never be another Great War
made it difficult for politicians like Winston Churchill who believed that the only way to avoid this
was to stand up to Hitler and Mussolini.
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The economic problems of the interwar years: the Left in British politics believed that carrying out
social reform and reducing unemployment was more important than rearmament. The Wall Street
Crash in 1929 increased government reluctance to spend on defence and the Treasury reinforced
this by insisting on strict spending limits.
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Public opinion and party politics: when, in July 1935, a nationwide opinion poll ('The Peace Ballot')
recorded huge majorities in favour of arms reductions and the continued pursuit of collective
security, politicians were bound to be influenced. Neville Chamberlain had seen the rapid gains
made by the Labour Party and the trade unions in the Great War and was afraid that another war
would further advance the power of the Left.
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The Empire: the self-governing dominions of the Empire (South Africa, Australia and New
Zealand), whose support had been vital in the First World War, were strongly opposed to helping
Britain in another war. On the other hand, Britain relied on its imperial trade more than ever.
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In foreign affairs there was widespread sympathy for German calls for revision of Versailles, while
France's reliability and usefulness as an ally were doubted. Between the wars, France was weak and
divided and recovered slowly from the Great Depression. Its will and ability to resist Germany
looked doubtful.
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British military weakness: in 1935 a secret military report advised the government that the navy
would be unable to defend the Empire and support a war in Europe at the same time and that the
country was currently incapable of defending itself against air attack. It advised the government to
increase defence spending, improve air defence and avoid a simultaneous war against Japan,
Germany and Italy.
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Fear of the Soviet Union and Communism in general: Many saw Stalin as worse than Hitler, it was
better to keep on good terms with Germany as they could be a useful barrier against Communist
expansion.
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