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BUTTERFLY GARDEN
Butterflies are the stuff of romance and imagination. Their
association with colorful flowers, graceful flight and bright hues
makes them a major focus in art and literature. However, these
creatures are wonders of science and engineering in their own
right. Read on to discover the amazing variety of adaptations
these little animals have evolved to survive in habitats as diverse
as the Arctic tundra and tropical rainforests. Our butterflies
include species from the Afrotropical region, the Indo-Australian
region and the
Neotropical region.
Butterflies belong to the phylum Arthropoda and have hard exoskeletons and
jointed legs. Adults have six legs, one pair of antennae and three body parts called the
head, thorax and abdomen. Other arthropods include crustaceans, arachnids, millipedes and centipedes. Moving farther down the “taxonomic highway,” butterflies belong to the class Insecta. Within the class Insecta are many orders, usually described
by some characteristic of the animal’s wings. The suffix “-ptera” means wing. The order
name for butterflies and moths, Lepidoptera, is derived from the Greek words for
“scale” and “wing.”
Kingdom: Animalia
There are a staggering number of butterflies
Phylum: Arthropoda
and moths. The numbers vary according to the
Class: Insecta
date of the reference from which they are taken.
Order: Lepidoptera
Numbers must be approximate because of the
Family: Nymphalidae
probable existence of unidentified species. The
Subfamily: Nymphalinae
United States Geological Survey in 2003, suggests
Genus: Caligo
there are 162,000 to 265,000 species.
Species: eurilochus
Common Name: Giant
There is no single feature that separates all
Owl Butterfly
butterflies from all moths. There are only a few
superficial differences between butterflies and
moths and there are exceptions to ALL of these!
Butterflies fly by day, moths by night. Butterflies hold their colorful wings upright over
their backs. Moths hold theirs flat. Butterflies have knobbed antennae. The antennae
of moths are more intricate in design, including the familiar feather-like structure. In
butterflies, the base of the hindwing is
expanded and strengthened, supporting and coupling with the forewing when in flight.
Most moths have a wing-coupling device called a frenulum. This consists of bristles on
the base of the hind wing that engage with a flap or “catch” on the forewing. Males
have single stout bristles, whereas females have a number of slender bristles.
Insects first appeared about 400 million years ago. They are of the same ancestral line as spiders and centipedes. Winged insects appeared about 50 million years
later. The earliest moth fossils are estimated to be between 100 and 140 million years
old. Butterflies have a fossil record that dates back only 40 million years. Butterflies
and moths originated when flowering plants were beginning to proliferate and have
developed in close association with them. Caddisflies (Trichoptera), the most closely
related group of insects to butterflies, are believed to have originated about 250 million
years ago, but transitional forms have not yet been found, so we cannot be sure. Butterflies are inherently so delicate that they make poor fossils. Therefore, there are many
gaps in our knowledge. The best fossil butterflies are found at the Lorissant Fossil Beds
National Monument in central Colorado.
It’s a Butterflies Life
Butterflies belong to a group of winged insects whose life cycle progresses
through four distinct stages. These insects are said to undergo complete metamorphosis. (The other kind of life cycle lacks a pupal or resting stage and the creature that
hatches from the egg somewhat resembles the adult. This is called incomplete metamorphosis and is experienced by insects such as dragonflies, mantises and grasshoppers.) The four stages of complete metamorphosis are defined as l. egg, 2. larva, 3.
pupa or chrysalis and 4. adult or imago.
Courtship
Butterflies recognize both potential mates and rivals by a combination of color,
rate of wing beats, flight pattern and pheromones. Pheromones are chemical aphrodisiacs produced by male butterflies and female moths. The chemicals needed to synthesize some of these are acquired by a male butterfly directly from plants by scraping
leaves or twigs with his feet to make sap ooze. Then he takes the plant liquid up on his
proboscis and processes it internally.
In addition to smell, pheromones may be producing radiolike waves by creating electromagnetic signals as they react
with oxygen. The energy waves
produced by this chemical
reaction have a wavelength in
the far infra-red region of the
spectrum. Spacing of the hairs
on the antennae of some male
moths are on the order of a
quarter of one wavelength of
the far infra-red so that they
may be able to detect the waves
on every fourth hair.
The male butterfly flutters around the female,
waving his wings, and releasing pheromones
from specialized scales called androconia.
Androconial scales may take the form of long,
hair-like structures, brush-like plumes or may be
loosely attached and released in the manner of a
powder. Androconial scales may be found on the
wings or may protrude from the abdomen. When
a female shows an interest in the male, they
alight together, tapping each other with their
antennae to detect other more subtle scents. The
female holds her wings partially open so that the
male can take hold of the end of her abdomen
with claspers linking their genitalia together in
the tail-to-tail position. They may remain linked
for several hours and can fly in this position.
Egg
The fertilized female
finds the appropriate host
plant by sight and then
tests it by “smell” with her
feet. Her offspring will only
Comma egg
be able to eat the foliage of
Monarch egg
Swallowtail egg
specific plants so she must
make the correct selection
or her young will starve. Different species of butterflies lay eggs in several different
ways. She may lay her eggs singly or in groups; on top or underneath. If the larva has a
wide range of food plants, the female may scatter eggs in flight. To avoid her eggs’
being eaten by another caterpillar as it eats the plant, the female avoids plants with
eggs already laid on them. The female may also lay her eggs on a tendril of the host
plant or on dead twigs or leaves or on rocks near the food plant. Some plants have a
chemical defense system that will kill any eggs laid on its leaves before they can hatch,
hence the necessity for laying eggs nearby and leaving the newly hatched caterpillars
to seek out the host plant. The danger to the egg is still not over. In tropical regions,
many eggs are killed by a variety of fungi and molds. The shape and texture of butterfly eggs varies widely. As the time for hatching draws near, the egg shell becomes dark
and the caterpillar can be seen
inside.
Survival Triple Play
Longwing butterfly (Heliconius) eggs are particularly vulnerable to ants because of
a symbiotic relationship between ants and passion flower vines that are the larva’s
host plant. Passion flower vines provide sugary secretions for the ants. Caterpillars
may defoliate the whole plant so the ants remove eggs and caterpillars whenever
they find them. To counteract this behavior, butterflies deposit eggs on the extremities of the plants (tips of tendrils or developing leaf shoots) where the ants
rarely venture. In an evolutionary rebuttal, some species of passion flower vines
have developed yellow or white bumps that grow on tendrils or leaves. These may
fool a female longwing butterfly by appearing to already host butterfly eggs which
will hatch before her larvae and consume them. The female longwing is likely to
avoid such a plant.
Larva
The fully developed larva inside the egg cuts a circle with its jaws from the top of
the eggs and emerges. Most species eat the egg shell. The caterpillar’s job is to eat and
grow as fast as possible. The larval stage may last from 12 days (longwings or
Heliconius) to 8 weeks or more (morphos and owl butterflies or Caligo). While the
larva’s outer covering is a soft exoskeleton, it can only expand to a limited degree and
cannot grow as the caterpillar gets bigger. For this reason, the caterpillar must grow a
new, soft and larger “skin” beneath the outer one. The old skin is shed (called molting
or ecdysis) and in some species, eaten. The period of time between sheds is called an instar. Depending upon species (and,
some scientists speculate, environmental conditions) the
number of instars may vary. Five instars is about average. From one instar to the next, the appearance of a
cater-pillar can vary widely. Size, color and markings
may change drastically. The caterpillar has tiny antennae and ocelli, simple eyes that can perceive only light
intensity. Almost all are herbivores. One exception is
the larva of the North American harvester butterfly, Feniseca tarquinius. This little
predator eats aphids and even camouflages itself with the empty exoskeletons of its
prey, making it easier to move undetected among the aphids.
Caterpillar Defense
A caterpillar is a tempting, slow-moving package of protein and fat that finds
itself on the menu of a huge number of other animals. Predators include spiders, mantids, ambush bugs, assassin bugs, robber flies, dragonflies, social wasps, birds, bats,
lizards, frogs and insectivorous or omnivorous mammals like mice. Bacteria, fungi and
viruses are also significant killers of caterpillars. As a result, caterpillars have devised
a wide variety of defensive strategies in an effort to reach adulthood. Camouflage is an
old standard. Being poisonous or distasteful in conjunction with vivid coloration works
well. The poisonous character of caterpillars is achieved by feeding on poisonous plants
(longwings eat passion vine, monarchs eat milkweed). Mimicry of poisonous species is
common. Many caterpillars have hair that makes them difficult to eat. One group of
birds that has overcome this caterpillar defense is the cuckoos. Caterpillars have also
developed displays to deter predators. These include false eyes, flash marks (brightly
colored patches that can be suddenly displayed) and glands that give off a bad smell.
Swallowtail larvae rear up and, from the back of the head, inflate the osmeterium, a Yshaped gland, which emits an unpleasant smell.
Caterpillars have to guard, not only against predators, but also against parasites. Flies and wasps are the chief parasites of butterflies. Hair and spines help to
keep egg-laying insects at bay. Some caterpillars shed their last larval skin (also shedding any attached parasite eggs) and then trek a long distance, to pupate as far as
possible from the potential parasite. Tachinid flies may lay their eggs on or in a caterpillar or their eggs may be laid on a food plant to hatch
and latch on or bore in as a caterpillar moves by. If a
caterpillar ingests a fly egg, the fly larva hatches in the
caterpillar’s gut and then bores into the caterpillar’s
body cavity to feed. In spite of the number of flies that
parasitize caterpillars, the majority of butterfly parasites are solitary wasps, including the Braconids, ChalcTachinid fly
ids and Ichneumons, though Chalcids seem to prefer
moths. These wasps may lay their eggs in the larva, pupa or even the eggs of butterflies (these wasps can be less than 1/100 inches long). When introduced parasites are
used for control of agricultural pests, great care must be taken to ensure that they
won’t endanger harmless species of butterflies.
The pre-pupal stage is at the end of the last instar. The caterpillar empties its
digestive system as completely as possible. This time of life often includes a wandering
phase for some species including swallowtails and many of the brush-footed butterflies.
The advantage of this travel to the caterpillar is to remove itself from a possibly decimated host plant with lots of visual clues to its presence (chewed leaves, excrement
[frass], leaves folded and secured with silk). On the other hand, morphos pupate wherever they happen to finish feeding.
Pupa
Butterflies spend their pupal stage inside a chrysalis
(from the Greek for “gold”, perhaps because of the metallic
markings on some chrysalises). The butterfly’s defense during
this stage is highly dependent upon its location. Camouflage is
Butterfly chrysalis
its chief defense except where the pupa is poisonous and advertises that fact with bright colors. The chrysalis may look like a
leaf (fresh or dead) or fruit (blue morpho). A chrysalis may have bristles or spines for
protection. Reflective spots may confuse predators. Butterflies can remain in this stage
for weeks or months.
The pupa is nearly immobile, but not entirely. The two most common positions
for the chrysalis are head down, hanging free or head up supported by a spun, silk
girdle.After a good spot is found, the caterpillar grips a plant stem with its hind claspers and begins to spin silk from a spinneret below its head, weaving it into a small pad
which adheres to the plant surface. The pupa works the hooks on its tail securely into
the silken pad. These become a structure called the cremaster. The digestive tract is
emptied and the mouth and anus are sealed over by the exoskeleton. During the ensuing transformation the pupa neither eats nor drinks. Some caterpillars also weave a
silk girdle around their bodies to help hold themselves in place. (Caterpillars of many
moths, and of a few species of butterfly, enter the soil and line hollow spots in the earth
with silk to make a cocoon. Some moths make aboveground cocoons from leaves woven
together with silk threads.) When
the position is secured, the caterpillar begins to wriggle vigorously
until the skin along it back splits.
The casing of the chrysalis beneath
shows through. This casing is just
another (though very different)
exoskeleton that the caterpillar has
grown underneath the old one. As
the caterpillar skin peels off, the
still soft pupa begins a series of
Hanging chrysalises
movements and contortions necessary for it to assume its correct
shape and posture. Once the chrysalis casing is exposed to the air, it hardens. This
entire process takes 36 to 48 hours to complete.
Adult (imago)
Emergence of the adult butterfly from the
chysalis is called eclosion. The emerging insect
uses a combination of air and blood to expand its
body spaces. It uses gravity to help unfold its
wings. Each crumpled wing is composed of two
thin sheets, or membranes, that are intricately
bonded. Hollow veins lie between them. As blood
Monarch
drains down into the veins, the tiny folds are
pulled flat and in a period of 10 to 20 minutes, the wings expand to full size. The
butterfly’s outer skeleton is still soft and malleable. (If the butterfly is damaged during
its expansion stage, for example, if a human observer tries to hurry along the process
by helping the butterfly unfold its wings, the unexpanded or damaged parts will
harden and the butterfly will be crippled for life.) When the wings have reached full
size the butterfly holds them apart for an hour or so, until they are completely dry and
hardened.
Upon emerging, small drops of excretory wastes (meconium), which have accumulated in the digestive tract during the pupal period, are ejected. These droplets are sometimes red, which led people in the Middle Ages to believe
that emerging butterflies produced a “rain of blood”
In many species the males emerge about a week before
the females. This gives them time to seek out nectar to
build the energy reserves required to hunt a mate. The
ratio of males to females can be high, 50 or more males for every female. With this
timing scheme, more predation occurs to the more common males than to the rarer
females. Males can win a female in several ways. They may establish territory and
defend it or they may count upon having the strength to chase her down. Adult butterflies live from a few weeks to several months; some as long as a year.
Tiger Swallowtail
There is an interesting courtship phenomenon observed in the small postman
butterfly, Heliconius erato. Early in the day, individuals have their vision
enhanced in the yellow part of the spectrum. It is believed that this is because
they feed on yellow flowers. Sometime around mid-morning, something in the
brain switches their sight to being perceptive predominantly in the red part of
the spectrum. This is because the females have distinctive red markings on
their wing, which the males use as signals for courtship to begin. The males
will then inspect anything that is red and of roughly the right size. When a
female makes an appearance, she will be pursued by any males within range.
The Butterfly Body
Lepidoptera, as the Greek roots of the name imply, (lepid – scale; ptera – wing)
are unique among insects in that their entire bodies are covered with overlapping
scales arranged like shingles on a roof. The scales are so small that 250 laid end to end
would only be one inch long. They are so thin that it would take more than half a
million of them stacked up to be an inch tall! To the naked eye they appear to be powder. They are colored by either pigment or light refracted from ridges on each scale.
Among the scales of the male butterfly are specialized scent scales that produce pheromones. These may be distributed over the upper surface of the wing or collected in
special patches on the veins. (see courtship) Some people become concerned that the
loss of even a relatively small number of scales results in serious damage to the butterfly when in reality, large portions of the wings themselves can be removed by predators
and the butterfly is still capable of flight.
Butterflies follow the basic rules for insects that we learned in third grade. (And
if you didn’t, you should ask for your money back!) They have three body parts; head,
thorax and abdomen. At the end of the male’s abdomen are claspers, used in the mating process. On the head are two compound eyes, a pair of antennae and a tightly
coiled feeding tube or proboscis. The clubbed antennae, consisting of a series of rings or
segments, are sense organs used for smelling and balance. At the base of each antenna
is the Johnston’s organ, which is sensitive to vibration and helps the insect keep its
balance and orient itself during flight. An adult butterfly has no jaws like the caterpillar. It must take food in liquid form through its hollow proboscis. The length of the
proboscis varies with the species of butterfly and influences flower selection. Butterflies may also drink honeydew (a sweet secretion produced by aphids), the juice of
decaying fruit or even the liquids secreted from carrion, fermenting sap and liquids
from dung. On each side of the proboscis is a palp, thickly covered with scales and
sensory hairs. These are used to examine food before drinking. The large compound
eyes are sensitive to movement and color and can see ultraviolet light. A butterfly’s
thorax has three segments, each supporting a pair of legs. Each leg ends in a jointed
foot with claws which allow the butterfly to walk on and cling to a variety of surfaces.
The second and third thoracic segments sport wing connections. Butterflies have four
wings arranged in two pairs. There are two forewings and two hindwings. The forewings are connected to the second thoracic segment and the hindwings are connected to
the third thoracic segment. Butterflies respire through holes situated along the abdomen. These holes are called spiracles. The butterfly’s digestive system is located mostly
in the abdomen. This is also the location of the “fat body” that sustains energy through
long migrations.
Abdomen
Thorax
Antenna
Palp
Proboscis
Wing bases
Spiracles
The end segment of a butterfly’s abdomen contains the sexual organs. The female has a special opening which receives the sperm from the male. Telescoped inside
the opening is an egg-laying tube (ovipositor). The female produces her sex-attractant
scent from glands located in the tip of the abdomen. The end segments in the male
contain a pair of claspers which grip the female during mating and surround the central ejaculatory organ. Inside the testes are fused into a single organ and produce
sperm.
How do you tell the boys from the girls?
Many butterflies are identical in appearance regardless of gender. This is called
sexual monomorphism. Some species exhibit sexual dimorphism, in which the
male and female have external characteristics that distinguish them from one
another as in the Mimic (Hypolimnas misippus). Some species of butterflies have
individuals that may exhibit external characteristics of both genders. Some of
these butterflies have the male’s pattern on one side of the body and the female’s
pattern on the other side! This confusing circumstance is called gynandromorphism. This phenomenon is hard to spot where there is no sexual dimorphism. It
is striking in sexually dimorphic species.(I had an example, but can’t find it!)
Hibernation:
In the case of insects, a more precise term for hibernation is diapause. Diapause
is defined as a period during which growth or development is suspended. Diapause
lacks many of the metabolic changes inherent in hibernation. Diapause in butterflies
in temperate zones is a response to the cold season. In tropical zones it is a response to
the dry
season. Butterflies may enter diapause during any life stage, but this is usually species specific. Once such a period is entered a certain amount of time must elapse – like
the timer on a safe – before active life is resumed. This is to ensure that the insect does
not emerge too early during a favorable spell in otherwise harsh conditions.
Adult Protection:
Adult butterflies use startling colors or patterns to
warn of a poisonous nature or to mimic poisonous butterflies. The presence of tails and eye spots found on the
hindwings is used to distract predatory attention from
more vital areas. Camouflage is as popular a survival
strategy in adults (imagoes) as it was in the larval and
pupal stages. An underside that blends with the surroundings combined with flash marks above make a good combination, upon taking flight, for startling predators.
Butterfly poisons are cardiac glycosides or cardenolides that cause
birds to be violently ill (vomiting and general distress) for about half
an hour. The butterfly doesn’t want the bird to die, just to learn how
unwise it is to eat a butterfly that looks just so! Several birds have
evolved the ability to metabolize monarch toxins and feast on them
during winter roosts. These immune birds include the blackbill,
pallid and fan-tailed cuckoos, cuckoo shrike and mockingbird. Larger
roosts of monarchs can survive the predation, but smaller roosts are
in jeopardy.
Migration
Not all butterfly migrations are as dramatic as that of the monarch in North
America. Many species of butterflies make movements north and south with the seasons. Why do butterflies migrate? To find warmers temperatures, more plentiful food
supplies and to disperse their populations. Painted ladies (Vanessa cardui) move north
and south to some degree in North America, but make a much longer trip from the
deserts of Africa to Europe.
Pests
Many butterflies and moths are damaging to agriculture. Well known examples
include several species of Pierids (cabbage whites) and the gypsy moth (Porthetria
dispar) which damages forested areas. The gypsy moth was accidentally introduced to
the United States by an amateur entomologist in 1869. A combination of factors makes
it a serious threat. It is prolific, laying numerous (up to 1,000) eggs, has no natural
predators and thrives on a wide variety of food plants.
Sometimes butterflies and moths are used to control plant pests. The crimson
speckled footman (Utetheisa pulchella) was introduced to control prickly pear in Australia as well as the cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae) that feeds on ragwort which is
poisonous to cattle.
Endangered Species/Conservation
While the threat to rare butterflies used to be collectors, the focus of the threat
has shifted. A newer primary danger to butterflies is habitat destruction and the use of
pesticides, both insecticides and herbicides. The insecticides kill them directly, while
the herbicides destroy both nectaring plants and larval food plants. Examples of endangered butterflies are the regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia) whose grassland habitat
is being destroyed. Also in need of protection is the bluish green hairstreak (Callophrys
viridis) found only in the San Francisco Bay area on island hills and shoreline. It is a
victim of habitat loss due to urbanization. The Xerces blue (Blaucopsyche xerces),
indigenous to the coastal sand dunes of the San Francisco peninsula, is extinct. The
last know specimen was collected March 23, 1943. The Xerces Society, dedicated to
protecting biological diversity through invertebrate conservation, was named in
memory of this butterfly.
Butterfly Families
Brush-footed butterflies - Nymphalidae
This is a HUGE family with over 5,000 species. Brush-footed butterflies’ front
legs are very short and held tucked into the body, giving a four-legged appearance. The
forelegs on some species are equipped with hairy brushes, which are used to clean the
antennae. Females also use them to test for host plants by “drumming”. This is such a
large group with so many varieties of adaptations, that generalizations are problematic. For some, the egg surface is frequently ribbed and these ribs sometimes extend to
form points. The caterpillars are usually spiny, though some are smooth-skinned with
points only at the head and/or tail. Chrysalises are usually spiked and angled and hang
upside down from silken pads. These butterflies are powerful fliers with strong territorial instincts.
Subfamilies of brush-footed butterflies
Owl Butterflies - Brassolinae
This subfamily includes genus Caligo (owl butterflies). Owl butterflies are noted
for large wing spots (ocelli). These animals tend to be crepuscular, that is, active at
dawn and dusk. They are attracted to rotting fruits and tree sap. Many species will
also feed on animal droppings. The large chrysalis hangs head-down and covered in
sparse, short, bristly hairs.
The immature larvae of owl butterfly species often gather in large congregations
along the mid-ribs of the banana leaves upon which they feed. These larvae develop
patches of brown makings on their dorsal surfaces, which are extremely similar in
nature to the leaf damage which is characteristic of banana plants. This patterning
disrupts the shape of these larvae extremely well. As they reach maturity, owl butterfly larvae may exceed 12 cm (4 ¾ in.) in length. At this juncture, their usual habit is to
rest upon the brown and dry growth of the trunk of the banana tree. By following a
crepuscular feeding cycle, the larvae crawl up from their resting places to feed and
then return to them in order to slowly digest their meals. The olive green or brown
coloration of these older larvae and their fine, fuzzy texture serves to blend them most
effectively into the background upon which they are resting. Morpho species (subfamily
Morphinae) adopt a similar timetable with regard to feeding.
Milkweed butterflies - Danainae
This subfamily includes the genera Danaus and Tirumala. They are found in
greatest profusion in tropical Asia. There are a few in Central America such as Danaus
plexippus, the monarch. As adults, these butterflies are extremely tough and resilient
to the crushing and pecking of predators. Larval food plants include milkweeds (Asclepias) and figs (Ficus). Pupae are rounded, smooth and colored in shades of pale green.
Longwing butterflies - Heliconiinae
This subfamily includes the genera Heliconius, Philaethria, Cethosia and
Dryadula. The larval host plant is the poisonous passion flower family (passifloraceae)
which occurs in the form of shrubs or vines. These plants and butterflies have probably
had a long association since the plants have had time to develop adaptations to discourage larval use. In addition to nectaring, longwings can store pollen on their
probosces. They then regurgitate digestive enzymes to liquefy the pollen and ingest the
resulting fluid through the proboscis. Longwings exhibit nocturnal roosting behavior in
large groups that may include other species.
Glasswing butterflies - Ithomiinae
Not all members of this subfamily have transparent wings. The subfamily includes the genera Tithorea, Greta and Mechanitis. Members of the genus Greta are
commonly called “glasswings” because of their transparent wings. The larvae feed on
nightshade. The females need nitrogen for egg production and so they feed on fresh
bird droppings. The males gather alkaloids for pheromone production by nectaring on
Heliotropum plants. Males congregate in groups called leks to attract mates. These
leks may include different species of glasswings. So many males together are able to
emit high concentrations of pheremones. The pheremones of the various species are
similar enough that the strategy works and females of all or most of the species present
are attracted.
Morpho butterflies - Morphinae
This subfamily includes the well-know genus Morpho. This butterfly’s coloration
is metallic above, with cryptic coloring and ocelli below. The larval plants are pea,
palms and bamboos. The early instar larvae are hairy yet colorful. Then they become
cryptic in later instars. The larvae are crepuscular feeders. The adults feed on decaying
plant matter, usually fermenting fruit or fungi and tree sap.
Brush-footed butterflies - Nymphalinae
This subfamily includes the genera Hamadryas, Siproeta, Anartia and
Catonephele. This is a large subfamily with a wide variety of adaptations. In general,
though, the larvae feed singly and have various spines. The pupae hang by their tails,
but may be vertical or horizontal (Catonephele). The genus Hamadryas (crackers) is
attracted to tree sap.
Young larvae of Catonephele butterflies commence feeding upon the leaf tips of
their Alchornea foodplants. The leaf tissue is gradually eaten away from each side of
the midrib, which results in the creation of a dry brown appendage. It is upon this dry
section of midrib that the larvae rest when they are not feeding, which serves to effectively conceal them from predators.
Eyespot and Brown butterflies - Satyrinae
The only genus we exhibit from this subfamily is Elymnias. The adults are plain
in appearance in shades of brown and gray. They have ocelli. They love the shade
which makes them frequent the forest and forest edges.
Family Swallowtail Butterflies - Papilionadae
This large family of butterflies contains some of the biggest and most beautiful
species in the world. It is also the most widely studied and well known of all the butterfly groups. Most species occur in the tropics, but some are also found in temperate
climates. Because many have tailed hindwings, their popular name is swallowtails.
Not all species have “tails.” As a group, these butterflies are large, have striking wings,
have three fully developed pairs of legs and are strong fliers. While ours are all large
and striking, members of this family can be as small as the tiny dragontail butterflies
from India and Malaysia whose wings top to tip measure less than 2 inches. The swallowtails total more than 700 species throughout the world. Their eggs are spherical.
The caterpillars tend to be smooth-skinned, usually with large eye-spots. In its early
instars, the caterpillar resembles a bird dropping. These are the caterpillars that use
chemical warfare to defend themselves by us of an osmeterium, a Y-shaped gland,
which emits an unpleasant smell.
The angular chrysalis resembles a bit of leaf or wood and hangs upright held by girdle.
Subfamilies of Swallowtail Butterflies
Swallowtail butterflies - Papilioninae
This subfamily is divided into tribes based upon differences in structure, characteristics during early stages of life and larval host plants.
Tribe Papilionini – This tribe includes the genus Papilio. These butterflies have a
tail on the hindwing. The larvae feed on citrus, avocado and carrots.
Tribe Troinini – This tribe includes the genus Parides. The larvae feed on pipevines.
These animals, both as larvae and as adults, can produce odors discernable to the
human nose. Adults are brightly colored to warn off predators. The females are black,
red and white. The males are black, red and green. These butterflies reside in shaded
forest habitats.
Whites and Sulfurs - Pieridae
This is a large family of more than 1,000 species. Most are predominantly white, yellow
or orange in color and are often referred to collectively as whites, yellows or sulphurs.
The pigments that give this family its distinct coloring are derived from the body’s
waste products. It is believed that the name “butterfly” originates from a member of
this family – the bright yellow brimstone, Gonepteryx rhamni, that was known to the
early British naturalists as the butter-colored fly. The color of a particular species may
change from season to season and the male and female also may display different
colors. The eggs are spindle-shaped and the green caterpillars are smooth and cylindrical. As larval host plants, whites prefer plants of the cabbage family (crucifers).
Sulphurs prefer legumes. The cone-shaped chrysalis is supported by a girdle.
Emperor Moths - Saturniidae
Worldwide, this family boasts more than 1,000 species (1992). Many have well developed eyespots or transparent patches on both fore- and hindwings. Some have long
tails on the hindwings. Some species exhibit sexual dimorphism. In adults, the tongue
is reduced or absent so that they are unable to feed. Mature caterpillars spin large
cocoons to protect their pupae. These cocoons are sometimes used in the manufacture of
coarse silks.