Download Cognition notesBLANKS

Notes on Cognition (chapter 7)
Cognition refers to the mental processes that enable an organism to ________,
comprehend, and communicate.
Thinking-the cerebral management of information received from out senses and
transferred into concepts that are used to solve problems and ultimately reach decisions
Reaction time-elapsed time between the presentation of a stimulus and behavioral
______________
Reaction time is influenced by four factors:
1. Complexity-more complex longer, less complex, _________
2. Expectancy-unexpected events take longer to process
3. Stimulus-response compatibility-if compatibility is high, we react quicker, if low, we
react slower
4. Speed-accuracy tradeoff-respond too quickly and errors are likely to occur.
Brain area responsible for processing new situations and tasks that require a great deal of
cognition frontal lobe (and short term-memory)
Once the information becomes familiar-Hippocampus-______________ memories
Components of thought
Concept-A category that encompasses information that shares similar features or
characteristics
Components of a concept: Prototype-incorporates all essential features of a concept
(differs from person to person based on experience) Formal concept-defined by a set of
rules Natural concept-formed through everyday experiences
Schema-mental framework that helps organize information based on experiences
Script-personal view on how an event will be played out based on experience
Mental model-mental representation of a situation, event, or object based on experience
Cognitive maps-mental representation of an environment
Reasoning-cognitive process used to reach a decision
Formal reasoning (deductive reasoning)-used to justify a conclusion based on the truth of
the premise. For example-all dogs have tails, Fido is a dog, Fido must have a ________
Algorithms-type of formal reasoning used to guarantee a correct solution to a problem.
Time consuming
Informal reasoning (inductive reasoning)-used to form a conclusion based on believability
of information.
Heuristic-a “Rule of thumb” or cognitive shortcut used for problem solving, quick decision
making but may be incorrect
Three most common heuristics
Availability heuristic-rely on most accessible information known to the person to assist in
problem solving
Representativeness heuristics-rely on how well a situation matches a generalization or
prototype we have about an established concept. Can lead to errors or stereotypes.
Anchoring and adjustment heuristics-rely on a starting point or reference point to begin
with and then adjust to accommodate information.
Problem solving techniques
Means-end analysis-relies on identification of a final goal and the prerequisite steps
needed to achieve that goal.
Analogies-finding similarities between a current problem and a prior problem, can
facilitate problem solving but could obstruct problem solving by limiting the individual to
techniques that may not apply to current situation.
Incubation-stepping back from a problem “sleep on it”
Insight-sudden realization of a solution to a problem. “_______ effect” “aha phenomenon”
Obstacles to problem solving
Mental set-tendency to approach new problems with strategies that may have worked in
the past, limits ability to “think outside the box”
Functional fixedness-inability to see an object as being used for other than its intended
_________________
Confirmation bias-tendency to accept information that supports our beliefs while ignoring
information that _________________ our beliefs
Decision making
Utility-measurement of satisfaction received by choosing an option (and reducing potential
dissatisfaction)
Gamblers fallacy-belief that the probability of a random sequence is influenced by a
preceding behavior.
Framing effect-influencing the decision by altering words used in describing the decision.
Psychologists say Language must have three characteristics; 1. Symbolic-sounds and words
represent objects, actions, ideas. 2. Language is generative-ability to generate numerous
messages that one has never heard or spoken 3. Language is structured-rules that must be
followed for proper expression of language.
Communicating thoughts is uniquely human.
Language is composed of certain elements
Phonemes-smallest basic unit of sound; the word BAT contains three phonemes.
Morphemes-smallest unit of meaning in language; the word OPENED has two syllables
(which are morphemes) “ed” is also a morpheme because it changed the meaning of the
word “open” Therefore OPENED has three morphemes.
Syntax-rules associated with the _______________ of a sentence; subject, verb, object
Semantics-rules that establish the _______________ of a sentence
Understanding speech
Wernicke’s area-part of the brain responsible for turning audible words into thoughts.
McGurk Effect-combination of hearing and vision that allows us to understand speech
Development of Language
Children can understand words before they can produce audible language. Acquisition of
spoken language has significant milestones during first three years of life
One year olds
Babbling-“Gaga”
One-word stage-Overextension of words-“da” can mean “What’s that?” or Daddy, etc…
Underextention of words-“ball” used to reference favorite round object
Two year olds
Two-word stage/telegraphic speech-“Want juice”
Three-word stage-“Me want juice”
Overregulation-misapplication of rules of grammar, “I sitted down” “I goed there”
Three year olds
“Wh” words-beginning usage of words such as “Who” “What” “Where”
How do children learn language? Innate? Imitation? Psychologists don’t agree but they
do agree that there is a “Critical period” for acquisition and development of language.
(Usually up to age 12)
Behavioral view-B.F. Skinner, language is developed by reinforcement and imitation. A
child is rewarded for saying words after they have been imitated. But can’t explain why a
child would say words such as “goed”
Biological view-Language Acquisition Device (L.A.D.) Noam Chomsky said that humans
innately process knowledge for the basic structure of grammar. Exposure to language
triggers this innate ability.
Benjamin Worf’s theory of Linguistic determinism (language relativity theory)-Culture
dictates language and language dictates thought and ultimately perception. Critics say his
view of language and thought is false, because we often have trouble finding words that
correctly identify what we are talking about.
Memory
Memory-mental process needed to acquire, retain, and retrieve information. Three
distinct processes
1. Encoding-acquiring and entering information into memory
2. Storage-maintaining the encoded information over a period of time so it can be
retrieved
3. Retrieval-accessing the stored information
Parallel distributed processing model (PDP)-new information is integrated with existing
memories
 Results in a change in a person’s overall knowledge base
 Integration is possible through new neural networks that occur between units of
information
Information processing model-memory must be processed through three stages:
1. Sensory memory-(George Sperling) Visual sensory memory (________)-less than a
second and auditory memory (_____________)-retained for a few seconds
2. Short-term memory-receives memory from sensory memory then uses information
stored in long-term memory to understand and associate new information

“working memory” information person is currently “working with”
Duration of STM is about ________ seconds
Capacity of STM is about ___ plus or minus 2 unrelated items
Maintenance rehearsal-repeating information over and over
“Chunking” grouping individual units of information into meaningful chunks
3. Long-term memory-Capacity of LTM is limitless,
Encoding information into LTM
Levels of processing theory-when information involves a deeper level and more meaning,
duration of LTM increases.
Elaborate rehearsal-application of personal meaning to help ensure information is encoded
into LTM. (______________)
Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit memories-(AKA declarative memories) require conscious thinking to recall
information
Explicit memories are divided into episodic memories (personal memoires-old birthday
party) and semantic memories (general knowledge about your environment-capital of your
state)
Implicit memories (AKA non-declarative memories)-do not require conscious thinking to
recall. Procedural memories-“Skills” tying your shoe, riding a bike, etc….and also one’s
predispositions, such as fears
Prospective memory-remembering to perform an action or behavior in the ________
Retrospective memory-remembering things, situations, or events from the ______
Organizing Long-term memory
LTM is organized into a hierarchical model-new information is grouped with similar
information
Semantic Network model-suggests memories are stored through associations, examplememory of a fire truck is associated with the color red, which then can be associated with
a stop sign, which then can be associated with a stop sign at a certain street, and so on and
so on….Priming.
Retrieving Long-Term memory
Retrieval cues-clues, hints, etc…that can help trigger LTM
Retrieval cue failure-Retrieval cue is not adequate to trigger a LTM
TOT-Tip of the tongue phenomenon-retrieval cue failure
Serial position effect-When people have an easier time retrieving information at the
beginning (_____________) and end (_____________) of a list but are more likely to
forget items in the middle of a list.
Von Restorff Effect-remembering an item in the ______ because it is uniquely different
Methods of retrieving information
Retention-refers to the amount of material retained or stored
Recall-requires people to come up with information without any _____
Recognition-involves people selecting previously learned information from a list of choices
Factors that affect retrieval
Encoding specificity principle-retrieval is more effective when retrieval conditions are
similar to when encoding took place. (the retrieval conditions become a retrieval cue)
Mood Congruence effect-emotions and moods that can also help retrieve memories.
“Happy mood” “Happy memories”
State-dependent learning-involves a person’s internal state that can also serve as a
retrieval cue
Flashbulb memories-Significance of event can help retrieve memory
Schemas can also lead to memory distortion-can make it hard to incorporate new
information that contradicts established information in a schema. “imagine your kitchen at
your house”
Misinformation effect-(Elizabeth Loftus) how you ask a person to recall something could
affect their memory of that event.
Ebbinghause forgetting curve-much of what we learn is quickly forgotten (if not encoded
properly), over time the amount of information that is not quickly forgotten leveled off (if
you don’t forget it soon it tends to stay in LTM)
 Why do we forget according to Herman Ebbinghouse; not good encoding, not good
rehearsal, and not good remembering
Encoding failures-occurs when information was never encoded into LTM
Interference theory-memories can interfere with each other causing information to be
forgotten
 Retroactive interference-new information interferes with you remembering an ___
memory. Learning you new locker combination prevents you from remembering your
old locker number. (New phone numbers, street addresses, etc…)
 Proactive interference-An older memory interferes with your remembering a ____
memory. You keep trying to open you new locker with the old combination. (keep
dialing old phone number, etc…..)
Motivated Forgetting-person intentionally suppresses information. Suppression is used to
consciously forget information. (not Freudian repression)
Decay theory-people forget memories that they are not actively using
Biological basis for memory (Karl Lashley and Donald Hebb)
Neurons play a part in forming new memories. Communication between neurons takes place
when a neurotransmitter crosses the synapse between the axon of one neuron (presynaptic
or sending neuron) and the dendrites of another neuron (postsynaptic or receiving neuron)
When a message is sent across the synapse, the receiving dendrites become larger,
enabling faster and better communication. They can also activate a third neuron. This is
called Long-term potentiation.
In the Hippocampus these changes are facilitated by the NTs Acetylcholine and
Glutamate. Acetylcholine deficiency can lead to _______________ disease.
Amnesia-sever memory loss (2 types)
Retrograde amnesia-inability to remember events from the past (specifically episodic
memories)
Anterograde amnesia-inability to form new memories. (Damage to the hippocampus) H.M?
Amygdala-encodes _________________ elements of a memory
Cerebellum-Stores memories that involve movement and coordination used in implicit
memories and procedural information
Hippocampus-encodes new explicit memories to LTM
Medial Temporal Lobe-Encodes new explicit memories to LTM, referred to as
consolidation of memories
Prefrontal Cortex-Processes memories involving a sequence of events
Mnemonics-memory aids that help organize information. Example-Acronyms-DABDA,
OCEAN
Method of Loci-mnemonic device used to remember information through associating an
item with the actual place the item is found can help you remember an entire list.