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Throughout human history, the closest thing to a computer was the abacus, which is
actually considered a calculator since it required a human operator. Computers, on the other
hand, perform calculations automatically following a series of built-in commands called
software.
In the 20th century breakthroughs in technology allowed for the ever-evolving computing
machines we see today. But even prior to the advent of microprocessors and supercomputers,
there were certain notable scientists and inventors that helped lay the groundwork for a
technology that has since drastically reshaped our lives.
The Language Before the Hardware
The universal language in which computers use to carry out processor instructions originated in
17th century in the form of the binary numerical system. Developed by German philosopher
and mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the system came about as way to represent
decimal numbers using only two digits, the number zero and the number one.
His system was partly inspired by philosophical explanations in the classical Chinese text the “I
Ching,” which understood the universe in terms of dualities such as light and darkness and male
and female. While there was no practical use for his newly codified system at the time, Leibniz
believed that it was possible for a machine to someday make use of these long strings of binary
numbers.
In 1847, English mathematician George Boole introduced a newly devised algebraic language
built on Leibniz work. His “Boolean algebra” was actually a system of logic, with mathematical
equations used to represent statements in logic. Just as important was that it employed a binary
approach in which the relationship between different mathematical quantities would be either
true or false, 0 or 1. And though there was no obvious application for Boole’s algebra at the
time, another mathematician, Charles Sanders Pierce spent decades expanding the system and
eventually found in 1886 that the calculations can be carried out with electrical switching
circuits. And in time, Boolean logic would become instrumental in the design of electronic
computers.
The Earliest Processors
English mathematician Charles Babbage is credited with having assembled the first
mechanical computers – at least technically speaking. His early 19th century machines featured
a way to input numbers, memory, a processor and a way to output the results. The initial attempt
to build the world’s first computer, which he called the “difference engine,” was a costly
endeavor that was all but abandoned after over 17,000 pounds sterling were spent on its
development. The design called for a machine that calculated values and printed the results
automatically onto a table. It was to be hand cranked and would have weighed four tons. The
project was eventually axed after the British government cut off Babbage’s funding in 1842.
OBORO PRECIOUS ISIOMA
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This forced the inventor to move on to another idea of his called the analytical engine, a more
ambitious machine for general purpose computing rather than just arithmetic. And though he
wasn’t able to follow through and build a working device, Babbage’s design featured essentially
the same logical structure as electronic computers that would come into use in the 20th century.
The analytical engine had, for instance, integrated memory, a form of information storage found
in all computers. It also allows for branching or the ability of computers to execute a set of
instructions that deviate from the default sequence order, as well as loops, which are sequences
of instructions carried out repeatedly in succession.
Despite his failures to produce a fully functional computing machine, Babbage remained
steadfastly undeterred in pursuing his ideas. Between 1847 and 1849, he drew up designs for a
new and improved second version of his difference engine. This time it calculated decimal
numbers up to thirty digits long, performed calculations quicker and was meant to be more
simple as it required less parts. Still, the British government did not find it worth their
investment. In the end, the most progress Babbage ever made on a prototype was completing
one-seventh of his first difference engine.
During this early era of computing, there were a few notable achievements. A tide-predicting
machine, invented by Scotch-Irish mathematician, physicist and engineer Sir William Thomson
in 1872, was considered the first modern analog computer. Four years later, his older brother
James Thomson came up with a concept for a computer that solved math problems known as
differential equations. He called his device an “integrating machine” and in later years it would
serve as the foundation for systems known as differential analyzers. In 1927, American scientist
Vannevar Bush started development on the first machine to be named as such and published a
description of his new invention in a scientific journal in 1931.
Dawn of Modern Computers
Up until the early 20th century, the evolution of computing was little more than scientists
dabbling in the design of machines capable of efficiently perform various kinds of calculations
for various purposes. It wasn’t until 1936 that a unified theory on what constitutes a general
purpose computer and how it should function was finally put forth. That year, English
mathematician Alan Turing published a paper called titled "On computable numbers, with an
application to the Entscheidungsproblem," which outlines how a theoretical device called a
“Turing machine” can be used to carry out any conceivable mathematical computation by
executing instructions. In theory, the machine would have limitless memory, read data, write
results and a stored program of instructions.
While Turing’s computer was an abstract concept, it a German engineer named Konrad Zuse
who would go on to build the world’s first programmable computer. His first attempt at
developing an electronic computer, the Z1, was a binary-driven calculator that read instructions
from punched 35 millimeter film. The problem was the technology was unreliable, so he
followed it up with the Z2, a similar device that used electromechanical relay circuits. However,
it was in assembling his third model that everything came together. Unveiled in 1941, the Z3 was
OBORO PRECIOUS ISIOMA
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faster, more reliable and better able to perform complicated calculations. But the big difference
was that the instructions were stored on external tape, allowing it function as a fully operational
program-controlled system.
What’s perhaps most remarkable is that Zuse did much of his work in isolation. He had been
unaware that the Z3 was Turing complete, or in other words, capable of solving any computable
mathematical problem – at least in theory. Nor did he have any knowledge of other similar
projects that were taking place around the same time in other parts of the world. Among the most
notable was the IBM-funded Harvard Mark I, which debuted in 1944. More promising,
though, was the development of electronic systems such as Great Britain’s 1943 computing
prototype Colossus and the ENIAC, the first fully-operational electronic general-purpose
computer, which was put into service at the University of Pennsylvania in 1946.
Out of the ENIAC project came the next big leap in computing technology. John Von
Neumann, a Hungarian mathematician who had consulted on ENIAC project, would lay the
groundwork for a stored program computer. Up to this point, computers operated on fixed
programs and altering their function, like say from performing calculations to word processing,
required having to manually rewire and restructure them. The ENIAC, for example, took several
days to reprogram. Ideally, Turing had proposed having the program stored in the memory,
which would allow it to be modified by the computer. Von Neumann was intrigued by the
concept and in 1945 drafted a report that provided in detail a feasible architecture for stored
program computing.
His published paper would be widely circulated among competing teams of researchers working
on various computer designs. And in 1948, a group in England introduced the Manchester
Small-Scale Experimental Machine, the first computer to run a stored program based on the
Von Neumann architecture. Nicknamed “Baby,” the Manchester Machine was a experimental
computer and served as the predecessor to the Manchester Mark I. The EDVAC, the computer
design for which Von Neumann’s report was originally intended, wasn’t completed until 1949.
Transitioning Toward Transistors
The first modern computers resembled nothing like the commercial products used by consumers
today. They were elaborate hulking contraptions that often took up the space of an entire room.
They also sucked enormous amounts of energy and were notoriously buggy. And since these
early computers ran on bulky vacuum tubes, scientists hoping to improve processing speeds
would either have to find bigger rooms or come up with an alternative.
Fortunately, that much-needed breakthrough had already been in the works. In 1947, a group of
scientists at Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a new technology called point-contact
transistors. Like vacuum tubes, transistors amplify electrical current and can be used as
switches. But more importantly, they were much smaller (about the size of a pill), more reliable
and used much less power overall. The co-inventors John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and
William Shockley would eventually be awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1956.
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And while Bardeen and Brattain continued doing research work, Shockley moved to further
develop and commercialize transistor technology. One of the first hires at his newly founded
company was an electrical engineer named Robert Noyce, who eventually split off and formed
his own firm, Fairchild Semiconductor, a division of Fairchild Camera and Instrument. At the
time, Noyce was looking into ways to seamlessly combine the transistor and other components
into one integrated circuit to eliminate the process in which they were pieced together by hand.
Jack Kilby, an engineer at Texas Instruments, also had the same idea and ended up filing a
patent first. It was Noyce’s design, however, that would be widely adopted.
Where integrated circuits had the most significant impact was in paving the way for the new era
of personal computing. Over time, it opened up the possibility of running processes powered by
millions of circuits – all on a microchip the size of postage stamp. In essence, it’s what has
enabled the our ubiquitous handheld gadgets millions of times more power than the earliest
computers.
DEFINITION
For most of the people, computer is a machine used for a calculation or a computation, but
actually it is much more than that.
Precisely, “Computer is an electronic device for performing arithmetic and logical operation.” Or
“Computer is a device or a flexible machine to process data and converts it into information.”
To know about the complete process that how computer works, we will have to come across the
various terms such as Data, Processing and Information. First of all we will have to understand
these terms in true sense.
DATA
“Data” is nothing but a mare collection of basic facts and figure without any sequence. When
the data is collected as facts and figure, it has no meaning at that time, for example, name of
student, names of employees etc.
PROCESSING
‘Processing’ is the set of instruction given by the user or the related data to output the
meaningful information. Which can be used by the user? The work of processing may be the
calculation, comparisons or the decision taken by the computer.
INFORMATION
‘Information ’is the end point or the final output of any processed work. When the output data
is meaning it is called information
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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER
Actually speaking electronic data processing does not go back more than just half a centaury i.e.
they are in existence merely from early 1940’s. In early days when our ancestor used to reside in
cave the counting was a problem. Still it is stated becoming difficult.
When they started using stone to count their animals or the possession they never knew that this
day will lead to a computer of today. People today started following a set of procedure to
perform calculation with these stones, which later led to creation of a digital counting device,
which was the predecessor the first calculating device invented, was know as ABACUS.
THE ABACUS
Abacus is known to be the first mechanical calculating device. Which was used to be performed
addition and subtraction easily and speedily? This device was a first develop Ed by the Egyptians
in the 10th century B.C, but it was given it final shape in the 12th century A.D. by the Chinese
educationists.
Abacus is made up of wooden frame in which rod where fitted across with rounds beads sliding
on the rod. It id dividing into two parts called ‘Heaven’ and ‘Earth’. Heaven was the upper part
and Earth was the lower one. Thus any no. can be represented by placing the beads at proper
place.
NAPIER’S BONES
As the necessity demanded, scientist started inventing better calculating device. In thus process
John Napier’s of Scotland invented a calculating device, in the year 1617 called the Napier
Bones.
In the device, Napier’s used the bone rods of the counting purpose where some no. is printed on
these rods. These rods that one can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division easily.
PASCAL’S CALCULATOR
In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding machine called Pascal’s
calculator, which represents the position of digit with the help of gears in it.
LEIBNZ CALCULATOR
In the year 1671, a German mathematics, Gottfried Leibniz modified the Pascal calculator and he
developed a machine which could perform various calculation based on multiplication and
division as well.
ANALYTICAL ENGINE
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In the year 1833, a scientist form England knows to be Charles Babbage invented such a
machine. Which could keep our data safely? This device was called Analytical engine and it
deemed the first mechanical computer.
It included such feature which is used in today’s computer language. For this great invention of
the computer, Sir Charles Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.
GENERATION OF COMPUTER
As the time passed, the device of more suitable and reliable machine was need which could
perform our work more quickly. During this time, in the year 1946, the first successful electronic
computer called ENIAC was developed and it was the starting point of the current generation of
computer
FIRST GENRATION
ENIAC was the world first successful electronic computer which was develops by the two
scientists namely J. P. Eckert and J. W. Mauchy. It was the beginning of first generation
computer. The full form of ENIAC is “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator” ENIAC
was a very huge and big computer and its weight was 30 tones. It could store only limited or
small amount of information. Initially in the first generation computer the concept of vacuum
tubes was used. A vacuum tube was such an electronic component which had very less work
efficiency and so it could not work properly and it required a large cooling system.
SECOND GENERATION
As the development moved further, the second generation computers knocked the door. In this
generation, transistors were used as the electronic component instead of vaccum tubes .A
transistors is much smaller in the size than that of a vaccum tube. As the size of electrons
components decreased from vaccum tube of transistor, the size of computer also decreased and it
became much smaller than that of earlier computer.
THIRD GENERATION
The third generation computers were invented in the year 1964. In this generation of computer,
IC (Integrated circuits) was used as the electronic component for computers. The development of
IC gave birth to a new field of microelectronics. The main advantage of IC is not only its small
size but its superior performance and reliability than the previous circuits. It was first developed
by T.S Kilby. This generation of computer has huge storage capacity and higher calculating
speed.
FOURTH GENERATION
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This is the generation where we are working today. The computers which we see around us
belong to the fourth generation computers. ‘Micro processor’ is the main concept behind this
generation of computer.
A microprocessor is a single chip (L.S.I circuit), which is used in a computer for any arithmetical
or logical functions to be performed in any program. The honaur of developing microprocessor
goes to Ted Hoff of U.S.A. He developed first micro-processor, the Intel 4004, as he was
working for Intel Corporation, U.S.A with the use of microprocessor in the fourth generation
computers, the size of computer become very fast and efficient.
It is evident that the next generation of computer i.e. fifth generation will be developed soon. In
that generation, computer will possess artificial intelligence and it would be able to take self
decisions like a human being.
SCOPE OF COMPUTER
Certain characteristics of computer interaction can make computers well suited for distance
learning. The features listed below the prospect of the computer use look more promising:
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Access to expert and respected peers.
One to One and much communication.
Active learner participation.
Linking of new learning to concrete on the job problems.
Follow up, feedback and implementation support from pears or experts.
Self direction control over stop or start, time, pace and place of learning or communication
activity.
LANGUAGES OF COMPUTER
A language is defined as the medium of expression of thoughts . All the human beings in this
world communicate with each other by a language. Similarly, computer also needs some
expression medium to communicate with others
A computer follows the instructions given by the programmer to perform a specific job. To
perform a particular task, programmer prepares a sequence of instructions, know as programmed.
A program written for a computer is known as Software. The programmed is stored in RAM.
The CPU takes one instruction of the programmed at a time from RAM and executes it. The
instructions are executed one by one in sequence and finally produce the desired result.
The Journey of computer software machine language to high level languages to modern 4GL /
5GL languages is an interesting one. Let us talk about this in detail.
FIRST GENERATION LANGUAGES 1GLs (Machine language)
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When the human being stared programming the computer the instruction were given to it in a
language that it could easily understand. And that language was machine language. The binary
language a language, a language of Is and Os is known as Machine language. Any instruction in
this language is given in the form of string of 1s and 0s. Where the symbol I stand for the
presence of electrical pulse and 0 stands for the absence of electric pulse. A set of 1s and 0s as
11101101 has a specific meaning to a computer even through it appears as binary number to us.
The writing of programmer in machine language is very cumbersome and complicated and this
was accomplished by experts only. All the instructions and input data are fed to the computer in
numeric form, specifically a binary form.
SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGES 2GLs (Assembly Language)
Lots of efforts are made during last 50 years to obviate the difficulties faced for using the
machine language. The first language similar to English was developed in 1950 which was
known as Assembly Language or Symbolic Programming Languages. After 1960, the High
Level Languages were developed which bought the common man very to the computer. And this
was the main reason for tremendous growth in computer industry. The high level languages are
also known as Procedure Oriented Languages.
THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGES (3GLs ) (High Level Languages)
The assembly language was easier to use compared with machine la language as it relieved the
programmer from a burden of remembering the operation – codes and addresses of memory
location. Even though the assembly languages proved to be great help to the programmer, a
search was continued for still better languages nearer to the conventional English language. The
languages developed which were nearer to the English language, for the use of writing the
programmer in 1960 were known as High Level languages.
The different high level languages which can be used by the common user are FORTRAN,
COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, PL-1 and many others. Each high level language was developed to
fulfill some basic requirements for particular type of problems. But further developments are
made in each language to widen its utility for different purposes.
FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (4GLs)
The 3GLs are procedural in nature i.e., HOW of the problem get coded i.e., the procedures
require the knowledge of how the problem will be solved . Contrary to them, 4GLs are non
procedural. That is only WHAT of the problem is coded i.e., only ‘What is required’ is to be
specified and rest gets done on its own.
Thus a big program of a 3GLs may get replaced by a single statement of a 4GLs. The main aim
of 4GLs is to be cut down on developed and maintenance time and making it easier for users.
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MY VISIT TO LEARNING RESOURCE LAB ( C45-C49)
I visited the E- library which is located at college one c45 – c49 . The library is very spacious and well
ventilated with morethan 10 air conditioners . The place is very quiet because it is a place to study and
make research .
There are different kinds of I.C.T devices there such as;
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
75-100 systems
A router for wireless systems
A server- Abba used for registration
A desk jet wireless printer
A back up system and inverter for power
Ups
Cpu
Mouse
Extension socket/ wire