Download What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental

Psych notes ­ Ms. James What is Psychology? ● The scientific study of behavior and mental processes ○ Behavior includes anything we do that can be measured, including all of our outward actions and reactions. ■ talking, facial expressions, movement, etc. ○ Mental process refers to all of the internal activity of our minds ■ thinking, feeling, and remembering ● Psychology uses the scientific method to study behavior. ○ what is the scientific method? ■ A way to ask and answer questions based on observations. Why? ● Psychologists don’t want personal judgment to cause incorrect observations ● keep all bias out of the picture ● want to measure as carefully as they can Four Main Goals of Psychology 1. Description 2. Explanation 3. Prediction 4. Control Description: ● begins with observation (something that has been seen heard or felt) ● involves noting everything about a behavior ○ what is happening? ○ where is it happening? ○ to whom is it happening to? ● Why are these questions important? ○ when observing, you want to gather as much data as you can. Too much is better than too little in most cases. Explanation: ● Asking why the situation is happening = the explanation. ● This is a very important step in the process as it leads to psychologists being able to draw and create theories. ○ a theory is a set of ideas combined in a logical way that explains and connects known facts and can predict events. 1 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ○ theories are strengthened by scientific evidence. ○ theories help us explain the world around us. ○ there is no way to tell is a theory is correct until scientific tests are performed. Predictions: ● Determining what will happen in the future using theories and scientific testing. ● predictions help people change or modify unwanted behavior. Control: ● control = the modification of behaviors ● goal is to change them from undesirable to a desirable one ● Trial and error can be used to reach a desired result. Where it all began: ● Psychology is about 130 years old ● started around 1879 in a laboratory in Leipzig, Germany ● Wilhelm Wundt believed that the mind was made up of thoughts, experiences, emotions, and other basic elements. ○ to inspect these non­physical elements, Wundt’s students had to learn to think objectively about their own thoughts­after all, they could not read someone else’s mind. ○ attention to objectivity (the state of being impartial or unbiased), together with the establishment of the first true experimental laboratory in psychology, is why Wundt is known as the “father of psychology” 2 Psych notes ­ Ms. James Domains of Psychology 1.
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Behaviorism ­ Watson, Pavlov, Skinner Humanism ­ Maslow Cognitive Psychology ­ Piaget Structuralism ­ Titchener Functionalism ­ Wundt, James Psychoanalysis ­ Freud Behaviorism: ● John Watson: ○ believes all behavior is learned ○ believed a phobia (irrational fear) is really a symptom of an underlying, repressed conflict and cannot be “cured” without years of psychoanalysis to uncover and understand the repressed material. ○ emphasized the objective, scientific analysis of observable behaviors. ○ ideas were expanded upon by Skinner, Bandura, and Pavlov ○ Little Albert Experiment ■ exposed a 9­month­old baby boy to a variety of stimuli ● white rat ● a rabbit ● a monkey ● masks ● burning newspapers ■ Albert showed no fear of these stimuli initially ■ Watson then exposed Albert to the stimuli while striking a metal pipe with a hammer when the rat was shown. ■ The loud noise caused him to cry, after repeated exposure Albert became conditioned to fear the sight of the rat, crying even when there was no loud noise. ■ experiment was significant in that it seemed to prove that humans could be conditioned to have phobias as a result of a stimulus­response relationship. ● analyzes how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing ones, depending on whether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors. 3 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ● rewards or punishments can modify, change, or control behavior. ● B.F. Skinner (1969) caused behaviorism to be a major force in psychology ○ ideas stress: ■ the study of observable behaviors ■ the importance of environmental reinforcers (reward and punishments) ■ the exclusion of mental processes. ■ operant conditioning ● behavioral responses (or “operants”) that are followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened, or reinforced. ○ example: if a baby cries, he is rewarded when his mother comforts him. ● Albert Bandura (2001) disagrees with STRICT behaviorism ○ ideas stress: ■ mental or cognitive processes in addition to observable behaviors. ■ Social Cognitive approach: our behaviors are influenced not only by environmental events and reinforcers but also by observations, imitation, and thought process. ● Ivan Pavlov ○ Experiment with dogs ■ turned on the metronome and give the dogs food. Their reflex (involuntary response) was to salivate. ■ Process was repeated and eventually the dogs would salivate to the sound of the metronome without even being offered food. ● Examples of how psychologists use behaviorism: ○ to teach people to be more assertive or less depressed ○ to toilet train young children ○ to train animals to press levers, to use symbols to communicate, and to perform behaviors on cue in movies and television shows. ○ use relaxation exercises to reduce the emotional component of test anxiety ● Behaviorism is still very influential ● “Little Peter” ­ white rabbit ○ did the same thing to Peter as with Albert, but then exposed him to a counter stimulus. Conditioned him to no longer be afraid of the rabbit. ● Student Presentations: ○ Ivan Pavlov is known for creating the classical conditioning. 4 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ○ B.F. Skinner is known for creating operant conditioning. ○ Clark hull said all behavior could be explained by conditioning principles ○ known for: emotions of fear, rage, improve the effects of advertising on the “animal” (aka consumers), teaches us we are not responsible for our own actions. It has had an influence on everything from animal training to parenting techniques. ○ used today: ■ Viewed as how people and things adapt to their environment. ■ Used for animal training and parenting techniques, explaining disorders and behavior. ■ By observing each other we can determine our behaviors as well as how we respond to things after being born (genetic or biological differences) Humanism: ● known as the “third force” in psychology ● famous founders: Maslow and Rogers ○ both emphasized human potential ­ the ability of each person to become the best person he or she could be. ○ believed that studying animals in laboratories (as behaviorists did) or people with nervous disorders (as psychoanalysis did) could not lead to a better understanding of this human potential for self­actualization (coined by Maslow) ­ means achieving one’s full potential or ideal self. ● focuses on the role of each person’s conscious life experience and choices in personality development. ● focuses on things that make people “uniquely human” ­ such as subjective emotions and the freedom to choose one’s own destiny ● self­actualizing tendency: a desire to fulfill one’s innate capacities and capability to live up to their potential. ○ important to self­actualization is the development of an image of oneself, or the self concept, based on how the sense of self is reflected in the words and actions of important people in one’s life. ■ real self: one’s perception of actual characteristics and level of functioning ■ ideal self: one’s perception of whom one should be or would like to be 5 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ● typically comes from important people in a person’s life ■ Rogers believes when the real self and ideal self are very similar, people feel competent and capable, but when the real and ideal selves are mismatched, anxiety and disordered behavior result. (Catfish?) ● Conditional and Unconditional Positive Regard (Rogers) ○ positive regard: warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others in one’s life. ○ unconditional positive regard: warmth, respect, and affection without any conditions attached ○ conditional positive regard: positive regard that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish. ○ fully functioning person: a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings. ● Student presentation: ○ what is it? ­ A system of values and beliefs that’s based on the idea that people are good and he problems can be solved using reason instead of religion ○ idea was used during the renaissance in the 14th century ­ became humanism in 1832 ○ known for: ■ philosophy for those who love life, they enjoy the open­endedness of life, they don’t question the answers they are given ■ believes an attitude towards the unique universe that considers all forms of the supernatural as a myth ■ nature is a constantly changing system of matter and energy which exists in consciousness ■ humanists beliefs stress the potential value of goodness of human beings, emphasize common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems. ■ the mind is indivisibly conjoined with the functioning of the brain;and that we can have no conscious survival after death ■ having its ultimate faith in humankind, believes that human beings possess the power or potentiality of solving their own problems. Structuralism: 6 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ● Emerged as one of the first schools of thought on the psychology spectrum ● aimed to break down mental processes into the most basic components ● Edward TItchener ○ Student of Wundt’s ○ believes that every experience can be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations ○ also believed that objective introspection, or the awareness of events that take place in the mind, could be used on thoughts as well on physical sensations. ■ introspection means to “look inward” ● focus of the study is on the structure of the mind ● Structuralism is known as, “a method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system that reflect patterns underlying a superficial diversity.” Also known as, “the doctrine that structure is more important than function.” ● Ideas of structuralism have faded over time and were consumed by the ideas of Wilhelm Wundt ­ did not last past Titchener’s death Functionalism: ● formed as a reaction to Structuralism ● William James ○ interested in studying the importance of consciousness to everyday life more than actually analysing one’s consciousness. ○ believed the scientific study of consciousness itself was not yet possible because conscious ideas are constantly flowing like and ever­changing stream, and once you start thinking about what you were just thinking, what you were thinking is no longer what you were thinking about...instead it’s what you are thinking about. ○ focused on how the mind helps people function in the real world ­ how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings. ­ called this functionalism (how people function better as a result of their experience) ○ heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s ideas about natural selection, in which physical traits that help an animal adapt to its environment and survive are passed onto it’s offspring, becoming part of the animal’s traits. 7 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ● Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and accurate manner. ● Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behavior. ● Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education. ● has influenced behaviorism ● student presentations: ○ society will compensate for any problems they have ○ functionalists believed that people work together to achieve the best society possible ○ symbolic interactionism is how people act in the world based on their interpretation ○ conflict theory sees the bad in the world and the conflicts going on ○ functionalism is still used today in the educational system for how children should learn at the level for which they are prepared. Cognitive Psychology: ● “focuses on how we process, store, and use information and how this information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel.” ● Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people tick then we need to understand the internal processes of their mind. ● Cognition literally means “knowing”. In other words, psychologists from this approach study cognition which is ‘the mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired.’the study of how the mind processes information ● focuses on how people think, how they remember, store, and use information. ● focus is on memory, intelligence, perception, thought process, problem solving, language, and learning ● has become a major force in psychology ● cognitive neuroscience: study of the physical changes in the brain and nervous system during thinking. ○ uses tools for imagine the structure and activity of the living brain ● laboratory experiments are typically used to study behavior ● http://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive.html 8 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ● Student Presentation: ○ Ulric Neisser found it in 1967 ○ known for studying mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. ○ used everyday in things like: paying taxes, doing physical actions, or even talking to other people. ○ can be used as a therapy to fight memory loss Psychoanalysis: ● Sigmund Freud ○ believes there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or prepress, all of our threatening urges and desires. Freud believes that the repressed urges, in trying to surface, create nervous disorders in people, mainly his patients. ○ ideas are still influential today ● emphasizes the revealing of unconscious conflicts ● psychotherapy ­ a process in which a trained psychological professional helps a person gain insights into and change his or her behavior ● more modern version of psychoanalysis = psychodynamic perspective ○ the focus is still on the unconscious mind and its influence over conscious behavior and on early childhood experiences, but with less of an emphasis on repressed desire and more emphasis on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person. ● More modern Psychoanalysis: ○ dream inception, the analysis of the elements within a patient’s reported dream ○ free association, the practice of allowing patients to talk freely about anything that comes to mind ● Assumptions of Psychoanalysis: ○ Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind. ○ Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances. ○ Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma. ○ Treatment focuses on bringing the repressed conflict to consciousness, where the client can deal with it. ● Student Presentation: 9 Psych notes ­ Ms. James ○
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founded by Sigmund Freud created in 1890s known for making the unconscious conscious used for treating depression and anxiety disorders Viewed ­ it’s not used as often today Been absorbed into other fields. summary ­ it is used to make the unconscious conscious to relieve repressed emotions and experiences ○ experiments: in blots ­ patients use their unconscious mind to interpret the ink blots ○ freudian slips ­ unconscious thoughts and feelings can be transferred to the conscious mind by saying things we didn’t mean to. ○ free associations ­ patients respond with the first word that comes to their mind after a word is repeated to them. Other Modern Psychological Perspectives: ● Sociocultural Perspective ○ combines social psychology (the scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of others) and cultural psychology (the study of cultural behaviors, values, and expectations). ■ both about the effect that people have on one another, either individual or in a larger group such as a culture. ○ reminds people that how they and others behave (or even think) is influenced not only by whether they are alone, with friends, in a crowd, or a part of a group, but also by the social norms, fads, class differences, and ethnic­identity concerns of the particular culture in which they live. ● Biopsychological perspective ○ psychology ­ the study of the biological bases of behavior and mental process ○ biopsychological perspective ­ human and animal behavior is seen as a direct result of events in the body. ○ Hormones, heredity, brain chemicals, tumors, and disease are some of the biological causes of behavior and mental events. 10