Download CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 8
Mediterranean Society under
the Greeks and the Romans
or a man wh<l pcrhaps ncvcr
Odysscus as he sailed homc after
existcd, Honrcr has bce n
thc Trojan War. The ru'o
a
work
profoundly influential figure. Ac-
describcd scores of difHcultics
cording to tradition, Homer coni-
faccd by Grcek warriors, including
poscd thc t\r,o great cpic poems
ancicnt Grccce, the
llisd
of
and thc
Odyssey.In fact, siholars now
-know
that bards recitcd both
batdes, monstcrs, and conflicts
among themselves., Betrveen them,
the nvo epics preserved a rich collection of storics that literary fig-
pocms for generations before
urcs mined for morc than a
Homcr, and some belicvc that
millcnnium.
Homcr was simply
a convenient
The Iliod and the
Odyssry also
name for the otherwise anony-
testi$r to the {requency and nor-
mous scribes who committed the
mality of travel, communication,
Iliad. and the
and intcraction in thc Meditcr-
Odysscy
to writing.
Whethcr Homer ever really lived
ranean basin during thc sccond
or not, thc cpics attributed to him
and first millennia s.c.u. Both
deeply inffuenccd the devclop-
works portray Grecks
mcnt of dassical Grcek thought
and fearless scarncn, almost as
and literature .The llia.d offcred a
comforable aboard their ships as
Greek perspective on a campaign
on land, who did not hesitate to
waged by a band of Greck
warriors against the city of Troy in
venture into the waters of what
Flomer called the *wine-dark
Anatolia during the twelfth cen-
Homer lovingly described the
tury B.c-c. The Odysey recounted
sleek galleys in which Greek war-
the experiences of the Greek hero
riors raced across the uaters, and
Opposrr Ptcr.: Thc theeter at Delpbi.
as
expert
sea.,
I32
PART2 I THE FORMATION OF CII.SSICAL SOCIETIES,
he cven had Odysseus construct a seiling ship singlehandedly when he found himself shipwrecked on an
island inhabited only by a goddess.The lliod.andthe
Odyseymake it clear that maritime links touched peoplcs throughout the Mediterranean basin in Homer,s
timc and, further, that Greeks were among the most
promincnt seafarers of the age.
Thc maritime links established by the Greeks lived
on long aftcr the decline of classical Greek society. Indeed, the Romans took advantage of those links and
used thcm to build a powerfirl society that dominatid
the whole Mediterranean basin by the
first century c.r. By
that time, Roman citizcns found thcmselves living in a cosmopolitan world
in which Rornan administrators oversaw affairs from
Anatolia and Palestine in the east tb Spain and Morocco in *re wcst.
|ust as Homer's epics recall the world of the
Grceks, thc story of Paul of Tarsus reflects the cosmo-
polianiiorld of the Roinans. Born in the first century
c.r., Paul was a devout Jew from Anatolia who accepted thc Christian teachings of |esus of Nazareth.
Paul was a principal figure in the development of
Ctristianity to an independent religious faith, largely
bccausc of his zealous missionary efforts to attract
conycrts from outside as well as within the Jewish
community. While promoting his adopted faith in
]crusalcm about 55 c.E., however, paul was attacked
by a crowd ofhis enemies who believed his views werc
a dreat to Iudaism. The disturbance was so sevcre t}tat
Roman authorities intcrvened to restore order.
Under normal circumstances, Roman authoriti es
would havc dclivered Paul to the leaders of his own
ethnic comrnunity, where he would bc dcalt with ac-
cording to custom. But knowing that Jewish leaders
would probably execure him, paul assertcd his rights
as a Roman citizen to appeal his case in Romc. paul
had ncvcr becn to Rome, but this Anatolian travcling in Palestinc callcd on thc laws of thc impcrial cen--
tcr to dctermine his fatc. Paul traveled across thc
Meditcrranean to Rome, bur his appcal did not suc-
cccd- Tradition holds that hc was exccuted by impcrial authoritics our of conccrn that Christianity was a
thrcat to the peacc and stabiliry of thc cmpirc.
Undcr*both tbc Grccks and thc Romans, thc
Mcditcrrancan bilin bccamC iiiuch morc tightlyintcgratcd than bcfore as both socictics org"rrir.d .o*mcrcial cxchangc and sponsored interaction throughout
thc rcgion. In fact, undcr Grcck and thcn Roman
5OO B.C.E.
TO
5OO C.E.
supervision, the Mediterranean served not as a barrier
but, rather, as a highway. Moreover, this highway carried more than soldiers, citizens, and goods: it also carried ideas. Indeed, Greek philosophy-which generated
a remarkable body of moral thought and philosophical
ki
d
Kno
fr
reflection-shaped the cultural foundations of th.
Roman republic and empire, as educated Roman
thinkers drew inspiration from their neighbors to the
east. Later, this highway carried the Christian religion
to all corners of the Roman empire.
Yet Greek and Roman societies also differed substantially both in
and in outlook. Early in
the classical cra, thc Greeks lived in independent, autonomous city-setes. Only aftcr the latc third century
B.c.E. did they play prominent rolcs in the large, centralized empire established by their neighbors to the
north in Macedon. LIntil then, thc Grecks had intcgrated the societies.and economies of distant lands mainly through energctic commercial activity over the
Mediterranean sea lanes. In contrast to the dreeks, the
Romans built an extensive, centralized land empire. At
its high point the Roman empire domirrated thi en#
Pi
w
h'
lo
ci
B.
,cr
G
eI
g
B.
.m.
Mediterranean basin and parts ofsouthwestAsia as well
as north Africa and much of continental Europe and
Britain. In addition, wtrercas Greek authorities did not
sponsor an evangclical religion, Christianity eventually
became the official religion of the Roman empirq
which allowcd the new religion to spread much more
effectively than beftirc.
Ennlv Drvelopnaerur
oF CREEK SocIrrY
?u.lng the third millcnnium B.c.E., the peoplcs of
the Balkan region and the Grcek peninsula increasingly met and mingled with pcoplcs from different
socictics who traveled and traded in the Mcditerranean basin. As a result, carly inhabitants of the
Grcek peninsula built thcir societics undcr the influence of Mesopotamians, Egyptians, phocnicians, and
othcrs activc in thc region. Bcginning in the ninth
ccntury B.C.E., thc Grecks organizcd a series of citystatcs, which servcd as thc political contcxt for thc
dcvclopmcnt of classical Greck socicty.
.Eu
ltw,
Suict
.
sca
ma
sol
Pcl
i,
tcc
agr
Mr
tan
l{.
Par
Minoan and Mycenaean Societies
During thc latc third millcnnium B.c.E., a sophisticatcd society arosc on the island of Crctc. Scholarc
refcr to it as Minoan socicty, aftcr Minos, a legendary
(:llAl'l
t)itrncr
rY car-
cilrrccltcd
$()
,phical
(rf thc
i.otttlttt
t() thc
,'ligion
tl
sr.tb-
.:rrlv in
rlt, iltlcrlturv
a, ccn-
t() thc
I
intclands
Ycr the
ks, the
'irc. At
' entire
as
well
;'re
and
lid not
ntuillx
mpire,
r more
ples
of
rcreas-
:ferent
:diterof the
: influrs, and
ninth
rf citybr the
phisti-
F.R
king of ancicnr (lrctc. Ilcnvccn 2000
tl I
rllll)11'[':RRANFrq,N soCIETl'
rnd 1700 n.c.r:.,
crn
From 1500 to Il00 B.c.E.) the Mycenaeans ex_
panded their influence beyond peninsular Greece.
They largely overpowered Minoan sociery and they
took over the Cretan palaces. The Mycenaeans also
:holars
Minoan (mih-NOH-uhn)
endary
Mycenaean ( nreye-suh-NEE-uhn
)
n.<:.1. thc Itlvccnacans cnragcd
The World of the Polis
Decline of
tant setdements.
About I200
peoplc abandoncd nr()st scttlcnrcnts.
a serics of earthquakes, r'olcanic eruptions, and tidal waves.
southern part of the Greek peninsula, known as the
Peloponnesus. Because the fortified sites offered pro_
tection, they soon attracted settlers, who built small
agricultural communities. Their society is known as
Mvcenaean, after Mt,cenae, one of their most impor_
Italy,.
productivc aqrictrlttrrrrl socictics. Nlvccnacan prlaccs
fell into rrrin, rhc 1'ropul:rrion slrarylv dcclinctl. an.l
Aftcr 1700 s.t:.r.. Minoan sociery expericnccd
where they learned about writing and largescale construction. A_fter l4S0 s.c.s. they also built
massive stone fortresses and palaces throughout the
R()uAss 133
Chaos in thc
Eestrn
Homcr rccallctl fionr a Circck ocr,
Mcdttrtencen
spcctivc in his //ia4 c.rincidctl r'irh
invasions of tirrcign rnarincrs in thr }tr.ccnacan
honteland. Indccd, tiolu l100 to 80t) n.r .!... chaos
rcigncd throur:'h()ur tlrc crstcrn Alcditcrrancln rcgion. Invasious rrncl civil clisturbarrccs mldc it irrrporsiblc t<l nrlintrrin strrlrlc g()vcrnnlcnts ()r cvcn
craft of Phoe nician clcsign. Minoan ships s:rilcd t<t
(ircccc, Anatolia, Pl'rocnicia, and Egvprt, rvhcrc ttrcy
cxclrangcd Crctan rvinc, olivi oil, ancl u,ool for
[rains, tcxtilcs, and nranufhcturcd goclds. Aftcr 1600
B.c.t. Crerans cstablishcd colonies on Cvprus and
rnanv islands in the Acgcan Sea.
Beginning about 2200 s.c.E. migratory Indo_
European peoples filtered inro rhe Greek peninsula.
they had begun.to trade
Mycenoean
::c'E'merchants and visit
-t1,t199
u,ith
Minoan
Crere,
Society
ANI) I'H].
in a conflict uith tlrc citv t,l''ltov
in Anatolia. 'l'his 'l'rojan *ar, r..hicir
rvcrc rcsidcrrccs olrurlcn, and thcY als<l scn,cd ls storchouscs s'lrcrc oflcials collcctcd taxcs irr kintl fiom
kx'al cultivators.
Bctrvccn 2200 ancl 1450 R.c.r:., Crcrc u,as a principll center <lf N{cditcrrancan c()nrnrcrcc. I}1, 2200
l].(t.H.. Crctans \!,crc travcling ab<lard aclvlncccl sailing
noan society attracted a series ofinvaders, and by lI00
B.c.E. Crete had fallen under foreign domination. yet
Minoan traditions deeply influenced the inhabitants of
nearby Greece.
l'H1.. (it(h.F.Ks
cstablishcd scrrlcnrcnrs in Anatolil, Sicilt,, and s()uth-
tlrc inhabitants ()f Crcrc built a scrics of hvish palaces
throughout.thc island, ntost notrrtrll,thc cnor_
Knosos rrrous
conrplc.t at ffurossos dccoratctl rvith vivid
tit'scocs clcpicting .i\.linoans ar s'ork ancl play. Thcsc
prlaccs \l'crc thc ncn.c ccntcrs of Minoan s<xicty: thcy
Benveen 1600 and 1450 s.c.u,., Cretans
embarked on a new round of
Minoan Society
palace building to replace structures
destroyed by those natural catasuophes: they built luxurious complexes u,ith indoor plumbing and drainage
systems and even furnished some of thern rvith flush
toilets. After 1450 B.c.E., however, the lvealth of Mi_
UNt)tit(
-
In the absence of a ccntrllizcd srate-<x crnpire- l<xal institutions took tlrc lcatl in rcst<lring political ordcr in
Greece after thc dcclinc ol Myccnrcan scx-icrr.. Thc
most importanr institution u'as thc ciq'-state , or polis
Over time, manr, <>frhcsc poleis (the piunl oi polis) be came lively commercial cenrers.lThcy took on an increasingly urban character and extendcd *rcir authorin
over surrounding regions. By about 800 s.c.t. manr.
poleis had become bustling city-states that functioned
as the principal cenrers of Greek society. Thc most important of the poleis rvere Sparta and Athens, r*,hose
contrasting constitutions help to illustratc thc r-arien.ol
political styles in classical Greect.
Sparta was situated in a fertilc region of the Greek
peninsula, ivhose lands rhe Spartans exploited b1'forcing neighboring peoples to perform agricultural
labor. These ltelots, or servants of the Sparran tParta
state , were not slaves, but neither u.erc ther- tiee to
leave the land. Their role in societv was to kccp Spartl
supplied with fbod. By the sixth centun B-c.E., rhe
helots probably outnumbered the Sparran cidzens brmore than ten to one) rvhich meant that the Spartans
constandy had to guard against rebellion. 3s a result.
the Spartans devoted most of their r€sources to maintaining a powerful and disciplined militaq,machine.
In theor,v, Spartan citizens u'ere equal in status.
To discourage the development of economic and social distinctions, Sparrans obsen'ed an
extraordinarily austere lifesryle . They s?artun socirry
did not wear jeu,elry or elaborate clorhes. nor di,l
they pamper themselves,with luxuries or accumulatc
private wealth on a large scale . It is for good reason.
polis (POH-lihs)
r34
I
f
PARI2 I THE FORMATION OF
CI.ASSICAL SOCIETIES,
5OO
r.C.r. TO
5OO C.E.
Ap.
t@n$dcty
atta,
raoo"".ou"ty
hclp
no
adu
lear
voic
rich
Athcni
Map
&f M.Fr ciry-statcs,
or poleis, of ctassical Grcccc
bcrwccn gO0 and
;Hi:J,:l,"ffiJ.[ilated
inland'
Ho*-ig;p'o*i.itv
thcn, that our adicctiv e spurtanrefcrs
charactcriznd bv simoticiry
r."*"i,.r,
Distincrbn
irong tr,.
prowcss, dixiplinc, and
to a lifcstylc
""i
lustcrity.
uy
iIi
Spartans, mcn and.r",rnr"n,
. ,igo.r-o_urrcgin*.of physicaitraining.d;;;,;isparran
,ij.I*.n.
ctuzcns lcft rhcir homcs at
agc scvcn and wcnt to
livc
in military
berracks.
s'.J.;;ilA
mcnt. sparun womct
if,:r":::?,.t:l
ht"t**:
.ish;..;;;.ffi :L1l.I;.#hf H;:*f;
-.^
rF-''
their husbands. Onlv at abour
agc thirty did men lcavc
the ba*acks
ch thc
Spartan cducational system
culrivatcd from an carly
agc. All
mili ta,y
to or distancc from thc sca
havc shapcd thc cconomic
and sociar
.
Wef(
weal
tocr:
inA,
(
T..il;$;"il.r..
tr.y,-,-"i_,,'*rrf
nr
cenl
*
sei.p" h;;;;"]o*;;ii.ir
"nd
trg,4
sp**liil,i'ria'i",,
i*il&:,.
fl
or
ts ascctic rigor
*;"il;.;
wives
.nu.r,
by the fourth
E., Spartan instirutions ncvcrthel.r,
."n,inuJi,i'LR..,,t.
largcr societyrs commiunent
to military values.
Whcreas Sparta sough.r
to imposclraJiv _ili,.rv
Athcnians rctieved r".i"t
i.*iJrliilourirr,_
,T:rrr,
mg
a govcrnment bascd
on
dcrnocrad;;ril;.
ples. Indccd, Athenians
opcned
officcs to all citizcns *d
cat participation in ctassicat
,or.rrrrn.ri
At*cns
#;J;;8il;#:fporiti_
cr;;.:. d;;;
was by
Hc,
Solot a.
Atlnnir
Dcmocr
mcnr
zcn \
Duri
rcfor
salari
not
c
T
dem<
(:l{AP'l'I:Rlt | I\'lEl)tl 11l(lL\Nl:AN s()(:lEl-\ uNl)t:,Rl'ttt1 (iRt:I]Ls ANI)Tl{}:
R()t\l.{Ns 135
canlc undcr thc lcatlcrslrip of thc statcsntan Pcriclcs,
s'lro bccamc thc nrosr popular Athcnian lca&r from
461 n.<:.e. urrtil his cicath in 429 n.c.u. Undcr
thc lcatlcruhip of Pcriclcs, Athcru bccamc
tlrc
Pcr*lct
nr()st sophisticatcd ()t
thc polcis, with :r vibrant conrmrtnin, ()t'
scicntists,- philosol'rhc n;,
[x)cts, dmn)atists, artists, rnd archirc.cts.
Gnrecr AND THE LARcER Wonlo
As thc polcis prcs1'rcrcd, Grceks bccame incrcasinglv
pronrincnt in thc largcr rvorld of the Meditcrrancan
basin. Thcy cstablishcd colonies along the shorcs ofthe
Mediterranean Sca ancl the Black Sea, and thcy traded
throughout thc rcgion. Evenrually, rhcir politkal and
A painted cup produced in Sparta abour 550 a.c.r. depicts huntcrs
attacking a boar. Spartans regardcd hunting as an cxercise tiat
helped to sharpen fighting skills and aggrcssive insrincts.
no means open to all residents, however: only free
adult males from Athens played a role in public affairs,
leaving foreigners, slaves, and women with no direct
voice in government. _ _
During the seventh century B.C.E., the gap between
rich and poor around Athens widened considerably as
increased irade brought prosperity ro
Athenion
Socien
wcalthy landowners. By the early sixth
a large class of undcrprivileged people
leave
vives
nuch
ipart the
titary
rlish-
Athens
olitias
by
century r.c.r.,
were unhappy enough to wage war against their
wealthy neighbors. To alrrt civil war, an Athenian aristocrat named Solon devised a solution to class conflict
in Attica, *re region around Athens.
Solon forged a compromise between the classes.
He allowed aristocrats to keep their lands, but he
Solon ond cancelled debts, forbade debt slaverS and
Athenion liberated those already enslaved for debt.
Detnocracy Solon also provided representation for the
common classes in the Athenian government by opening the councils of the polis to any cirizen rvealthy enough to devote time to public affairs.
During the late sixth and fifth cenruries B.c.E., these
reforms went even further as Athenian leaders paid
salaries to officeholders so financial hardship would
not exclude anyone from service.
These reforms graduaily uansformed Athens into a
democratic state . The high tide ofAthenian democrary
economic intercsrs brought thcm into conflict with the
cxpanding Persian cmpire. After a centur)'of intermittent war, in the fourth
century B.C.E. Alexan-
der of Macedon toppled the Achaemenid
empire and built an empire stretching from ladia to
Egypt and Greece. His conquests crcated a veft zone
of trade and communication that cncoqraged cnrnmercial and cultural exchange on an unprccedenrcd scalc.
Creek Colonization
To relieve population pressurcs in the rocky Grcek
peninsula, Greeks began to establish colonies in other
parts of the Mediterranean basin. Between drc mideighth and the late sixth centurics n.c.r., they founded
more than four hundred coloirics along thc slrores of
the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
The Greeks established their first colonies in the
central Med.iterranean during thc earty cighth ccnmry
B.C.E. The most popular sites were
^_-. Qtsnies
Sicily and sourhern I,"rv, p"r**r"rrv Gtd
the region around modern Naples, which was itself
originally a Greek colony called Neapolis (*nerv
polis"). These colonies provided merchants not only
u'ith fertile fields that vielded large agricukural surpluses but also with convenient access to thc copper,
zinc, tin, and iron ores of central Italy.
During the eighth and seventh cenruries B.c.E.,
Greeks ventured into the Black Sea in large numbers
and established colonies all along its shores. These
I
136
PART
2 I THE FORMAUON
OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES,
5OO B.C.E. TO 5OO
C.r
finar
once
isted
tribu
t
confl
I
I
i
i
The Pelo
w,,
Conte
B.C.E.
nians
victor
flics c
intr
as
power
Map82
lrliorcrEf citics and colonics.
*"**
rnarryCrrtctcolonies.Whatdoes.r,".,.,ggo*iliffi.ffi3basinbetwecn800and50os.c.g.Notcthc."*;m
settlerirents
oftred m3r;hant1
acccss
*f;H f.hf*'::::i ;*-'
to rich supplies
;*"'gota'
""a
-d ***;;. ilffT il1i1,i,:i:*,#.[u
Unlikc thcir countcrparts
in
and Irrc4 the Grcercs
.f*i.Jp..ria,
ssi a
China,
die;;Jd
riat stae. rnstcad" cotonies
".l"ollr.o,_*_
*ti.a;il;il#
.**..,
and chartcd rlrir-ovn
onl,,ti*
Nevertheless, Greck
col-
[oilii;t^":Y
"na.*.r,_-g;d-.*:T.xITffi iliift il,l.x".xi?
lands and pcopb.
Froln.thc
.*ly.ighft;;-n;ry
cotonies ficilitatcd
tradc b.nu""ri
B.c.E.,
and
spread
ffi;;;;;ons
J.nJ,IiJIffin
oons throughout thc
"r..uriu."i "iio"il..n *.*_
er.ai,"**._-ii#]iil*
or..n
the Grcet poteis. At
o_.
Grcek tanguase as wclj
*.
ffiffifiIl"i,,crrccts
Conflict with persia
During thc fifth ccntr
o-:d, ;; *ni ;;:ilr*" i
;.,},:::f,[i [.Xt
conflict with thc pcrsi
i:ffi :ji:i*u,*T"rl#:iii.ri,I:$;
gnp on Anatolia. the
Greek cities on the
Ionian coast
bccame increasinely
s"o.oT...r.
they re _
volted against perlirn
rule and expclled the
Achae_
..r.1;.;;
menid administrato.:t
Grcels and comme.,.r.al
a fleet of ships
tf,.
a1d th"n _"r.-h-J' C".n,l
"Jrrr"y*".
U"ttf
.
in
his hol.
after a c,
launchir
Alcxander
of Mecedou
old son,
vicro
thc Grc,
vadc tht
w
stratcgis
well-cqu
il:.; l# ;'*;:,i;;,.il1flu:
mish intcrmiftcntlv
v",
,,
under h
- Philr
felow
;f{[ I:Tn l*:;,lt xni :i* r*i
:ji{,"r.fi
cure
definitive
a
,, Kingr
-; ofTbeMaeedo
il; reprcssed the
r.;.;. fi;*- "'ir',
y.ll, r",.r, r,.
,*r.i
^,*,ens
*T i ;.;*,,
r
rrirrans senr
Ir rrpp;;:-;;;eir
p_r;cT,
,nf
p, n ; n, w.
H.l.:T3lfl
?ff
n
$i"::
X
rner r rntcrfbrence.
r.l"rgh g... rly ou tnum bered,
the Athenians routed
t th" pe .J"rr
:t_y:.*n:n
Until
donw
Durinl
larger ;
proved
Warhat
hamper
to aid the IoJ* Jrror-,.-'"
Dcspitc Athcnian assi.t*..,
Ionian rebellion in 4e3
'
,
The
the (
ii.'i.'.,#,;llH*,,'ffi ::T:il
con n i c t
among the Grcek oolcis
themffir. il.:"usc
.
was
an alliancc b.mecn
tt,. pot.i, t n;;r^,J
th^c Dcrian
whicfi
rbc-Dctiatt
crtscouraget'gy.,
furthcr p..rian
;;;;;j;
aJo,,*,"i.r
ltaguc
Greccc. Becausc of its
supcrior flcct, Athcns
bccamc
rhc
cc, bcncfidng grcatly
from thc
r."d;;;il;,i,::
his hthcr
and Ana:
held Svri.
uollcd r\'
sian honr
Achacmc
in 330
n.,
C[lpCror
r
(ltlAP'fLR tt I Illll)l'l'l'.RILAnNh-{n- S(XllFl'[1- tlNI)lrl{'l t Ill (;Rt;tiKS
ANI)'t'Hti
l
,:l
.l
ofthe
l coast
rey re-
' ,- \chae
fellow
-
ls sent
ed the
-er, he
ian Wan
)ered,
battle
ens in
uccess
rld se-
'more
o skir-
>nflict
ie was
n Delian
Leogae
acame
,m rhe
finrrncill c<lntributions of othcr polcis. Horvcvcr,
orrcc it s'as clclr thar tlrc l)crsiarr thrcat rro l<lngcr cxistcd, thc othcr p<llcis rcscrrtcd hl'ing ro nrakc contritrutiorrs thar sccnrcd ro bcnclit ()nh, thc Athcnians.
Llltinratcl)', thc tcrrsions r"rultc.l in a bittcr civil
c()rrflict knou'n rs rhc l)cloponncsian War (4.3 l-404
.t.l*
pclo,onncsian n.r:.t,.). Polcis dividctl into
iio,
nr.<t
arnrccl canrps undcr thc lcatlcrship
of Athcns and Sparta, tlrc principal
contcntlcrc filr hcgcnronv in the (ircck s<lrld. lly 404
Ir.c.h. thc Sgr:rrtans and rlrcir allics had filrcctl rhc Athcrri:rns to r,rnconclitit>nll strrrcndcr. Hou,cvcr, Sparta's
lictorv s()()n gcncratcd ncu, jcalousics, antl ncu, contlicts quickh'trrokc our bcru'cen thc polcis. i\.lcan*.hilc,
ls intcrnal strugglcs rvc:rkcncd thc polcis, a tilrnridablc
p()\\'cr took shapc in drc north.
The Macedonians and
the Coming of Empire
LIntil thc fburth ccnrurv B.c.E., the kingdont of Macedon rvas a fronder state north of peninsular Greece.
During the reign of King Philip II (359-336 B.c.E.),
Macedon became a powerful,
The Kinqdom
' however,
unified
state
with an impressive military
of Maceion
machine. When philip had consolidated
his hold on Macedon, he turned his attention to rwo
larger prizes: Greece and the persian empire. Greece
relatively easy to conquer: the peloponnesian
War had poisoned the poleis against one another, which
hampered organized resistance. Thus in 33g r.c.e.,
alier a campaigrr oftrvelve years, philip had all of Greece
under his control.
Philip intended to use his conquest of Greece as a
launching pad fbr an invasion of persia but rvas preAbxander vented from doing so by an assassin who
of Maced.on brought him down in 336 s.c.s. The inva_
sion of pe rsia thus fell to his tw,enry-year_
old son, Alexander of Macedon, often called Alexander
the Great. Alexander soon assembled an army to invade the Persian empire. Alexander was a brilliant
strategist and an inspired leader, and he inherired a
well-equipped and highll'spirited vereran force from
his father. By 333 B.c.E. Alexander had subjected Ionia
and Anatolia to his control; rvithin another year he
held Syria, Palestine, and Egrpt; bv 33I B.c.E. he con_
trolled Mesopotamia and prepared to invade the persian homeland. He took Pasargadae and burned the
g_1""_.d
Achaemenid palace at Persepolis late in 33I B.c.E., and
in 330 B.c.E. Alexander established himself as the new
emperor of Persia.
R(}ntAtis 137
By 327 R.(;.r,. Alcxatrdcr had largcr ambiriorx: hc
took his arnrv irrto Irrtlia lrut w,as forr.cd to rcturn homc
u'hcn his tr(x)ps rclirscd to procccd any
,lkrnadcr,s
thrthcr. Bv 32.1 n.(:.1.:. Alcxandcr and his '
c'onqucss
arnry, hacl rcturrrcd to susa in Mcxrprtamia. In Junc of .323 B.c.F.., howcvcr, aftcr an cxtcndcd rountl of l.rrrsdng and drinking, hc suddcnlv fLll
ill and dicd ar rhc rgc of thirty-thrr.e. Thus, although
Alcxandcr pr<>r'ctl to ['rc a brilliant conqu€ror, hc did
not livc long cnouuh to devclop a systcm ofadministration filr his vlsr rc:rlnr.
The Hellenistic Empires
Whcn Alcxandcr clicd, his gcne rals divided rhc cmpirc into thrcc largc states. Antigonus trxrk Grcecc
and Maccdon, u,lriclr his Antigonid succcssors ruted
until replaccd bv the Romans in the sccond ccnrur\B.c.E. Ptolemy took Egypt, u,hich thc Ptolemaic dr.nasty ruled until the
Roman conquest of
Eglpt in 3I s.c.e. Seleucus took the largest
portion, the former Achaemenid cmpirc strctching
from Bactria to Anatolia, which his s.uccessors ruled
until the Parthians displaced them during thc second
century B.c.E.
Historians refer to the age ofAlcxandcr and his sucagi-an era whcn Greek cultural traditions expurded their influence
cessors as the Hellenistic
(Heltas) to mu.h larger world. [n- Tbc xrellenistic
- Era
"
deed, the Hellenistic
govcrned
cosmopolitan societies"-pi..,
and sponsorcd interacrions between peoples from Greece to India. Like imperial
states in classical Persia, China, and India,
the Hellenistic empires
facilitated trade, and
they made it possible for belie6, values" and religions ro
spread over greater distances than el,cr bcfrre.
All the Hellenistic empires bencftcd handsomehfrom the new order through the supcrvision of extensive trade networks and efficient tax cotlection. yet perhaps ,h. *;,hi;;"f
,h. Tbe Pnlemaic
Empire
Hellenistic empires rvas ptolemaic EgyptGreek and Macedonian overlords did not inrerfere in
Egyptian socieg,, contenting themselves r*ith the efEcient organization of agriculture, industrr, and ta-x
Ptolemaic (TAWL_-oh-may-ihk)
I38
ptRT 2 T}IE FORMATION OF CLq,SSICAT SOCIEfiES, 500 r.c.r.
|
To 500 c.E.
used
thoup
not lc
I
classit
broug
and
cr
THr
Cnr
Thc
r
pcnin
south
munir
rcads.
by
lar
hcavil
Trad
offi
Altho
n
lIlaPL3 tsiradarics of Alcxander's former empirc and of thc Hellenishc cmpircs that
Ilotia
thc
iffirencc in sizc bctween thc three Hellcnistic cmpircs. What would
disadrrmgcs of cach|
succccded
it about the year
"n'
2ZS s.c.s.
have bccn the cconomic and political advantagcs and
i \illne.
thc M
collcction. Thcy maintained the irrigation networks
and monitorcd the cultivation of crops and the paymcnt of urcs. They also established royal monopolies
ovcr thc rnost lucrative industries, such as textiles, salt
nnking;and the brcwing of becr.
Much of Eg5rpt's wcakh flowed to thc ptolcmaic
caprtal ofAlexandria. Founded by Alexander at the
molth of thc Nile, Alexandria servcd as
Alrxrr*a- thc
Ptolemics' administrative headquarters, but it becamc much more than a bureaucratic
curtcr. Akrandria's cnormous harbor was ablc to accommoderc 1,200 ships simultancously, and the ciry
soon bcenre the most important port in thc Mcditernulcan. Ahngsidc Grecks, Maccdonians, and Egyptians livcd rizable comrnunities of Phoenicians, |cws,
Arab6, and Babylonians. The ciry was indccd an carly
mcgrlopolis, wherc pcoplcs of diffcrcnt cthnic, religious, and cultural traditions conductcd thcir affairs.
Undcr t}r Ptolemics, Alcxandria alrc bccamc thc culnxal capiel of thc Hcllcnisdc world. It wrs thc sitc of
thc funourddexurdrian".Muscunr-* statc-financcd
*<.:
:.-:
institute of higher learning where philosophical, liter-
arg and scientific scholars carried on advanced research-and of the equally famous Alexandrian
Ubrary which supported the scholarship sponsorcd
by thc museum and which, by the first century B.c.E.,
boasted a collection of more rhan seven hundred
thousand works.
It was in the Seleucid realm, howcver, that Grcck
influencc rcachcd its greatest exrent. The principal
channels of that influencc werc the numcrTbc sclcwil
ous citics that Alcxand.r *a *r rr.;;;
founded
in thc formcr pcrsian cmpire.
Empit
Greck and Macedonian coloniss flocked to rhesc citics,
rvhcrc rhey created a Meditcrmean-stylc urban socicry
that lcft is mark on lands as disrant as Bactria urd India.
Many Sclcucids became familiar with Greck languagc,
drcss, litcraturc, philosophy art, and architccturc. Enr-
pcrorAshoka of India himsclf had his cdicts promulgatcd in Grcck and Aramaic, thc two most commonly
Sclcuci&
(
sih-
LOO-sihds)
6fg".
Br
Cfatc(
'Mcrcl
throul
in thc
Mcdir
Thcsc
Grecl
gods
spokc
ttleti<
Gr
ticipa,
olr
CHATTTER8
I[{I.]DITHRRAN}I,NSoCIEIYUNDER'I'III:(iRI'F:KSANT)]],IF:IT().|\IANS
I39
uscd languagcs of thc Hcllcnistic cmpires. Indccd, although thc socictics undcr Hcllcnistic domination did
not losc thcir oun cust()nls, thc Hellcnistic cnrpircs, likc
classical statcs in Pcrsia, China, and India, ncvcrthclcss
brought distant lands into intcraction by u'ay of tradc
and cultural cxchangc.
THr Fnurrs oF TRADE:
Gnerx Ecoruorrlv AND SoctETy
Thc mountainous anti rocky terrain ol thc Grcek
peninsula lelded only small harvests of grain, and the
rrs
southern Balkan mounrains hindercd travcl and comn'runication. Indeed, until the construction of modcrn
roads, much of Greece was more acccssible by sea than
by land. As a result, early Grcek society depended
heavily on maritime uade.
Trade and the tntegration
of the Mediterranean Basin
t
ter-
re'ian
red
r.E.,
red
eek
ipal
leucid.
impire
rge ,
,,m-
rul-
1
Although it produccd litde grain, much of Greece is
ideally suited to the cultivation of olives and grapes.
After the establishment of the poleis, the Greeks disTrade covered tlat they could profitably concentrate
their ef-forts on the production of olive oil and
wine. Greek merchants traded rttesc products around
the Mediterranean, returning *ith abundant supplies
of grain and other items as wcll.
By thq eady eighth cenrury B.c.E., rade had generated considerable prosperity in the Greek world.
Merchants and mariners linked Greek communities
tlrroughout thc Mediterranean world-not only those
in the Greek peninsula but also those in Anatolia, the
Meditdrranean islands, and the Black Sea region.
These trade links contributcd ro a sense of a lirger
Greek community. Colonists recogr*ized the same
gods as their cousins in the Greek peninsula. They
spoke Greek dialects, and they maintained commercial
relationships with their native communities.
Greeks from all parts gathered periodically to participate in panhellenic festivals that reinforced their
The Olvmoic common bonds. Many of these festivals
fbatured athletic, literary, or musical conGamei '
rests in which individuals sought to win
glory for their polis. Best known of the panhellenic
festivals were the Olympic games. According to tradi_
tion, in 776 e.c.E. Greek communities from all parts
of the Me diterranean se nr their be st athletes to the
polis of Olympia to engage in conte srs of speed,
Harvcsting olivcs. In this painting on a vase, trtrE mcn knoct fnrit
offthe branches whilc a third climbs the trec toshake drc Srrhs,
and another gathers olives from thc ground.
strength, and skill. Events induded footracing long
boxing, wresding, javelin tossing, and discus
throwing. Winners of events received olive rmcaths,
and they became celelrated heroes in their home
poleis. The ancient Olympic games took ptace cvery
four years for more than a millennium before quietly
disappearing from Greek life . So, although ther- uere
jo-p,
not united politically, by the sixrh cenrun"
B-c.E.
Greek communities had nevertheless established
sense of collecrive identiry.
a
Family and Society
With the establishment of poleis in the eighth ceorury
B.c.E., the nature of Greek family and socien- came
into focus. Like urban societies in southlvest Asia and
Anatolia, the Greek poleis adopted strictly patriarchal
family structures. Male family heads ruled their
140
pART
2 | THE FoRMATIoN ()i ct {ssrcAr
socrEl.IEs, s00
houscholds, and fathers even had
,1r. ,;ght to decide
whether or not to keep infants Uo..,
..l ri.ir wives.
pa*iarcbl
fuilrty
They could not legally
kill infants, but
they could abandon newbor::s in.
*1g
rnountains or the countryside, where
they
would soon die of exposure .
Grcck women fell under the authority
of rheir fa_
rhcrs, husbands, or sons.,Upper_class
G..ek women
spent mcr of their time in the family
home and fre quently worc veils when they ,renrured
outside. In
most of*re poleis, women cotrld not
own landed prop_
er1 bur they sometimes operated small businesses
zuch as *rops and food stals. the only
public position
open to Greek women was that of priestess
of a reli_
pous cuh. Sparta was something of a special case when
cal3 to gender relations: theie *o.i.r
participated
it
in athlctic contests, wenr abour to*n
bf ih;il;r,
and sometimcs even took up arms
to d#na the polis.
Evln in Spqrq howevcr, mcn were family
aurhorities,
'
and nrcn done determ[ned
Utency was
,tat poti.io.
comriron
upper_class Grcek
women, end a few womcn "morrg
.rrrr.J re-p-utations for lit_
fuplho .cnrytalcnt. Most famous ofthim was the poet
Jappno, who was active during
the
around6(X) r.c.e.
years
Sappho, probably *ito* from
an
aristocratk-family, invited yo""g' "
*oi.n
inro her
tromc rcr rnsrucdon in music and
literature. Critics
chargcdl hcr
*ith
homosexual activity,
*J
n.,
suryiy_
ing versc spcal$ ofher strong ptyri.Jr,rraction
ro
voung wlrmen. Gree k society readily
tolerated sexuJ
relationships betwcen men bur
no*r,.j on female
h.omgsexulity.fu a resulr, Sappho f.ti,rrra.,
a moral
cloud,.and only fragment of fr., p"*ylr*i*.
tamilies with ex tcn sive la ndholdin
gs
^nsrocratrc
could
afforrd to provide girls with
tbr*J educarion,
bur in lcs privilcged famities .Il h""J;;;tributed
"
to
thc wclfarc of the household. in ,r.r."1
f"_ili.s, men
pcrformd most of the outside *uort,
,ufrit. women
rook care of domestic chores and rvove
rvool
In artisan familics living in th. pot.ir,toi, textiles.
_.n
\r'omen o,&cn participated in
"r,a
busincsses and main_
raincd stasds or booths in thc mrkc,pt....
Throughout the Grcek rvorld,
socictics' shvery was a promincnt
",
in
",i.,
classical
nlcans of mobilizing-labor. Slavcs camc fiom scvcral
diftbrenr
Drkgrounds. Somc cntcrcd slavery
bccausc
thcr co$.d not pay thcir dcbts. Mrny,r;;.
soldiers
capturcd in war. A largelumber camc
from
Sleecrl
thc pco_
ples u,ith whom thc Grccks tradcd:
,t*. m"rt.t .r
!la1k &a ports sotd seminomadi. S.wtiin, caprurcd
in Russia, and Egyptians proviclcd Ani..iri"r.r.
B.c.E.
To
500
c.r
Greek law regarded all slaves
as the private chattel
property of their owners, and
the .o.rdiio.r, of slaves,
tives depended on the
*J;;';;;.."ment
of
In general,"".a,
fro*.u.., Jil;i;;.rr;
:y:I.
special skills fared befter than
orrUt"J ,i"u.r. A slave
named pasion, for example,
worked n rir, , porr.,
then
m.i
as a clerk at a prominent
"rra
atnenlan Uank during
the late fifth and early fourth
;;;;r;...r.
UIti-
nrarely. Pasion gained his freedom,
,""t
"*.
manage-
ment of the bank, outfitted five
wanhifs from his
pocket, and won a granr ofAthenian.i?r."rfrp. own
t
l'
t,
&
o
o
ri
Je
THr CulruRAL
T
LIFE
br
oF CLASSICAL GREECE
A
During the eighth and seventh centuries
B.c.E., as
Greek merchanm ventured,hr""gh;;;
J.
u.ai,.r_
basin, they became acquainted
with the so_
I11.T
pnlstrcated cultural,traditions
of Mesopotamia and
They lcarned astronomS science,
ISyp,.
mathemat_
ci
tC
ics, medicine, andmagic
fr"-,fi;"by]i}ri;,
aswell
as geomers medicing and
divination from the
Egyptians- Thcy also ar.* i"rpir"JJ"
from thc
myths- religious beliefs, ,r,
*l
,.chitectural
-"rifi,
stytes of Mesopotamia *d
Egyp;. Ab;;ioo r...r.
they adapted the phoeni.i";6h;;ii"
,rr.i,
language. To the phoeniciail;;;r;;;"ts owrl.,*
they
added symbots for vowets and
thus ;;;;;;;;
exceptionalty flexible system fb. ;;;;;ijig
i,r_rn
speech in written form.
-During thc fifth
and_fourth cennints B.c.E.,
rhe
^
Grceks combined rhose
borro*.a.."f*rJelements
with their own intellect.r"t interesi,
,J'J"uorrr. .
rich cultural tradition tt rt .*.r.i..a
."*i.,"r,
irnr_
encc in
the Mediterran^ean basin and
*;;;
Europe.
The most disti.ctive f.","..
of .i*ri."i 6*.t.rr
ture was thc effort to construct
a consistent systcm
of philosophy based purely
"" i;;;;;;
Rationat Thought and philosophy
Thcpivotal figure in thc development
of philosophy
r.c.r.), ,f,orgn?.i'Athenian
"
jrivc.n by a powcrful urge to understand
human bc_
ings in all. thcir complciity.
S"..",.;;iJ;;
commit his thoughilo writing,
but his d.iscil sotates
plc Plato latcr comooscd diallgues
,fr"ffir.r.n,"a
vicws. He ,ugg.stcd that honor
focmtes'
was frr morc
rmportant than u,calth, famc, or
othcr rrp..fi.i.l
was Socratcs (47C-S9g
"r_
bt
3l
di
('ll.\l'lliRS lltlll)l ll:RRAN|ANS(Xlllil-\'ttNl)l'.R l'lllr(iRl:l.lKSANl)]'H11 R()l\tAlis
rttcl
vcs'
t ()l
trilrr,rtcs. Hc scorrrcd thosc rvlro prctl.rrctl lrulrlic rrcco-
htlcs to lx'rs()nal intcgril\'. antl lrc insistcd ()n lllc nccd
t() rcflcct on thc purp()scs .rrrtl golls of liti.. "'l'lrc un-
l4l
S()cratcs' inflrrcncc survived in tlrc u'ork o('his
rrr()st zcal()us tlisciplc, Plato (4.30-3{7 n.t:.t,.), end in
r8c-
otrlig:rtion to strivc krr' 1'r('151111;rl intcgrin', trclravc lronor:rblt' tos'lrr'l ()thcrs, rrrrtl srrrk trlu'rrrtl tlrc corrstrtrc-
Pllto's clisciplc Arisrotlc (384-.122 $.c.h..). In- h, t'tato
spircd bv his nrcnt,,r's rcflcctions, I'hto chborirtcd a svstcntrti. phikrs<lphv of grcat subtlctr'Hc prcscntcd his thought in a scrics of dilklgucs in
s'hich S()cr:rtcs fiqtrrctl irs thc principll spcakcr. As
tirnc prasscd, Plir() sr:ldrrallv fbrmuhtcd his thurghr
itrto a svstcntrrtic visiorr of tlrc urrrlel irnd hu.mJr]
)\\'11
tion olrr just socicir'.
s()cict)'.
iscd
lavc
cxlnrincrl lili' is not
.urd
hckl, irnplvirrg thlt
s'orth living." hc
'ing
tlti-
lrtrnr:rrr ['rcirrrls
hltl
In cllt'rrlrltitrg th()sc vicu's. Socr.rtcs olicrr
irn
su[r-
jcctccl trlrlition:rl cthic:rl tc.rchings to critic.rl scnrrinr'.
'l'h.rt outrlrtcrl solnc ol- his fi'llorv citizcrrs, s'lr<r
,es
tcrso-
lnd
l'rrotrglrt hirn to trial on clt.trscs that hc c()rnrPtc('l thc
.\tl'rcnian \'()utlls rvlro ioinctl hint in thc nrrrrkctpllcc
to disctrss nroral and crirical issucs. A jurv of'Arhcniirn
citizcns clecidcd that Socrltcs haci indcccl plssctl thc
tnunds of propricn,rrnti condemncd hinr to clcirrh. In
399 g.t:.t.. Socratcs tlrank ir p()tion of henrltxk slp and
died in thc contpanv of his fiiends.
llatwell
the
the
ural
C.E.
)wn
hey
iepnan
the
that thc rr'r>rld in rvhich u,c live is not thc u'orld od'gcnuine realiry, but onlv a prale and impcrfLct reflection of
the world of Fornrs rlr Ielcas. The secrcts of thisr*,orld,
Plato'argued, wcrc available only to philosophersthose who applied their rational facultics to thc pursuit of wisdom.
Though abstract, Plato's thought had impo,rtant
political and social implications. In his dtalogw Tbe
Republic, for example, Plato argued that sincc $dloso
phers werb in the best position to understand ulrirnate
realiry they would also be the bcst rulers. In cffcct,
Plato advocated an intellectual aristocracy: the philosophical elite rvould rule, and less intclligentclasses
rvould rvork at functions for which dreir talents best
During the generation after Plato, Aristodr claborated a systematic philosophy that equaled
Arisatle
Plato's work in its long-term irrflu.rr... Urrlike Plato, Aristode believed that philosophen could
,flu)pe.
cultem
rely on their senses to provide accurate informarion
about the world and then depend on rcason ro sort
out its mysteries. Aristotle explored the naturc of reality in subde metaphysical works, and he devircd rigorous rules of logic in an effort to construct pon'erful
and compelling arguments. His rvork providcd such
a coherent and comprehensive vision of thc rvorld
that his later disciples called him *the masrer of those
u,ho know."
phv
rian
belocrates
lore
I at-
[ris {heort'
suited them.
ints
tea
rted
'fhc corrtcrstonc olt l)llto's th<xrglht rvls
rtt'Fornrs, or Irlc.ts. lt rlisttrrbccl Phto thrt hc coultl
not gain satistrrctorv intcllcctual control ()\"cr thc
u'rlrld. Thc quelitr' of virtuc, firr cxerrrplc, ntcarrt dit-tcrcnt things in tiitli'rcnt situations, ls did honcsn',
c()uragcr tnlth, incl [rc:tun'. Hotv $'as it lxxsiblc. thcn,
to undcrstand virttrc ts an abstract qualiw? In sccking
iln ans\\'cr to thit cplcstion, Plrto dcvcl<lpcd his bclicf
Tradition holds that Socrares was not a physically
attractive man, but this statue emphasizes his
sincerity and simpliciw.
The Greek philosophers deeply influenced the development of European and Islamic cultural rradirions.
Until the seventeenth century c.E., most European
philosophers regarded the Greeks as intellectual authorities. Christian and Islantic theologians alike s'ent
L42
PARS
2 I THE FORMATION
OF CI-ASSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO B.C.E. TO
5OO C.E.
rog
tion
todc
othe
In
oflis co'rliut d'iolog*cs,The Apology, Pl*to offered an
accotnt of socratel defc{ of hirusetf dting
bcfon t ioy of Athcnian citizcns'
*i
had conpicted.
thc
pow
oac
r*tt,t
lim nni
iary
'lper
gdcatb ond. rcempbariud. bis commitmerrt
to eirt .c
hisffial
cond.emud.
;ar;;;;;;;
him to d.eoth, sorntes rcflccted. on
wenrth orfame.
Pot
ISE
And if rvc reflect in another way we shall sec that
ye mayxcll hope that death is a good thing. For
the satc ofdeath is one of trro thiogr, cith"er the
dead meri wholly ceases to be and lo-ses all sensa_
ti3n; or, ac5ording to the corrmon belief, it is a
clange and a migration of the soul unto another
tlr.: AS f death is the absence of all sensation,
like the Cacp of one whosc slq4beo
by any drcans, it will bc a wondeifi{
Tl.T tt{i
-fd.r"
soundly
thet
man
*Ui"t.i
"r"
eai;. For if a
ilggt in wh,id ti6. jl6pt ,o
he did noif,-v..eq see any dreams,'and
tooryarc wittr it _q+ the, othgr,nighs hdj..d"*
ollriiffq,rlrdthenhidio'iathovt_rq;i:,.;r*X;
had
nights"
ip"tltife
antly-gan ff-s
- mYr'
]ra;.ii'rie"rI ftink tn", *;J;r"- ;'*^.
he ha{ s[epr,better
nisht
do not put men to death for doing that. For
besides
the other ways in which they arJhappier than
we
are, they are immortal, at least if the common
be_
lief be true.
And you too, judges, must face death with a
good courage, and believe this as a truth,
that no
wil can happen to a good man, eitherin life. *
death. His fornrncs ar:.not ncglcctcd blthc "R.,
gods,
and what has come'to i1c. tody t
,rJtio-. Uy
chancc. I am persuadcd that it is Letter
"" for me to ai.
now-, and to be releascd from trouble.
. . . And so
I
hI4lLP{Y-.Y*"+y
my arcusers, or with fhose
:T
yr" Yij,*!$:*:S".gS, . a". vJ it.,,*'I". *i r,
.
ncome,
OnIy to
findda'ii:
nurhxflfiffiffi:ffiffii
ffiHHiflW
il;i-"';;'fr;
vexed y.ou lgthey dai:nfto you to
*
.r
'
for any.tliqg. othepr$,g,virtuc:
".
,ht ;;-gr.".
mln when
fact they ar worthless.
worl!, A"d tf6;;[ do this, rinmpelf
my sons will
sii h*o ;;ir"d our deserts at yourand
hands. But now
hap- ,h. dd;lo-,.rrd *" must go hence r to d"ie,
t1il ;i;;;',;li-"". whcthcrlife
"' is bettcr is
ttey h;fi;"ebd,;;;-a;j:;ir: oideath
Hop dm &ttta, tndtstanding of pcnonal
morality and
Butlhi*, *trd Hindr picps dirrersai in crrlicr
its ttpards compan
cbcptcn?
f$ffil
;;'6" ;;*
if Oey-tt i"t
;;,;i6T:;H:1ffi?#*LS-Xf*"JJH
"na
d*.*,^ "ri*fi; rh"T." Ii;; r"pillrrgrc"6rnot
f A;fr;at thcy,h;JJ;;;r thinkins thar
"qg
thc comm belierbe truc,,il
dwcll thcrqwhat goodcourd be greater
mv judgcsl would a jourhev not
worth
at thc cnd of it' in thc other world, we
should"be
releascd from thc self'styled;udges
of this
and should find thc true judges iho
said to
in judgmcm bclowt
' ' ' ti wJua be an ir,finiie
piness to converse with them, and
to [r"
them, and tocxamine them. Assureayocrc
abor
and
I' ckch' trrns' T,, Tliel ud Dcatb osw,,a2nd cd. London:
etd cor**t vith
.
Beca
an
a,
Popt
Deities
sive,
begt,
wtric
thinl
th.y
ral p
biae
ofth
of th
score
. :.-
.
for
e:
bilrEr
OPPC
veng,
t
myth
Rcligio'
vidu:
. comr
varie,
speci.
one s
spirc,
frenz
t--
tbc
hnertriat,
.
polci
Tlngic )
Macnriuan, 1886, pp. 2G78.
(Tru,,Ltion slightty
religi
of pl,
ttre t'
trans
Grcci
dicn.
(]HAT'TF:R
Jllt
I
It I
I\,tb]I)IT}:RRANFAN SOCIETY UNI)I.]R THT, GRI.:IiKS
to grcat lcngths ro lrarnronizc thcir rcligious convictions rvith thc philosophical vicn's of Plato and Aristotlc. Thus, likc philosophical and rcligiotrs figurcs in
othcr classical socictics, Plato and Aristotlc providcd a
pow.crful intcllccttral tranrcu,ork that shapcd thought
about thc u'orld and hunran affairs for nvo millcnnia
and nrorc.
ANI)'I'I{I] R()I\TANs
I{3
Thc grcat uagcdians-Acsch,vlus, Sophoclcs, and Euripidcs-rvhosc livcs spanncd thc 6fth ccnturv B-c.E.,
cxplorcd the possihilitics and linritrtions of human action. Comic clramatists such as Aristr4rhancs elrc dcalt
with scrious issucs of human strivirrg and rcsponsiblc
bchavior by ridiculing the foiblcs of promincnt public
figurcs ancl calling attention t() rlic absurd conscquenccs of ill-considercd action.
Popular Religiorr and Greek Drama
Becausc most Grccks
olthc
classical era did rlot have
an advanccd educltion, they turncd
.l
)
r
,i,
v
I
i1
,
.)
,l
v
e
r
K
.t
,t
t
ll
,
s
to traditions of
popular culturc enrl 1'ropular religion rathcr than phito scck guidance for human behavior.
Deities
' -IP:"01,
he Grecks did not rccognizc a single , exclusive, all-pou,erful g<xl. Rather, they believed that in the
beginning therc rvas the formless void of chaos out of
rvhich cmerged the earth, the,mother and creator of all
things. Thc earth then generated rhe sky and together
thel'produced night, da1,, sun, moon, and other natural phenomena. Struggles between the deities led to
bitter heavenly batdes, and ultimately Zeus, grandson
of the earth and sky gods, emerged as paramount ruler
of the divine realm. Zeus's hcavenly court included
scores of subordinate deities who had various responsibilities: the god Apollo promoted wisdom and justice,
for example; the goddess Fortune brought unexpected
opportunities and difficulties; and the Furies wre'aked
vengeance on those who violated divine law.
Like religious traditions in other lands; Greek
my'ths sought to explain the world and the forces that
shape it' They served also as foundaReligioas Cults
uons for religious cults based on individual poleis that contributed to a powerful sense of
community in classical Greece . These religious cults
varied widcly: many conducted ritual obscrvances in
special places, for example, and some were open to only
one sex. Before the fifth century B.c.E., many cula inspired emotional displays and spirited-sometimes
frenzied----song and dance.
During the fifth cenrury B.c.E., however, as the
poleis strengthened their grip on public and political
life',the religious cults became progresTrngic Dratno
sively more tame . Instead of festivals,
religious cults marked the year u,ith the presentation
of plays that examined relations between humans and
the gods or reflected on ethics and morality. That
transformation set the stage for the emergence of
Greek dramatic literarure, rvhich sought to engage audiences in subtle reflection on complicated themes.
Hellenistic Philosophy aird Religion
fu thc Hcllenistic
cmpires scizctl rhc plirical initiarir c
in the Mediterrancan basin and cclipsccl rhe prolcis, rcsidcnts ceased to regard their polis as thc fcrus of individual and religious lovdties. Instcad, thev increasinglr'
looked toward cultural and religious rlternadlcs that
ministercd to the needs and intcrcsrs o[indiriduals lir'ing in a cosmopolitan socieqr
The most popular Hellenistic philosophcrs-thc
Epicureans, the Skeptics, and the Stoics-addressed
individual needs by searching for per-
r.,r".l{8ry_:.::
*tr;:ffiX
sonal tranquiliry and
ans, for example, identified pleasure as
the greatest good. By pleasure thev meant not unbridled hedonism but, rather, a state of quict sadsfaction
that would shield them from the pressures of rhc Hcllenistic world. Skeptics refused to r& strongpositions
on political, moral, and social issues bccause thev
doubted the possibility of certain knowledge . The rnoat
respected and influential of the Hellehistic philosophers, however, were the Stoics. Unlikc ttrc Epicurearu
and the Skeptics, the Stoics did not seek ro uithdras'
from the pressures of the world. Rather, tlrev taught
that individuals had the duty to aid others and lead rirtuous lives in harmony with reason and naturcWhereas the philosophcrs' doctrines appealcd to cducated elites, religions of salvation spread across the
trade routes of the Hellenistic emoires and
enjoyed surging populariry in rrlu.nirti RcliSions
of
fu'ltation
society. Mystery religions promised etemal
bliss for initiates who observed their rites and lired in
accordance with their docrines. Some of these friths
spread across the trade routes and found fbllos'ers far
from their homelands. The Egyptian cult of Osiris, for
example, became extraordinarily popular bccause it
Aeschylus ( ES-kuh-luhs)
Epicureans (ehp-ih-KYOOR-eeuhns)
Stoics (STOH-ihks)
I44
PART
2 I THE FORMATION OF CLASSICAL SOCIETIES,
promised salvation for those who led honorable
Lives.
lulg from Pcnia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Greece
alsd attracted discipla tfroughour Ai Hellenistic
world.
Many of the mystery religions involved the worship
of^a savior whose death and resurrection would
lead
the way to eternal salvation for devoted followers.
Some philosophers and religious thinkers speculated
that a single, universal god might rule the enti.e urriverse , and that thls god had a plan for
the salvation of
all humankind. Uks the Hellenistic philosophie!,
rhen,
religiors of salvation addressed the interests of individ_
uals searching for scurity in a complex world.
Indeed,
those interests continued to be ofioncern to peoples
in the Meditcranean basin long after political domi_
nance passed frorn the Greek to the Italian peninsula.
Ronar: Fnou Krrvtroorvr
-
ro REpuBLtc
Foundgd in thc eighth century B.c.E., the city
of Rome
yas,origrnally a snrall city-state ruled by a single king.
I1 509 B.c.E., howwer, the city's aristocrats a.por.Ia
the king, cnded thc monarchy and instituted
a repub_
Iic-a form of govcrnment in which delegates reprc_
senr the inrcrests ofvarious consdtuencies.
the Roman
republic survived f,or morc than five hundred years,
and
it was dndcr thc rcpublican constirurion tfi"t R"_.
came to establish itself as the dominant power
in the
Mediterranean basin.
The Etruscans and Rome
According to lcgend, the city of Rome rvas founded
by
Romulus, wha-alcng with his nvin bro*rer,
Rcmus_
was abandoned as r baby by an evil uncle
near the
Rom*las floodcd Tiber River. Before the infants
and R.cmus could drovn, a kindly she_rvolf found rhem
and nurrd them to health. Thc boys grov
strong and courageous,
and in 753 s.c.r. Rom-
ulus foundcd thc ciry
and esmblished hinrscif
nor,.,fri:ff:ffi
Modcm schorars do
t"r., but
thcy do agrce thar bonds oflndo-European
nrigrants
5OO S.C.r.
TO
5OO C.E.
cupied much of the Italian peninsula, including
the fu_
ture site of Rome itself. Bronze metallurgy
appeared
about 1800 n.c.s. and iron about 900 s.clr.
Etruscans, a dynamic people, dominated
much
^_The
of Italy between the eighth
nni, centuries B.c.E.
""a
The Etruscans probably migrated
to
Italy from Anatolia. They settl"ed n rt
i"
The Etvuscans
tcrranean rvorld.
The Roman Republic
and lts Constitution
When thc R<>mln nobility dcposcd thc
last Erruscan
ling and replaccd him with a ,.puUfic, tt Uuilt th.
Roman fortrm at thc hcart of thi ciry_a political
"r,
and
civic ccnrcr fillcd rvith tcmplcs a.r.l r--'
public buildings rvhcrc lcadine cidzcns F'stablisbmcnt
tcndcd to govcrnmEnt businiss. They of thc Rcprblh
crossed thg Alps and semlcd throughout
the Italian
pcninsula bcginning about 2000 r.clr.
Ukc thcir distant cousins in Indie, Grcece, and northcrn
Europc,
th-csc migrrnts btcndcd with thc ncolithic
inhabitants
also instinrtcd a rcpubtican constitution
that cntrustcd
cxecudvc rcsponsibilitics to trvo consuls u,ho
uicldcd
tribal fedcrations. Shcephcrden and small farmcrs
tx_
Etruscans
oL t!c- rgSion, adoptcd agriculrurc,
and cstablirh"d
.r"---.".'*
rePl
reas
pub
and
can dominance, trade roures d"parts of Italy
"it society
cgnverged on Rome. When Etruscan
de_
clined, Rome was in a suong position
to plav a morc
prominenr role both in Italy and in
the largcr Medi_
1
ih
-'tRUHS-kuhns)
face
lead
sixth-century B.c.E., however, the Euuscans
encoun_
rancan by way of the Tiber River, but
rirrc. it was not
on the coasr, it did not run thc risk of invasion
or at_
tack from the sea. Already during the period
of Etrus_
the
Po\\
tered a series of challenges frorn other peoples,
and
their society began to decline.
The Etruscans dceply influcnced thc early
development of Rome. Like the Etruscan cities,
Rome was
a monarchy during the early days after
its foundation, and several Roman kings Tbe Kinfldom
were EEuscans. The kings ruled Rorn'e
of Romc
through the seventh anJ sixth cenruries r.c.E.,
and
they provided the ciry with pavcd ,r...rr,
public
irrg. ,.-pt.r.
Etruscan merchanm drew a largc vol;ne
of ralfic
to Rorne,9*k partly to the ciryl geographical
ad_
vantages. Rome enjoyed ."ry
,-h. M.dit.r_
"...rrlo
Ron
The
offi,
soon controlled mu.ch of Italy. They builr
thrivini
cities and established political ,nd eco.romic
alliances
between their settlements. They manufactured
high_
quality bronze and iron goods, and they
worked gild
and-silver into jewelry. They built a fleetld
tradeJ ac_
tively in the western Mediterranean. During
the late
wjls,
ASSE
arist
Tuscany, the region around modern Florence,
but they
buildings, defensive
civil
sent
Arrfli,
Portc,
Plcbcit
the
€Il€r
of tl
rigt
sent
nall
_.
cver
Ven(
tov
APP
plcb
_-l
(:l-1.'\l!'l'ER
tl I llLI)l'l'b.RlL{N}..\N s()(:tlilt' t'\..l)l,t( lltt.
civil ancl militart, p()\\'cr. C<lnsuls u,crc clcctctl lrv an
asscmbly donrinatccl br. thc s'calthv chsscs, knorvrr in
Romc as thc patricirns, lnd tlrcv scn.cc.l ()nc-\'cilr tcnns.
Thc porvcrfirl Scnltc, s'hosc nrcnthcrs r,'..rc rn()sttv
aristocrats u,itlr cx tcrrsivc pol i tical cxpcric rrcc, ldviscd
sc4ns
.'\'
r8
cs
1t-
td
thc consuls and rltificd all nrajor dccisiorrs. Whcn
fhccd with criscs, lrclrvcvcr, thc Ronrirns appointctl irn
official, known irs :r clictator, s'ho u.icltictl irbs<llutc
lxrwer for a tcrrrr olsix nronths. l]t'pr<lviclinu tirr strong
lc.rdcrship during rinrcs of cxrraordinirrv clitlictrln', thc
rcpublican c()nstituti()n cnablccl Ronrc to nr:riut:rin :r
rcirsonat'lly stablc socicn' thnrugl'rout nt()st of rhc rcpublic's histr>rr,.
Because thc consuls and thc Scnatc l.roth rcprcsentcd the intcrcsts of thc patricians, tllcrc \\'as c()nstat.rt
Conflict betpeen
Patricians and.
Plebeions
,dom
'.omc
d
ic
tcnsion bcnvccn thc u'calthv cl:rsscs
and thc con'lmon pc<>plc, kn<ln'n as
drc plcbcians. Indeed, during rhc carlv
fifth ccnturv B.{:.E., relations bctrvccn
the classcs bccante so strained that thc plebcians thrcatened to secede fiom Rome. To nraintain rhc inregiitt,
of the Roman state, rhe pauicians grantcd plebeians rhe
right to elect officials, known as tribunes, rvho rcpresented their interess in the Roman governmenr. Originally plebeians chose rwo tribunes, but the number
eventllally rose to ten. Tribunes had the po\\/cr to intervene in all political mafters, and they possessed the right
to veto measures that they judgid unfair.
Although tensions between the classes never disappeared, during the fourth century n.c.e. plebeians
plcbeians (plih-BEE-uhns)
(;REl-.Ks ANt)'t'HF.
R()t\tANs 145
l'tcclnrc cligitrlc to lrold nlnrost :rll statc tfliccs and
gainctl thc right t<l havc onc of thc consuts somc
tionr thcir r.rnks. Ilt' tlrc c.rrlv tlrird ccnturr', plctrciarrclonrinltctl :rsscrntrlics \\r)n thc p()\\'cr to makc dcci-
sions t'rintlinq on rrll <lf Ronrc. 'l'hus, likc fifth-ccnturY
Athcns, rc1'ru['rlicln Ronrc glrldr.rallv br<ladcncd thc
blsc of
1'roliric.rI p:rrticipation.
The Expat-lsion of the Republic
Rcnvccn thc lirrrrth and scc<lncl ccnturics B.(--r-., thc
1'rc<lplc of'lkrnrc transfirnuctl thcir cin' trom a small
.rtrrl vulncrlt)lc cir\'-st:ttc to thc ccntcr of an cnornrous
ctupirc. 'l'lrcr' [',cgln bv consoliclaring thcinpos'cr in
tlrc Italian pcninsula itsclf. Inciccd, lrv the larcr firurth
ccnturv thcv h:rtl cmcrged as thc prcdorninant [xxvcr
in thc Italian pcninsull. Rontan succcss in thc pcninsula rvirs pirth' a tnattcr of militafv pos'cr and partll' a
nlattcr <>f gcncrous policics tou'ard thc peoplcs thcv
conquercd. Instcad of ruling thcnr as vanquishcd subjects, thc R<>nr.rns allorvcd conquercd pcople ro go\'ern their internal affairs as long as rhey provided
military support and did not enter into hostile alliances. In addition, conquered peoples werc allorved
to trade in Romc, to take Roman spousesr and cven
to gain Roman citizenship. These policies horh provided Rome rvith essential support and eascd the pain
ofconquest.
With Itdy under its control, Rome begao to play a
major role in the affairs of the larger Meditcrrancan
basin and to expcrience conflicts u,ith other ltleditcrranean po\\'ers. The principal porver in the u-cstcrn
Ruins of thc Roman tbrum,
whcre political kadcrs
conductcd publie atiiirs
during the era ofdre
republic, still sterd toda11
rcnt
blie
I
I
t#
PART2 | THE FOR&IATION OF
CI^A,SSICALSOCIETIES,5O0
B.c.E. TO S00 c.n.
of
tio
ec(
o!\
ow
to
tio;
Citil
po.
l.g
sult
B.C
Ror
ing
M?84
Tcrritod- of thc Boman rqrublic to
133
why migtt thc acguisition
oft
much
*..i.o.y
r,"u.
. k'rr..
r'c''. Notice that some of is,territorics
"r.ctcd
wcre quitc distant aom the
city of Rome.
thc political sebility of the republicf
Mcditcrranean during thc fourth
and third ccnturies
B.c-E was thc city_sae of Carrhagc,
located near mod_
F-rpansion in tt* 13 Tunis. Originaly established-as a
Midi**rznca, t hoenicr.an- colony, Carthage enjoyed
a straregic location that cnabted
ii to
tradS.actively droughouith.
wealth gcnerated bv
o*.t.
f.o_ th.
-I;g.;;;;
.o*.r..,
$s
the dominant polidcal power
ir,
(excluding Egypt), thc southem p*
";;;Hca
ru.ril" peninsula,
frA.At
and thc westcrn region of gr"irr_.i.f3-[ily
"rrrr.
as well.
Meanwhile, thc three Hellelnistc
._pir..
thar
suc_
ceedcd
Alexandcr of Macedon
the castern Mcditerranean.
.""d";;J;
dominatc
Econonric and oolitical compctition
brought thc
Romans inro conflict with
Carthage first. Betwecn
Tbc prnic Wan 2,64 and .146 n.c.r., th.y fought three
devastating conflicts known
as thc
Punic
Crr*Igi"i*;. il,.-i"r"tryended
aftcr Roman fbrces subjcc-tcd
C"riir"g.'r" a long
siegc,-c-onqucrcd
Wars rvith thc
and
Ur.r.J
,t,.'.'iay?
forccd
somc fifty th.usandsurvivors
""aThc Ro_
into,i;;;
mans thcn :rrrncxed Carthagini.o
porJ.rrion, in
north AFica rnd lbcria_richln
*ine, silSJ"l
vcr, and goltl-rnd uscd thosc
"ii, financc
.;";;.;,"
continucd
inrpcrial cxpansion.
Shortly rftcr thc bcginning of
the Carthaginian
Ronrc bccam....U.o#a t";;rfil
!n$..,
with thc
Antigonids
and thc Sclcucids
l" ,h;
;;*r"
r . -r.i .::,:.2:+i ;t :ij_;
Mcdircr-
ranean. Benvccn
2lf
l4g r.c.r., Rome fought five
major wars, mosdv inT9
Maccdon *,ia"rirrra, against
these opponen*..L I resutt
of *r.r"
emerged as the preemincnt po*.,
as the western Mediterrancan
by the
ond cenrurv B.c.E.
.".Ai.,",
Rome
i,'tt. .it rr, ., *[
;dA;A;,*_
Fnona Repueuc
ro
ts. un
qu
al dis tri bu ti-on
as bcne-
;i ;;;
;;g;;;",. a .r
tcnsions and gavc risc to conflict
"r,
ou."r"poiiti."t ,rra
social policics. Meanwhif.,
tr,.
conquered lands efficiently
"..J,ila_inir,..
straincd
tt. .Jpr.iti., of
the republican constitufr"".
orJ"g
century
B.c.E. and the first century
c.r., Roiran civil and mile
il il.
:,,y..[10:*gradualry.dis-*,r.J*.I"*ti."n.on_
sururron
and imposcd a ccntralized
i_p*irf form of
governmcnr on the city of
Romc and its
.rnpir..
lmperial Expansion
and Domesflc problems
In Ronrc, as in classical China and
Grcecc, pafterns
ofland distribution causcd serious
pofi-j..f
rcnsions. Conquercd tanas
reP
forr
Th
Iuli
and
fcri
B.C.
sPe
r
Spe
t
wilr
EMptRE
Imperial expansion brought
wealth and
Rome, but thesc broughtirobl;;;r-;:il power to
fi
ina:
La.o.irf
fcliarglty;;; tc nanas
and
mer
hclg
irrg
Gau
gro\
j
itsel
man
mac
him
rath
Cac,
and
catc,
tov
laun
way
Ld6,
(ll lAl)'f l:R tl | [{l]l)11'}.RK{NEAN SO(lt}:'t'r LrNl)l.l,R THE GRIiIiKS AND THE
RO[L,Ur$ 147
of rvcalthl,clitcs, u,ho organizcd cnorntous plantari<rns kn<xvrt .ts latifundia. Bccausc thcy cnjoycd
cconontics <ll-scrrlc and oftcn cn'rprlot'cd slavc lab<lr,
()\\'r'rcrs <tf latiJitrdia opcratcd ar l()\.er costs than did
()\r'ncrs of snrrllcr holdings, u'h<> ottcn had to scll out
r() thcir u'caltlricr ncighbors.
Drrring thc sccond and first ccnturics B.(:.8,., rchtions bcnvccn thc classcs bccamc so straincd that thcy
lcti to violcnt social conflict and civil rvar.
Ctvtl war Ronrarl politicians
and gcncrals jockeycd fbr
p()\\'cr in support of eithcr social rcfirrm or thc privilcgccl prosition of'thc u'calthv clircs, rvith bloodv rcsults on both siclcs. By'thc middlc of thc first ccnrur),
R.c.r.., it had bcconrc incrcasinclv clear that thc
Roman rcpublic \\,as not suitablc fbr a large and grouing empire . In rhis chaotic contcxr Gaius ]ulius Cacsar
inauguratcd thc process by rvhich Rome replaccd its
rcprublican constitution.,:s{th a ccntralizcd imperial
tirrnr of govcnln)cnt.
The Foundation of Empire
fivc
inst
rnle
,r,ell
jcc-
to
leass
nd
ter
of
rry
ril,n-
of
ns
)ulius Caesar recognized the need for social reform
and favored liberal policies that would ease the suf-
ring of the poor. During the decade of the 60s
B.c.E., he played an active role in Roman politics. He
spent enormous sums of money sponsoring public
fe
spectacles-such as battles between gladiators and
wild animals-which helped him build a r€putation
and win electioh to posts in the republican government. This activiry kept him in the public eye and
helped to publicize his interest in social reform. During the next decade Caesar led a Roman army ro
Gaul, which he conquered and brought into the stillgrowing Roman empire.
In 49 s.c.r. Caesar turned his army toward Rome
itself after conservative leade rs in the city sought to
maneuver him out of power. By early 46 s.c.r. he had
made himself master of the Roman state and named
himself dictator-an office that he claimed for life
rather than for the constitutional six-month term.
Caesar then centralized military and political functions
and brought them under his ou,n control. He confiscated property from conservatives and distributed it
to veterans of his armies and other supporters. He
launched large -scale building projects in Rome as a
way to provide employment for the urban poor. He
;al
ls
latifundia ( lah-tee-FOON-dya)
A bust oflulius Cacsar dcpicts a rim conqucror
a canny political leader.
also extended Roman citizenship to pcoples in the imperia.l provinces.
Caesar never had the chance to conrclidate his goverrunent, however, because in 44 s.c.r. members ofthe -
in thc A*$aa*s
Insread,
Roman elite stabbed him to dcath
hopes of reestablishing the republic.
they plunged Rome into thirtecn more )'qlrs of civil
conflict. When the struggles *a.a, po\rrcr bclonged to
Octavian, Caesar's nephew and adoptcd son. In a naval
batde at Actium in Greece (31 r.c.e.), Octavian dcfeated his principal rival, MarkAntony t{ro had joined
forces with Cleopatra, last of the Ptolemaic rulers of
E$pt. He then moved quickly to consolidate his rule .
In 27 s.c.e. the Senate bestowcd on him dre tide Augustus, a term with strong religious connotations suggesting the divine or semi-divine nature of its holder.
Augustus's government wa$ a monarchy disguised
as a republic. F{e preserved uaditional republican offices and forms of government and included members of the Roman elite in
74'*-lusttls's
A4r6trrtf,tratton
rus goverruIent whrle at the sarne tune
fundamentally altering the nature of that goverrunent.
r48
PART
2 I THE FORMATION
OF CI.{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO g.C.r.
TO
He accum 'leted vast powers for himself and
ulti_
mately took responsibility for all important
govern_
mentel functbns. He reorganized the
military system,
creating a nry shnding army with gommanders
who
o-wed zllegiarc directly to himself.
He also was care_
ful to place individuals loyal to him in
i_por,".r.
positions.
his forty-five years of "ii
virtu"lly .r.r_
Brirg
opposed rulc,Augustus fashioned an
imperial gov_
ernmetrt thatguided Roman affairs for
the next three
ccnturies.
Continuing Expansion and
lntegration of the Empire
During thc tryo centuries following Augustus,s
rule,
conquered distant l;ds ;d;tegrated
P*T r-"i?
S:*
a hrger economy and society.
a, i., frigt,
poin: T9
eri:rg$. *ly sccond cenrury
,t. Roman
empirecmbra d mugh ofBriain *a ".i.,
.""ri"."al Eu_
n
rope
as
5OO C.r,.
well
as a con_
tinuous belt of
al
posses_
of the Roman
srons surrounding the
Mediterranean and ex-
e,
a
tending to rich agricultural regions
inland, including
Mesopotamia.
Within the boundaries of the Roman
empire it_
self,.a long era of peace-fu1o*.,
tt.J-ni ro*rrn,
or "Roman peacer'_fa6ilitated ",a.o_ ''--Rowan Roa*
1om]c and political integration from
the first to the middle ofih" third
centu.y c.r. Like
their Persian, Chinese, Indian, *a
H.fl..irtic coun_
terparts, the Romans integrated
their empire by
building networl$ of transportation
and communica_
tion. Indeed, roads linked all parts
no_* .*_
"
stritchcd"iat
more than
hiqfrway
llf:o:.
Kilometers":,1bj:
(1,554 miles) along
2,500
the northeast imperial
frontier from the Black Sea to-,h.
Nortt S.", parallel
to the Danube and Rhine rivers. fn.
,*a, f.rmitted
urgent travel and mcssages to proceed
L
Rot,
r(
ri
d
ci
al
le
L
B
n
C(
ei
with remark_
E
T
1
si
s(
b
tl
S(
L.
tr
I
P
tr
I
,A
c
a
Cot
fut'
t
r
'
\t )-
MaP &5 t''itori.t of thc Roman
anpirc about I l7 c.8- comparc this mrp
with Maps g.3 md g.{. Noticc that
in this pcriat domiaotcd thc cntirc
thc Romrn cmpirc
Mcditcrrancan' and-'<omptcmcntcd
by its sy,stcmr ur
of roaos-flctlratcd
roads-frciriratcd conncctions
and placcs &om Briqin to Egypt.
conn,
among Jroplcs
(
I
(:llAP'rFlR
I
I Mt:t)I]'b:RRANt'lAN s(xtlt,'t
alrlc sprcctl: 'l'itrcrius, succcssor of Augustus as Ronttn
cntpcr()ri ()ncc travclcd 290 kil<lnrcters (180 nrilcs) in
singlc tliu'ovcr Rontan roads.
As lrnrics sprcad Rontirn influcncc throughout thc
trtctlitcrrrrnclrr, jurists also s'<lrkccl t() construct a rarional body of larv that would applv to all
Romatt Intt,
l)c()plcs undcr Rr>rtran rulc. f)uring drc latc
rcpublic rntl cspccially during tlrc crrrpirc, thc jurists arriculatcc.l sr:r nchrds of jusricc and grad ual applicd thcm
\,
throughorrt lkrman tcrritory. Thcv establishcd thc principlc th:rt tlctl'udants rverc innoccnt until provcn guiln,,
and tho,cnsurcd that dcfcndants had a right to challcngc thcir rccuscrs bcfbrc a judgc in a courr of lirrr..
Like transl'rr)rtation and communication ncnvorks,
Rr>man hrv helped to integratc the divcrsc lands that
madc upr rlrc enrpire, and the principles of Roman larv
continucd to shape Mediterrancan and European s<xicn'long rftcr tlte ernpire had disappeared.
rr
;lutlinu
pirc it')rtutilfi)
,rLrt Roe&
t,. l.ikc
-'c()un-
'irc
b),
:rrrnica-
iln cnl2,500
'npcrial
r
parallel
'nritted
crnark-
Ecoruorvry AND SoctETy lN
THE ROMAN MEDffERRAN.EAN
The rapid expansion of Roman influence and the imposition of Rornan imperial rule brought economic and
social cl'ranges to peoples
*roughout the Mediterranean
basin.'Good roails and the pax rl?na.nfi encouraged
trade betu.,een regions. Existing cities benefited handsomely from r}te wealth generated by trade, and in the
lands they conquered, the Romans founded new ciries
to serve as links betrveen local regions and the larger
Med.iterranean economy. Meanwhile, like most other
peoples of classical times, rhe Romans built a strictly patriarchal society and made extensive use of slave labor.
Trade and Urbanization
As.the Roman empire became more integrated, agricultural production grew increasingly commercialized
u,ell as specialized. Because it was possible to import
grain at favorable prices from lands that
Comruercial
routinely produced large surpluses, other
Agricultare
regions could concentrate on the cultivation of fruits and vegetables or on the production of
rnanuthctured items. Greece, for example, concentrated
on olives and vines, and Italy became a center for the
production of poftery,, glassrvare, and bronze goods.
Specialized production of agricultural commodiries
and manufactured goods set the stage for vigorous
trade . Sea lanes linked ports from Syria and palestine to
as
inplre
rple s
Y LINI)F.R't'ttF.
(iul,l,KS ANI) T'ilt
n()lt.{N\ 149
S1'rlin ancl north Aliicrr. Ronran nrilitan'and rraval
[x)\\'cr kcpt thc sc.as lergclv ticc of pin:cs s{} rhrt sizablc
calrq()cs cotrld rtrovc s.rtl.lr' ovcr long
Mtd"cffd"ca't
distrrrrccs. Irrtlcccl, r1.,. trl.j.lit.r..,r.rir
['rc'crrrrc csscntiallv a Ronrln lekc,
u'hidr
Tradt
tlrc ltrrnrlns callcd rran' uostrurn 1'oursc-a-).
itlrrch of tlrc lrrofir tionr trlcditcrr.rnran tratlc
to Ronrc, s'hcrc it tirclcd rcnrarkablc ur6en dcvclopnrcnt. In thc first ccrrturr'(..1..i s(lnrc
Tbc Ci4'
tcn tlr()usirnd statucs rrrrtl scvcrr hrrndretl gx*
fl<lrvcr'l
tlccrrrrrrcr.l tlrc cin'. 'l-lrc l{ornln statc
thc construction ol'
financc,l of Ronrt
tcnrplcs. barh houscs,
prtrblic buildings, st:r-
diurns, irnd, pcrhol'rs
nrost inrportant of all, irquctlucts-built sirh concrctc
inventccl bv Rornan enqinccrs-that brought trcsh
$'atcr int() thc cin'fionr rhc ncighkrirg mounr.rins.
In addition to thc spccrircular gro\\th of Ronrc.
urban grou'th and dcvc.k)pnrcnt took placc in cidcs ell
over thc cmpirc. And, ls u,calth c()nccrtrated irr the cities, urban residents carne Roman Citics
and rbcir
to expect a variery of comfbrts not avallAt*nctiotts
able in rurai areas. nor,rr,, .i.i., ;ilr'.d
abundant supplies of fiesh warer and claborate se\\age
and plumbing systems. All sizable citics and cten man\smgller towns had public barhs and oftcn srimming
pools and gymnasia
as rvell. Enormom circures, stadiums, and amphittreaters provided sitesbr thc cntertain-
ment of the urban masses. Entertainment in stadiums
often took forms now,considered cmrse and cruelbatdes to the death benveen gladiators ox benvcen
humans and wild animals-but urban populations
flocked to such events, u,hich thev looked oc as exciting diversions from dailv rourine. T}r Ronran Colosseum, a magnificent marble stadium and sporr arena
opened in 80 c.r., provided seating forabourEln- thousand spectators.
Family and Society in Roman Tirnes
Roman law vested immense authoriw in ma_le heads
of families, knou,n as the pater fami'lias-*farher of
the fhnil,l'." Roman law gave the poterfamfra.'the authorio, to arrange marriages for his children.
determine the rvork or duties thev would Tbe Pater
Fomitias
perform, and punish ,h.;fir;"4;*r:;;
had rights also to sell them into slaverv and er-en to
execute them.
pa*r fami I ias ( PAH-tehr f ah-MEE-lvas)
I5O
.
PART
2 I THE FORMATION OF CT,{SSICAI SOCIETIES,
Although the pater fanilias
was legally endowed
with extraordinary powers, women or,l"ily supervised
domcstic affairs in Rgman households,'andby the
time they reached middle age they g.r.r"lly *ietaea
considerablc influence within their families.
Also, al_
though Roman law placed strict limits on rhe aUitity
ofwomen to receive inheritances, clever individuals
foundwa5nsto evade the law. During the third
and sec_
ond senturics B.c.E.
dear
f, f;:h:1T:"ffiT:'j :flX;
the
orp.operty,#
worncn supervised
financial affairs of family busi_
md urcalthy estates.
Roman rcciety made cxtensive use of slave labor:
nesscs
tt. second century c.E., slaves may have repre_
*::.d:r much as one_third of tire population
Slopery
- ot rtc t(oman empire.
In the countryside they
by
workcd moody on lntifandia,under extremely
harsh
conditions, often chained togcther in teams. in
fact,
discoatcnt among ru4 slavcsled to several large_scale
rcvglts, cspccially durtng the second and firit
cen_
turies s-c.r- During the most serious uprising,
in 73
B.^c.E-, the cscaped slave Sparacus
ir, ,r-y
"rr.-bl.d
of sevcnty thousand rebillious slaves.
The Roman
cight legions, comprising more than
I-y$""lred
forty
rhousand wcll-equippcd,
-veterrri ooopr,,o
qucll ttc rcrolt.
In the cities, conditions were much lcss difficult.
Fcmah slarcs cornmonly worked as domesdc
servants
while rnalcs toiled as servants, laborcrs,
craftsm€n,
sloekecrs, or busincss agents for their owners.
As in
Greecgslarcswho had an education orpossessed
som.
particuhr talcnt had the potential to lead
comfortable
livcs. In urban arcas it was also common,
O""gf,
mandatory, for masters to free slaves about
"*
the time
thcy rcachcd thirty ycan of age . Until frceJ,
howevcr,
slavcs remaincd undcr thc striL authority
of their mas_
I.,:t" hd thc right to scll them, arrangc their frm_
ily-affairs, punish thcm, and .u.n'.*..r",e
them for
serious offcnscs.
THe Cosr*opoltrAN M eorennANEAN
Thc inegration of thc Mcditcrancan basin
had i*por_
tant cfftrts mt only for thc tradc and economy
of the
Roman cmpfoc but also for its cultural and
rcligious na_
ditions. Roads and communication n"*uo.k!
favorccl
thc sprcad
popular rcligions. Most important
a.kl:,h.{".*,
long run uas Christianity,
of
wtrictr bccamc
thc official rctigion of thc Roman cmpirc *J-,h.
pr"dominant faidr ofthe Meditcrranean blin.
?_, -.--_*"_-qra,
5OO
r.C.r. TO
5OO C.E.
Creek Philosophy and
Religions of Salvation
During.the
.ily
a"y, of their history, the Romans
ogruzed many gods and goddess.r,
rec_
*ho they believed
intervened directly in human
was the
"ffhi.r. Irri*.
principal god,lord of the heave.rr.
*j ' Rorrran
_
Deities
Mars was the god of war, Ce.es the
goddess,of grain, Janus the god who
watched the
tfueshold of individual houses,-and Vesta
the goddess
of the hearth. In addition to those m4o,
a.iti.r, most
Roman households hon-ored t,rt.l"iy deities,
gods
who looked after the welfare of individlal
a_m.r.
As the Romans expanded their political
influence
and built an empire, they encountercd
the religious and
cultural traditions of other peoples. Often
theiadopted
the deitics of other peoples and used tfr.foi tfrei,
o*r,
purposes. From the Etruscans, for
example, they
learned of |uno, the moon goddess, and
Miierva, thc
goddess ofwisdom, as well as certain
religious practices,
such as divination of the future through
Ixamination
tfre intcmal organs of ritually
sa..ifi.ei
of
""i"; fr._ ,h.
The Romans also drew-decp inspiratio.,
Gre:k tradition of rational tt o"ghi *Jpiito.opfry,
espccially Stoicism. The Stoics, d-esire :
Greeh rnflaence
to identift a set of universal
-orJ
standards based on nature
4nd reason appealcdstrongly to Roman intellectuals.-Indeed,
thinkers such
as Marcus Tullius Cicero (106_43
,i."i.l
readily
adopted Stoic valucs. His letters *d
t ."tir., empha_
sized ttre individual,s duty to live in
*itt,
naturc and reason. He.ar$ued that "c.o.arrr..
the pursuit ofjus_
tice was thc individual,s highest public'J,rty,
n.
scorned thos_e who sought to accumulate
"rra
wealth
or to
becomc powerfi,rl ttrough.imm"rd,
ifi.gJ, or unjusr
meanr Through his specches *a .rp.J"Uv
tris wrlt_
ings, Cicero hclped to cstablish
St"iiirilJ rhc most
prominenr school of moral philosophy
in Rome .
Whcreas educated thinicrs a."*
inrpiotion from
rhe Greeks, thc masscs found comfort
il-r.iigiors of
salvation thar cstablishcd their pr.r.n.. --'
throughout thc Mcditcrrancan basin
and Sabarton
beyond. Thesc rcligions bccamc pron.,i- of^!.c!igion
nent fcatures in Romc during th" Lrc
republic as wcll
as under-thc cmpirc. Malf o.ign.t"a
in tt Ar_R,rng
rcalnrs of.rhc cmpirc, includinjth.
pop.rt"r "anatolian
c-trlt of lvlithras, thc Anatotian
lult
rn",t.r gddcss Cybclc, and thc Egyptian cult "i,f,.
of thc gJaers lsis.
. Thc.Mithraic rcligion provided divineLction for
nunlan trtc and cspccially for purposefut
moral bchavior. It brought togcther a communiry
that wclcomed
."-+
.i.
-$
&
$
ii
an(
fer.
.Mitht
Mir
un
scll
Ple
cm
an(
an(
lati,
ten
dcr.
C*lt
o
lno
lar
ficr.
(;H.{P.l.llR tt I l\tltDfr[RMNF.AN S()(:lt;I.t" trNl)!.lt'l-H11 CRF:];XS ANI)'rHf:
Isis throrrs.lr()ut thc Ronran cnrpirc, and tlrcl'rdorcd
thc tgr'ptiirn uoddcss as a bcncvolcnt and protcctivc
dcitv u'ho nurtured hcr s'orshipcrs and hclpcd thcm
copc u'ith tlrc strcsscs of lifc in cosnropolitrn srrcicn'-
rcc-
'\'cd
Likc thc llirhr.ric rcligion, thc cult of Isis and orhcr rc-
thc
ligions of srrlvirtion attractcd tirllorvers in Rome and
otlrcr citics rhroughout thc N{cditcrrancan basin. Thc
inrnrcnsc 1',o1'rrrhrity of thcsc rcligions of sahrtion proviclcs ir c()r)tc\t that helps to cxplain thc rcmarkablc
Dcirtcs
thc
lcss
succcss of (lhristianiry in the R<rn'ran cmpirc.
rost
ods
Judaisnr and Early Christianity
llcc
After thc tlissolution of thc
md
ish ;rco1'rlc nrlintained thcir
)\vn
hey
the
ces,
iof
the
hY'
Built bctween I l8 and 125 c.r., rhe Pantheon in Rome
rch
it survives as one of
the outstanding cxamples of Roman architccture. With
a diamcter of 43 meters (l4f feet), the building's dome
tily
was the largest consrructed undl thc nvendeth century.
led
was a templc h<lnoring all gods, and
ha-
ith
us-
he
to
-rst
'it-
)st
)m
of
gions
q.fion.
ell
rg
tn
dis.
cr
:d
Jcu"ish kingdorn
ot David
and Sokrnron in the early tenth ccntury B.C.E, the |cu'-
)ted
luence
ROMANS l5f
and nurtured like-minded indir-iduals. Finally, it offered hope for individuals who conscientiously obthe cult's teachings by promising
Mithraism
' sert,ed
them ecstatic and mysterious union with
Mithras-who was strongly associated with military
virnres such as strength, courage, and discipline-himself. During the late republic, Nfithraic altars and temples appeared in military garrisons throughout t}te
empire. During the early centuries c.r., administrators
and merchants also became enchanted with Mithras,
and his cult attracted follorvers among the male populations of all sizable communities and commercial centers in the Roman empire.
The cult ofMithras did not adrnit u,omen, but cults
dedicated to the Anatolian mother goddess Cvbele, the
Egyptian goddess Isis, and other deities
Cult of
Isis made
-J ---a place for both men and women.
Indeed, the cult of Isis may have been the most popular of all the Mediterranean religions of salvation before the rise of Christianity. Devotees built temples to
fiitlr and thcircoarmuni-
tics undcr r'.rrious inrpcrial rcgin'rcs. At
tinres, fcr'isl', ..rnl*.r.,iti., .l"i'h.d r,,ith T7* Jevs cnd
their inrprcrial ovcrlords, cspccially be- tb Empire
cause m()notheistic |cws rcfused to revere empcrors as
gods.,\s the Ron.rans extended their empire in drc easrern Mediterranean and brought the Iews in Falestinc
under their control, relations berween the tno kcamc
especiallv tense. Between 66 and 7A c.n.,rehtions deteriorated to such a point that Palestinian Jcws rosc in
rebellion against the Romans in what became known
the Jeu,ish War.
The ]ews were decisively defcated in the rrar, which
prompted some ]ews to found new sccts dlat looked
for saviors to deliver them from Rofa*of Nawredt
man rule so tiey.""H;;;;.;';;ir
faith u,ithout interference . The early Christians were
one such sect. The Christians formed their communinaround Jesus of Nazarerh, a charismaric Jewi*r t€acher
u'hom they recognized as their savior. Born about the
year 4 B.c.E., Jesus grew up at a time of high tcnsion
betu'cen Roman overlords and their Iewish subiectsHe was a peaceful man who taught devotioc to God
and love for fellow human beings. He atrracted large
crorvds because of a reputation for *tsdom urd rdraculous poucrs, especially the abfin, to heal the sick.
as
Yet |esus alarmed the Romans because he also
taught that "the kingdom of God is at haod." To
Jesus, the kingdom of God rvas a spiritual rcatrm in
u'hich God s,ould gather those faithful to him. To
Roman adrninistrators, holvever, his message xrunded
like a threat to Roman rule in Palestine, espreciallrsince crou'ds routinely accompanied |esus. In an et-fort to forestall a new round of rebellion, Roman administrators executed |esus by fixing him to r cross in
the earlv 30s c.B.
I52
PART
2 I THE FORMATION
OF CI,{SSICAL SOCIETIES, 5OO N.C.r. TO
5OO C.r,.
Jesus'crucifixion did not put an end to his move_
ment. Ey€n after his execution |esus, close followers
sSolgly felt his presence and proclaimed
Trsw, Earh
Fottowri' that he had triumphed over death by ris_
ing from his grave. They called him
pervisors, known as bishopsrwho oversaw
priests and
governed their jurisdictions according
to their own
best understanding of Christian do._ "
a result, until the emergence Early Cbristian
"T:.A"
conaruunities
oj
Rome as the principal ,.I, or
:hy.l, authority in the third century c.r., Christians
held doctrinal
"Christ,o mcaning ..the.anointed oner, the savior
yh: agdd bring individuals into the kingdom of
views and followed pr".ti.., tt varied
God. Thcy taught that he was the son of God and
considerably from one community to the
"t Some
next.
that his sacrifice served to offset the sins of those
who
religious ledders taught that
Jesus had literally risen
had faith fu him. They taught further that, like
from the dead and come back to life, for example,
Jesus,
and
the faithftl would survive death and would experi_
others held that his resurrectio, *", a spiritual
rather
ence eterml lifc in the spiritual kingdom of
God. pol_
than physical matter. Only graduaUy ala believers
lowing |csus'teachings, the early Cfuistians observed
agree to recognize ccrtain texts as auihoritative
scrip_
a demanding noral code and devoted themselves
un_
ture-the New Testament_and adopt them as funda_
compromisingly to God-. They also compiled
a body
mental guides for Christian doctrineLd practice.
of writings-accounts of lesur; Iif., r.port" of
his fol_
Like the ]ews from whose rant<s ttrey had
sprung,
lowers'wuks, and letters outlining ihrirti* teach_
the early Cfuistians refirsed to honor tt.
io**
st"t
ings-thatgained recognition as thl Ncw Testament.
cults or revere the emperor as a god.
Togethcr rrith the Jelvs' He brew scriprures, which
As a result, Roman impiriat auttrorities The Gropth
Christiansrcfemed to as the Old Testarneng
of Eorly
the New
launched sporadic ."-i"ign ofp..r.*_
Testamcntbeome the holy book of Cfuistianity.
tio,r designied to elimina,""chri#;q, ; . chriaianity
Jesus and his earliest followers wcre all
1ews. ne_
-a.threat tg thc empire.
ginning about the middle of the first century
|n spite ofthis repression, Cfuis_
c.E.,
tial nu1!er1 grew rapidly. During thc^firsi three
cen_
howevcr, some Christiaos avidly r""ghi
Paal of
turies of the faith,s existence, Chris-tianiry
- Tarrs converts from
found its way
non-]ewish communities
to almost all parts of thc Roman empire; and
in the Helhni*ic world and thc Roman empire.
ChrisThe
tians established tfuiving communities
throughorrt th..*
principal fturc in the expansion of Chriitianity
beMediterrancan basin *d f.rth., easr in
MJopot"_i,
1,ond Judaim rras paul of Tarsus, a Jew from Anatolia
and Iran. The remarkable growth of
CUisiianity
who.zealously preached his faith, especially
re_
in thc
flected rhe new faith,s appcil p*ti."f*lv
io the lower
Greek-spceting castern rcgion of tt. Rorn*
empire.
classes, r1Pll pop"lations, and womeri.
Christianity
Paul taught a Christianity that attracted thc
urban
accorded horior and dignity to individuals
who did not
masses in thc same way as other religions
of salvation
that spread ridcly in thc Roman .-lir..
?"y hi.+ standing in Roman sociqry, and it endowed
His doctrine
of spiritual freedom.".. _."rri.,g_
called ficr individuals to observe high moral
*:T^yl
",sense
standards
tnaS wedth,
power,
or_social prominence. It taugf,t
and to placc tlrcir faith ahcad of pirsonal
ryt
and family
thc sp-iritual equality of the ,"*.,
*.lcomed the
inrcrests. }[s tcaching also explained
the rvorld and
contributions of both mcn and womcn.
""J And it pro_
human hisrnry as rhe result, oiGod', purposeful
aclded a promise of futurc gtory for tt o* *no placcd
tlnr it provided a framework of mcaning for
:i"i!::"
their faith in |esus. fhus, J&ough Chrisd;;ity
i n di vid u als' f,vcsorigiFu rthcrmorc, paul's doctrinc prom
nated as a minor sect of
populations in
fudair-,Lb*
iscti a glorious futrrre cxistcncc for those
rvho consci_
thc.Roman empire embraced tt.
cnri()uslv ohcrrrd thc faith.
*ith ,u.h
enthusiasm that by thc third ccnrury
".* zuri
ci it had bc_
)tt fbr rrro crnrurics aftcr thc crucifixion of fcsus,
most dynamicand influcntial rcligircus
tlrcrc rvas roccntral authoriry fbr thc flcdgling
:"T.
faith
1h_.
church.
in thc Mediterranean basrn.
Retl'rcr, indiyllud comrnunities sclccted jrcir
orvn su_
St
Ur
so,
M,
sti
lar
thl.
ab
eC(
th.
Br.
co
SPI
in
sor
tin
we
(lllAI'l'l:R tl I
rlFll)11'F.R&{NI':AN s(x;lFlT'\' trNt)ttR THIi GREHKS
.rntl
)\\'n
ristian
Surr,tmnnv
unitics
iirrts
riccl
)nlc
tscll
.rtrrl
Ircr
.
crs
ri1't-
rtllt-
llg'
i
lltc
lrowtb
'Early
ianity
ns-
cnvay
risthe
nia
rever
,it,v
rot
'ed
rg-
{hr
he
'oed
oi-
in
ch
)e-
.rh
Lirrdcr (ircck artd Roman influcncc, l'lctlitcrrancan lands becanrc a tightly intcgratcc{
s()cict\'. Although thc Grecks clicl not build a ccntralizcd cmpirc, thcy rJotticl thc
lr'lcditcrrancatr and Black Sca slrorclincs rvith- thcir colonics, ancl thcir rr.rcrchant flccts
stinrulatctl troth c<>mmcrcial ancl cultural intcractions bc$vccn pcoplcs of distant
l:rnds. (ircck tncrchants, soldicrs, rnd administrators also playcd
1'rrrlnrincnt rolcs in
the cxtcnsivc cttrpircs of Alcxandcr irntl thc Hellcnistic rulers, and tlrcy, lcft a rcnrirrk:rblv rich attcl ctrtlttring cultural lcrrlrcr'. Building in part on lroth thc cultural antl t5c
ccononric lcglcics of the Grceks, thc Ilonrlns procccded to coltstruct a republic,:rp{
thcu alr ctnpirc, that cvcntualh'irclrninistcred lands as distant as Mesopotamia a6tl
Ilritain. Highlv organized tradc ncrrvorks cnabled peoples throughout thc cmpirc t<r
c()nccntratc on spccialized agrictrltural or industrial production. Popular religions
sprcad u'iclelt' and attracted entl'rusiastic converrs. Like Confucianism and Buddhisnt
in classical China and India, rational philosophy and Christianin'bccanrc prominent
sourccs of intcllcctual and religious authoriq, in the classical Meditcrranean and continued to influence cultural development in the Mediterranean, Europe, and southu,est Asia ovcr the long term.
ANt)'rHli
RoMANs f 53
I54
PART
2 I THE FORMAIION
OF CII,SSICAI SOCIETIES,
5OO S.C.r.
TO
5OO C.r.
M,
ry}FTE!
iw*tli
tI;rffi{i*'!
a ,i.-u. ,1 '*f..'I
:l;!il:r:li:
Fon FunmrER
READTNG
Martin Bcrnal. Nack Athcnr: Thc Aftoasiatic
Civilintiot.2
Roots of
Clarsicel
vols. to datc. N"* l.unr*i.t, iSiZ_.
froro..tivc erd controvcrcial study arguing fo.
fg;,i.n'"nrI Scmitic
influcmcs oo certy Grcck socicty.
Hcnry C. Borcn. Rorzaz Sa cbty.2nicd. t
cxington,
-
1992. An
au_
rynrhcsis that piaccs social and .'."n"_i. history in
its politkrt r:ontcxt.
lGith & Badlcy. Discovcring
Roaea Fanily: S*dics
fodadvc
&,cial
Roman
tb
in
Romen
enelysis of
Hktq. Ncw y_ork, 1991. A p-ro.",lu.
6milf lifi *ith illustrations &o_ irOJaJ*p"A.n.o.
PctcrBtorm.
Risc
of Watcrn
-TIz
siar, A-D.20$-lArr\.2ntl
cd.
Chri*adw* Triiai saA DivcrOrford, 2003. A tan'iiart analysis
-.-'.-"1--'"-*--:"
"_€F-a".i'."'.v
ofcarly Christian history that incorporatcs
thc findings ofrcccnt scholanhip.
F. M. Cornford. Bcforc and aJtcr
Socrates.Cambridgc, 1965. A
short but brilliant svrrthcsis of classical
Grcl[ piili_pr,v.
M. I. Finlcy. Ancicnt Sievctl cnd Modcrtt
tar-olrfy.'i'ip"ndetl cd.
Princcton, 199g. prcscnts a thoughtfirl
I.#l:.',"'..,
in tight of mod.."'
ur,.t
".r"(ir.-ricr".f
,r.r"r/.ili
.on,._po.rry
Frcdcrick C. (irant, cd. Hclbnistic
Rcligiont: Tbc r$c of Smcntbte.
Indianagr>lis, r9s3. Fr*nrting coflcction
of translercd <rocurcrigious
fnlo*pr,i.
ffill,:["j,:il:',1:i;1ffi :*, -'
"nJ
I
CHAPTHR
I
Michacl Grant.
CiriarolVatrius:
Pompcii
atd
8 | MEDITERRANTAN S()(:ll;r1'
Hcrculanct nt.Lnn-
don, 1971. Faxinating glimpsc ol'Rontrn socictl, as rcconsructcd by archacologists u,orking rt sitcs dcstrovcd hv thc
cruption o[Vcsuvius in 79 t:.r.
Naphtali lrwis and Mcycr Rcinhold, ccls. Ilorzar Cbili:arion: Schctcd Rcadings.2 vols. 3rd cd. Ncrv Y<rrk, 1990. A rich collcc.
e-
A
d.
rd
ry
w.
u-
ri-
Lrn-l)t-:R THr: (;RFtt:KS
ANt)'rHl: R()l\tANS
r55
tiorr ol'translatcd tcrts and d<xunrcnts thirt illuminrtc Romen
historr' ;rntl srricn.
Sar,rh ll. l-orrrcror'. (ioddcsscs, llTronr, [1ilr.r, ard Slaws: Wc;,ca in
Clnxi,ll Autiqrir. Ncs'l'orh, 1995. ()utstanding study enrlvzinq thc st:rtus and rolc ols'orncrr in chssicrl Grtccc end
Rontt'.