Download Why did the war arouse so much opposition in America?

Paper 2:
The Cold War
Origins of the Cold War
The collapse of the wartime alliance led to a Cold War between the two superpowers.
America
Russia
1. The richest country in the world.
1. The biggest country in the world.
2. A democracy with free elections, led by
an elected president.
2. A one-party state led by a dictator. There were elections, but you could
only vote for the Communist Party.
3. Freedom of speech and belief.
3. State control: censorship, secret police, terror and purges.
4. Capitalism - private ownership and the
right to make money.
4. Communism - state ownership of the means of production, and the
belief that wealth should be shared.
5. Led by Truman, who believed that
Communism was evil.
5. Led by Stalin, who believed that capitalism was evil.
6. Had the atomic bomb - but was scared of 6. Had the biggest army in the world - but was angry that Truman had not
Russia's conventional army.
warned that he was going to drop the atomic bomb.
7. Feared the spread of communism
throughout the world.
7. Was angry because America and Britain had invaded Russia in 1918-19
to try to destroy communism.
8. Angry about the Nazi-Soviet Pact that
was a major factor in starting the Second
World War.
8. Believed that America and Britain had delayed opening the second front
(attacking France) to let Germany and Russia destroy each other on the
eastern front.
9. Wanted reconstruction - to make
Germany a prosperous democracy and a
trading partner.
9. Wanted to wreck Germany, take huge reparations for the damage done
during the war, and set up a buffer of friendly states around Russia to
prevent another invasion in the future.
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Capitalism v Communism
Businesses / farms owned by private people

Businesses and farms owned by the state and…
Profit is good – a reward for risk-bearing
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…run by the government for the benefit of all people
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Profit is a form of oppression
Democracy v Dictatorship
Multi-party system

Elections to the ‘Soviets’
Free elections

One party only – the Communist party which…
Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws –

…rules the country
separate executive and legislative branches

Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator
Freedom v Human Rights
‘His Majesty’s Opposition’ – minority party in UK

Dissidents imprisoned
Protests and demonstrations

KGB arrest grumblers
Human rights respected in law

The gulag
Free Market v Command Economy
Laws of supply and demand control production

Workers ordered to a job / area
Competition keeps prices low and quality up – the
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Wages and hours fixed by law
weak go out of business
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No unemployment – everyone has a job
Strikes and unemployment
Freedom of choice
Equal Opportunity v Equality
Everyone has a chance to succeed
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Poor standard of living – ‘producer’ goods (goods
Consumer economy
made are good for the producer, not necessarily good
Great differences in wealth and class – millionaires v
for the consumer) / empty shops
poverty
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Fewer very poor people
Private medicine, houses, etc (health care is very
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Free health care / state-provided housing (health care
good, but very expensive)
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is poor, but available to everyone)
Free Press v Censorship
Freedom of speech
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No freedom of speech
Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored

The media are owned and run by the government
Media openly criticize government (Washington Post ,  Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia)
New York Times)
Yalta
Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin
Potsdam
Attlee, Truman and Stalin
Germany to be split into four zones.
Arguments about the details of the boundaries between the
zones.
Germany will pay reparations.
Disagreements about the amount of reparations Russia wanted
to take. It was agreed that Russia could take whatever it
wanted from the Soviet zone, and 10 per cent of the industrial
equipment of the western zones, but Britain and the US
thought this was too much.
A government of 'national unity' to be set up in
Poland, comprising both communists and noncommunists.
Truman was angry because Stalin had arrested the noncommunist leaders of Poland.
Free elections in the countries of eastern Europe. This
part of the agreement was called the Declaration of
Liberated Europe.
America and Britain were alarmed because communists were
coming to power in the countries of Eastern Europe.
Russia would help against Japan when Germany was
defeated.
Truman dropped the atomic bomb so that Japan would
surrender before Russian troops could go into Japan. America
had the bomb in July 1945, but Truman did not tell Stalin about
it. When he saw how he had been tricked, Stalin was furious.
Complete Mission 1
Nature and Development of the Cold War
Salami Tactics
Country
Date Method
Albania
1945 The Communists immediately took power.
Bulgaria
1945
In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected, but the Communists executed the
non-Communists.
East Germany
1945
East Germany was the Soviet zone of Germany. In 1949, they set up a Communist-controlled state
called the German Democratic Republic.
Romania
1947
In the 1945 elections, a Communist-led coalition was elected to power. The Communists
gradually took over and in 1947 they abolished the monarchy.
Poland
Stalin had promised to set up a joint Communist/non-Communist government at Yalta, but then
1947 he invited 16 non-Communist leaders to Moscow and arrested them. Thousands of nonCommunists were arrested, and the Communists won the 1947 election.
Hungary
The non-communists won the 1945 elections with Zoltan Tildy as president. However, the
Communists' leader, Rakosi, took control of the secret police (the AVO), and executed and
1947
arrested his opponents. Tildy was forced to resign and Cardinal Mindzenty, head of the Catholic
Church, was imprisoned. By 1948, Rakosi had complete control of Hungary.
A coalition government was set up and led by the non-Communist Benes. However, the
Communists' leader Gottwald made sure they controlled the radio, the army and the police.
Czechoslovakia 1948 Gottwald became prime minister and set up a secret police force. Non-Communists were
arrested. In 1948, Communist workers went on strike, the non-Communist minister Masaryk
committed suicide and Gottwald took over the government.
Complete Missions 2 and 3.
FDR (1933-1945)
Development of the Cold War
Date
Summary
February Yalta
4th - 11th Conference
1945
May 8th
1945
V E Day
August
6th 1945
Hiroshima
August
8th 1945
Nagasaki
Russia/Japan
Meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin to decide what
would happen at the end of the war.
 Partitioning of Germany
 Fate of Poland
 The United Nations
 German reparations
Victory in Europe as Germany surrenders to the Russian army.
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Formally divided Germany and Austria into four zones.
Berlin would be divided into four zones.
The Russian Polish border was determined
Korea was to be divided into Soviet and American zones.
The United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima
Russia entered the war in the Pacific
The United States dropped the second atomic bomb on Nagasaki.
August
V J Day
14th 1945
The Japanese surrendered bringing World War Two to an end.
September Vietnam
2nd 1945 Independence
Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam an independent republic.
March 5th Churchill's
1946
Iron Curtain
Speech
Churchill delivers his 'Sinews of Peace' speech which contain the famous
phrase "..an iron curtain has descended on Europe"
March
Truman
12th 1947 Doctrine
President Truman promised to help any country facing a
Communist takeover (Greek Civil War)
Truman Doctrine
Greece
 After WWI Greece appeared to be ‘under threat’ from
Communism
 Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past)
 In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and
asked the USA for help
Communism
 Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was
determined to take action
 He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece
Stalin (1927-1953)
Truman (1945-1953)
July 17th - Potsdam
August
Conference
2nd 1945
Detailed Information
 Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war
Doctrine
 Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation
 Offered assistance to ‘all free peoples’ resisting ‘attempted
subjugation’
June 5th
1947
Marshall Plan
Marshall Plan
Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a ‘breeding ground’ for
Communism
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He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous
again – to recover from the war
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US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid

Total aid from 1948 – 1951 was close to $13 billion US
Just Being Helpful?
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Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a
market for US exports
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Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent
the spread of Communism
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Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support
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Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy,
Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway,
Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland
Success?
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1948 – 1952 saw period of growth in European history

Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels
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Forged North Atlantic alliances
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Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid
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Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared
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Tension
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July 1947 Containment
Aid was vital for European economic recovery
However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern
European countries under the USSR’s control from accepting it
This created tension on both sides
Kennan coins the term “Containment” - contain Communism, but not
push it back – Containment
September Cominform
1947
The USSR set up Cominform (Communist Information Bureau)
which was the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers'
Parties responsible for the creation of the Eastern bloc.
Complete Missions 4 and 5.
February Czechoslovakia Communists take over
1948
June 1948 Formation of The French, USA and UK partitions of Germany were merged to form
West Germany West Germany
Complete Mission 6
Berlin Blockade 1948
Yalta Background

Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR,
France, Britain and USA. Berlin was similarly divided

In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West
Germany and West Berlin
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USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin
Stalin’s Concerns
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Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans
and East Berliners
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He was angry that he wasn’t consulted about decisions – such as the
new Deutschmark
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Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite
Germany
Stalin’s Reaction

June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between
West Germany and West Berlin to be closed
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He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission
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US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalin’s first step in a take-over
of Western Europe
Allied Reaction – Berlin Airlift
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The Allies didn’t want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking
a war, so they began to fly supplies in
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Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by
September 1948
Consequences for USSR
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Stalin couldn’t just shoot the planes down
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He had to eventually back down – on May 12, 1949 he ended the
blockade – it was a major embarrassment
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Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US.
Atomic testing was increased
Consequences for USA
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Seen as ‘proof’ that the USSR had plans to take over Europe
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NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a
result
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Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat
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In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led ‘Warsaw
Pact’ was formed
Complete Mission 7
Stalin (1927-1953)
Truman (1945-1953)
June 24th Berlin
1948
Blockade
April 4th NATO formed The North Atlantic Treaty Organization formed with member states
Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
1949
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United
States
May 12,
1949
End of Berlin
Blockade
Russia ended the blockade of Berlin.
September Mao Zedong
Communists are in control of China
1949
Russians explode 1st atomic bomb
Russians Have
Atomic Bomb
February McCarthy’s
1950
Witch hunt
Red Scare
Complete Mission 8
April
1950
NSC 68
June 25th Korean War
1950
Containment w/ force and not diplomacy
The Korean war began when North Korea invaded South Korea.
The Korean War
The decade after the Second World War saw communism spread to the Far
East. In 1950, communist North Korea invaded South Korea and within three
months, had conquered most of their land. Following their policy of
containment, the USA got UN backing to send troops into Korea to re-take the
south, and if possible take the north too. The war lasted three years and peace
was only achieved when the use of the atomic bomb was threatened.
In 1945, Korea was split along the 38th parallel between a communist north
led by Kim IL Sung, and a non-communist south led by Syngman Rhee.
But communism was growing in the Far East. In 1949, the Communists had
taken power in China. The US developed the 'domino theory' - the idea that, if
one country fell to communism, others would follow like a row of dominoes.
Then, in 1950, a report by the American National Security Council ('NSC68')
recommended that the US stop containment and start to roll back
communism.
The war
 In 1950, after getting the support of Russia and China, Kim IL Sung
invaded South Korea.
 The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic
of Korea's army (the ROKs).
 By September, the NKPA had conquered almost the whole of South
Korea.
 The USA went to the United Nations and got them to send troops to
defend South Korea.
 The Russians couldn't veto the idea because they were boycotting the
UN at the time.
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In September, UN troops, led by the US General MacArthur, landed
in Korea and drove the NKPA back.
 By October, the UN forces had almost conquered all of North Korea.
 In November 1950, Chinese People's Volunteers attacked and drove
the Americans back.
 They recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea.
 The Americans landed more troops and drove the Chinese back to
the 38th parallel, where Truman ordered General MacArthur to stop
and sacked him when he disagreed.
 The war went on as border clashes until 1953 when America's new
president, Eisenhower, offered peace, but threatened to use the
atomic bomb if China did not accept the offer.
Recently, historians have shown that the Korean crisis almost led to a third
world war - many US advisers wanted to use the atomic bomb.
Complete Mission 9
March 5th Death of Stalin Joseph Stalin died at the age of 74. He was succeeded by Nikita
Khrushchev.
1953
isenhower (1953-1961)
Khrushchev’s Soviet Union 1953-1964
De-Stalinization
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Feb 1956 – Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalin’s purges and
cult of personality)
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Attacked image and reputation of Stalin
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More freedom for writers and artists
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Size and power of secret police reduced
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Political prisoners released
Agricultural Policies
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Aim was to produce more food
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Virgin Land Scheme – take fallow land and cultivate it using govt
resources
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Introduce maize
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Small collective farms became independent
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Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created
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Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not
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Virgin Land Scheme failed
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Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc)
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New collective farms did not work well
Industrial Policies
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Sovnarkhozy – Regional Economic Councils
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Controls on workers relaxed
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Decisions to be taken at a more regional level
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Ordered more luxury goods
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Developed Space program
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“What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?”
Industrial Problems
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Sovnarkhozy didn’t work
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Managers and workers were not used to the freedom
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Led to more bureaucracy
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Consumer goods sacrificed for space program
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1961 slogan “Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat”
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“Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses” –
housewife, 1990
Why did he Resign?
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Prices rose by 30%
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Agricultural policies had failed
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Industrial policies had failed
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Failed foreign policies – Cuba
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Embarrassment – UN shoe stamping incident during a speech
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Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many

Forced to resign in 1964
More Peaceful?
Khrushchev said that
he wanted ‘peaceful
co-existence’
BUT
By ‘peaceful co-existence’
he really meant ‘peaceful
competition’
Friendlier?
Khrushchev had a
sense of humor and
was always laughing
and smiling
BUT
He was NOT gentle and
easy-going – Stalin had
used him to run the terror
purges after WWII
Gentler?
In 1956, Khrushchev
said that Stalin was a
murderer, and he
began to ‘destalinize’
Russia. Political
prisoners were set free
and Beria (responsible
for Stalin’s Great
Purge) was executed
BUT
‘Destalinization’ did not
mean a change back to
capitalism, or freedom from
Russia
Summits?
Khrushchev often met
western leaders at
‘summit’ meetings
BUT
Khrushchev loved to argue.
This often caused tension
between leaders
Iron Curtain?
In 1955 Khrushchev
told Tito of Yugoslavia
‘there are different
roads to communism’.
Western leaders
thought this meant an
end to the Iron curtain
BUT
When communist countries
went too far in their
reforms, Khrushchev sent in
the army (eg Hungary 1956)
Thaw?
At first, the western
powers hoped that this
would be the start of a
‘thaw’ in the Cold War
BUT
Khrushchev gave countries
like Burma and Afghanistan
economic aid if they
supported Russia
July 27th Korean War
1953
1954
Iran and
Guatemala
The Korean war ended. North Korea remained affiliated with Russia
while South Korea was affiliated with the USA. 38th parallel.
US helps overthrow unfriendly regimes
Khrushchev (1953-1964)
Complete Mission 10
Summer
1954
Geneva
Accords
Ended the French war with the Vietminh & divided Vietnam into
North and South. The communist leader of North Vietnam was Ho
Chi Minh while the US friendly south was led by Ngo Dinh Diem.
May 14th Warsaw Pact Communist Pact: East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary,
Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union.
1955
Background

In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary

Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty

Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting
democracy
Khrushchev
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In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalin’s rule,
suggesting that Soviet policy might be changing

Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries
like Hungary would be allowed to have self-determination
Overthrow
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In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown
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Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy
Red Army
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November 4, 1956 – Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control
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Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest
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Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored
Pleas for Help
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Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed

Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance – but there was no
US intervention

Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed
Consequences

Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders
and Imre Nagy

Showed Soviet policy – countries in her sphere of influence would stay
in her sphere of influence

USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR
happy)
Complete Mission 11
October Suez Crisis
30th 1956
Following military bombardment by Israeli forces, a joint British and
French force invaded Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal
which had been nationalized by the Egyptian leader Nasser. The attack
was heavily criticized by World leaders, especially America because
Russia had offered support to Egypt. The British and French were
forced to withdraw and a UN peace keeping force was sent to
establish order.
Khrushchev (1953-1964)
Eisenhower (1953-1961)
October Hungary
23rd 1956
January 5 Eisenhower
1957
Doctrine
October
1954
Sputnik I
1) United States would use armed forces upon request in
response to imminent or actual aggression to the United
States.
2) Countries that took stances opposed communism would be
given aid in various forms
Russia Launched…1st in space
November Space Race
1st 1957
USSR Sputnik II carried Laika the dog, the first living creature to go into
space.
November Berlin
1958
Khrushchev demands withdrawal of troops from Berlin
Complete Mission 12
January
1959
Castro’s Cuba Cuba taken over by Fidel Castro
September Disneyland
1959
Khrushchev visits United States; denied access to Disneyland
May 1960 U2
Talks between Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight Eisenhower concerning
the fate of Germany broke down when a USA U2 spy plane was shot
down over Russian airspace.
Complete Mission 13
Kennedy
Doctrine
April 12th Space Race
1961
April 17th Bay of Pigs
1961
Invasion
“Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall
pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any
friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the
success of liberty.”
Russian cosmonaut Yuri Alekseyvich Gagarin became the first human
being in space.
A force of Cuban exiles, trained by the CIA, aided by the US
government attempted to invade Cuba and overthrow the
Communist government of Fidel Castro. The attempt failed.
Khrushchev
(1953-1964)
JFK(1961-1963)
January
1961
Complete Mission 14
August
Berlin Wall
13th 1961
Background

At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had
been)

In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to ‘starve’ West
Berlin into submission

Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift
Differences

Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel
freely – live in the East and work in the West and vice versa

Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a
base for spying and sabotage
Problems

In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated
from working in West Berlin

East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was
recovering well

Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to
West Berlin
August 13, 1961

Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in
two

People were trapped in either East or West Berlin

The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts
Concrete Wall

By August 17th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete
wall, split only by well guarded checkpoints

From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross

The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and
Capitalism
Consequences

In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the ‘West’ – they
claimed Communist countries had to build a wall to imprison people

However, there was very little the West could do to stop it – and the
wall did serve its purpose
Complete Mission 15
1962
Vietnam
US involvement in Vietnam increases
October Cuban Missile Background

In 1959 Fidel Castro’s rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in
14th 1962 Crisis
Cuba
Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA

USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist

Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal
Nuclear Site Spotted

In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a
nuclear missile site in Cuba

On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being
built
ExComm Set Up

US President Kennedy set up ‘ExComm’ a committee to decide what
to do

On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba

He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade
would be destroyed
On the Brink of War

On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any
missiles to be removed

Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba

The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war
Compromise

On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the
USA pulled out of Turkey

Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to
turn around
Consequences

Major propaganda victory for USA – they looked to have ‘won’

As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have
backed down

Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was
set up providing immediate contact)

Complete Mission 16
July 1963 Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty
Banned nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere, in outer space and under
water.
November JFK
JF Kennedy was assassinated while on a visit to Dallas. Lee Harvey
22nd 1963 Assassination Oswald was arrested for the murder but there has always been
speculation that he was not a lone killer and that there may have been
communist or CIA complicity.
August
1964
Gulf of
Tonkin
Incident and
Resolution
US claimed N Vietnam attacked our ship; not true
Johnson and declare war in SE Asia
How the US got involved
During the Second World War, South-East Asia had been under Japanese
control, but, in 1945, the French re-occupied Indo-China, which had been a
French colony before the war.
Johnson(1963-1969)
During the war the Japanese had been opposed by a Vietnamese nationalist
group called the Vietminh, led by Ho Chi Minh. The Vietminh, however, had
been fighting for their independence, and not to reinstate the French Empire,
so now they tried to drive out the French. In 1954, the Vietminh surrounded
and wiped out the French army at Dien Bien Phu.
The French realized they would have to leave, and over the next 20 years,
America was dragged into fighting a costly and disastrous war in Vietnam.
How the US got involved
At the Treaty of Geneva in 1954, Indo-China was divided
into Laos, Cambodia, North Vietnam and South Vietnam,
although it was agreed to hold elections in 1956 to unify
the two parts of Vietnam.
Ngo Dinh Diem, the ruler of South Vietnam, refused to
hold elections.
Ho Chi Minh was a communist, who was supported by
China. In 1960, he set up the National Liberation Front
(NLF) in South Vietnam, which started a guerrilla war to
take over South Vietnam from Diem and his American
backers.
The Americans called the NLF guerrillas the Vietcong, and
supported Diem with military advisers and money.
Diem's government was made up of rich Christian
landowners. It was corrupt and unpopular and persecuted
the poor Buddhist peasants. By 1963, most of South
Vietnam's rural areas were under Vietcong control - the
ARVN (South Vietnamese army) could not defeat them.
In 1963, the US supported a military coup, which
murdered Diem and put a military government in South
Vietnam.
In August 1964, sailors on the American warship USS
Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin claimed they had been
attacked by North Vietnamese torpedo boats. The US
Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin resolution, allowing
the American President Lyndon B. Johnson to take direct
military action in retaliation.
In February 1965, the Vietcong attacked American air
bases and killed American soldiers. President Johnson
declared war against North Vietnam.
Why did the US get involved?
1. Containment
 China had fallen to communism in 1949, and America had fought in
Korea in 1950-53 to contain the spread of communism.
 The US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, said: "I am not going to be the
president who saw South-East Asia go the way China went."
2. Domino theory
 Americans believed that, if South Vietnam fell, Laos, Cambodia and
Thailand - and then Burma and India - would follow.
 President Johnson said: "If you let a bully come into your garden, the
next day he'll be in your porch, and the day after that he'll rape your
wife."
3. ARVN's weakness
 It was obvious the South Vietnamese could not resist communist
infiltration by the Vietcong without help.
 In 1963, the American commander reported that the ARVN - the
South Vietnamese army - were "ill-equipped local militia who more
often than not were killed asleep in their defensive positions".
 US advisers believed that good government and an efficient, largescale war would defeat the Vietcong.
4. The US was attacked
 The North Vietnamese had attacked the USS Maddox in August 1964,
and then killed US soldiers in February 1965.
 Johnson became convinced that action in South Vietnam alone would
never win the war: "We are swatting flies when we should be going
after the manure pile."
The Vietnam War did not seem like a fair match. The Americans, under their
president, Lyndon B. Johnson, had a huge army, money and technology at
their disposal - the Vietcong were an underground army, which used
underground tactics.
So why couldn't the Americans defeat the Vietcong?
- In February 1965, President Johnson ordered Operation
Rolling Thunder - a massive bombing campaign against
North Vietnam.
- He sent US troops - 500,000 by 1969 - to fight in Vietnam.
- In November 1965, General William Westmoreland, the
US commander, lured the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) to
attack a force of American troops at Ia Drang, then
destroyed the attackers with a massive air strike.
- In 1968, the CIA started Operation Phoenix, arresting,
interrogating and killing suspected Vietcong activists.
- Despite this, the Americans could not succeed in driving
the Vietcong out of the rural areas.
- In January 1968, the NVA launched the Tet Offensive,
capturing a number of towns in South Vietnam.
- The North Vietnamese lost 58,000 men, including many
officers. Their morale was damaged - the offensive proved
that they could not defeat the Americans by direct attack.
- It took the Americans a month to recover the towns. Their
confidence was badly shaken. They won the Tet Offensive,
but realized that they would never defeat the Vietcong.
Vietcong and American tactics
The Vietcong's tactics
 They fought a guerrilla war, ambushing US patrols, setting booby
traps and landmines, and planting bombs in towns. They mingled in
with the peasants, wearing ordinary clothes. The Americans couldn't
identify who the enemy was.
 They were supplied with rockets and weapons by China and Russia.
They used the Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle route through Laos and
Cambodia - to supply their armies. The Americans couldn't attack their
supply routes without escalating the war.
 Their tactic was "hanging onto the belts" of the Americans - staying
so close to the Americans so they could not use air or artillery backup
without killing their own men.
The Americans' tactics
 They fought a hi-tech war, using B52 bombers, artillery, helicopters,
napalm and defoliants (Agent Orange). This killed many innocent
civilians, and failed to stop the Vietcong guerrillas.
 They forced the peasants to leave Vietcong-controlled areas and made
them live in defended strategic hamlets in loyal areas. This created
immense opposition, and allowed Vietcong infiltrators into loyal
areas.
 American troops were sent on patrols, then supported by air and
artillery when attacked. This demoralized the soldiers, who realized
they were being used just as bait.
 Search and destroy patrols went out looking for "Charlie", as they
called the Vietcong. But the patrols were very visible, and easy to
ambush. This led to atrocities such as "zippo raids" to burn villages,
and the unprovoked massacre of peaceful villagers at My Lai in 1968.
The US gets out
The Americans didn't leave Vietnam until 1973 - by which time 58,000 US
soldiers had lost their lives. Vietnam had been a total disaster for America financially, politically and morally.
- In 1968, the US president, Lyndon B. Johnson, ordered an
end to American bombing of North Vietnam.
- There were increasing problems in the American army in
Vietnam.
- There was increasing opposition to the war in America.
- Richard Nixon, who became US president in 1969, began
Vietnamization - pulling US troops out but giving financial
support to the South Vietnamese army (the ARVN).
- On occasions, the US escalated the war, launching attacks
into Cambodia (1970) and Laos (1971) to pursue the
Vietcong who were hiding there.
- In October 1972 Henry Kissinger worked out a peace
agreement with the North Vietnamese.
- Nguyen Van Thieu, the president of South Vietnam,
refused to sign (he thought the Americans were going to
abandon him), so the North Vietnamese pulled out of the
talks.
- Richard Nixon mounted huge bombing raids on North
Vietnam until the North Vietnamese were forced to sign.
- Nixon told Thieu he had to make peace whether he
agreed with it or not, so Thieu was forced to sign too.
- January 1973: the Paris Peace Agreement was signed, and
the Americans left Vietnam.
Why did America lose the war?
Take a look at this table highlighting the differences between the Americans
and the Vietcong.
Americans
Vietcong
The American hi-tech tactics
The Vietcong's guerrilla tactics were
continually killed the wrong people and appropriate to the nature of the
demoralized their own troops.
conflict.
The US was trying to supply a war
8,000 miles from America.
The Vietcong were supplied with
weapons by China and Russia.
The South Vietnamese regime was
weak, brutal and corrupt.
The South Vietnamese peasants
supported and sheltered the
Vietcong.
Their short (one-year) tour of service
meant that American troops were
always inexperienced.
The Vietcong had been
continuously at war since they
resisted the Japanese during the
Second World War.
The morale of Americans soldiers was The Vietcong were fanatically
rock bottom - they took drugs, shot
determined to drive out the
their officers ('fragging') and deserted. Americans, whatever the cost.
The North Vietnamese were
The war became very unpopular in the
motivated, fighting at home to
US, and lost public support.
unite their country.
Why did the war arouse so much opposition in America?
1. 58,000 Americans - average age 19 - were killed.
2. It was hard for Americans to believe that they were defending
America by fighting in a war 8,000 miles away.
3. Extensive media coverage brought all the failures and horrors of the
war into US homes.
4. Atrocities such as the massacre at My Lai undermined the moral
authority of the US to continue the war.
5. The cost of the war meant that the US president Lyndon B. Johnson
had to cancel his Great Society program of reform.
6. The war was opposed particularly by Martin Luther King and by
America's black community (because wealthier white men could avoid
the draft by going to university or to Canada, and young black men
were twice as likely to be killed).
After the Vietnam War
In 1975, two years after the Americans left, South Vietnam was united with
the North - it was now a communist state.
Vietnam united
- Although the Americans left Vietnam in 1973, they
continued to support the South Vietnamese army - the ARVN
- with financial and military aid.
- In April 1975 the South Vietnamese regime collapsed and
Vietnam was united.
The impact on Vietnam
- The North Vietnamese army - the NVA - massacred
thousands of South Vietnamese after the Americans had left.
Many people tried to flee South Vietnam (eg the "boat
people").
- The Vietnamese had to fight wars against Cambodia and
China before their independence was secured.
- Vietnam was ruined - its infrastructure was destroyed,
thousands of its people had been killed, and its farmland was
polluted by American chemical warfare. It remains one of the
poorest countries in the world.
The impact on America
- 58,000 Americans died in Vietnam.
- The war had cost so much that President Johnson's Great
Society program of social reform had to be cancelled.
- Loss of confidence: America had failed to "contain"
communism. In 1973, Nixon announced that America was
abandoning the Truman Doctrine. It was nearly 20 years
before America again intervened militarily in world affairs.
- The domino theory was proved to be wrong. The fall of
South Vietnam to communism was not immediately followed
by a similar effect in other countries.
- News of atrocities such as the killings at My Lai lost the US
its claim to moral superiority, and its status as the world's
defender of freedom and right.
- 700,000 Vietnam veterans suffered psychological aftereffects.
Complete Mission 17
October USSR
15th 1964
Nikita Krushchev removed from office. He was replaced by Leonid
Brezhnev.
July 1965 Vietnam War
150,000 US troops sent to Vietnam.
August
Soviet invasion Warsaw Pact forces entered Czechoslovakia in a bid to stop the reforms
known as 'Prague Spring' instigated by Alexander Dubcek. When he
20th 1968 of
Czechoslovakia refused to halt his program of reforms Dubcek was arrested.
Czechoslovakia 1968
For four months in 1968, Czechoslovakia broke free from Soviet rule, allowing
freedom of speech and removing some state controls. This period is now
referred to as the Prague Spring.
5. For four months (the Prague Spring), there was freedom in
Czechoslovakia. But then the revolution began to run out of
control. Dubcek announced that he was still committed to
democratic communism, but other political parties were set
up.
6. Also, Dubcek stressed that Czechoslovakia would stay in the
Warsaw Pact, but in August, President Tito of Yugoslavia, a
country not in the Warsaw Pact, visited Prague.
7. At a meeting in Bratislava on 3 August 1968, Brezhnev read
out a letter from some Czechoslovakian Communists asking
for help. He announced the Brezhnev Doctrine - the USSR
would not allow any Eastern European country to reject
Communism.
8. On 20 August 1968, 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops invaded
Czechoslovakia. Dubcek and three other leaders were
arrested and sent to Moscow.
Brezhnev (1964-1982)
1. There were no riots or demonstrations but, during 1967,
students and writers were complaining about the lack of
freedom, and the poor performance of the Czechoslovak
economy.
2. But when Antonin Novotny, the Czechoslovak president,
asked Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet leader, for help, Brezhnev
did not support him.
3. Novotny fell from power and on 5 January 1968, Alexandr
Dubcek - a reformer - took over as leader of the Communist
Party (KSC).
4. In April 1968, Dubcek's government announced an Action
Plan for what it called a new model of socialism - it removed
state controls over industry and allowed freedom of speech.
9. The Czechoslovakians did not fight the Russians. Instead,
they stood in front of the tanks, and put flowers in the
soldiers' hair. Jan Palach burned himself to death in protest.
10. Brezhnev put in Gustav Husak, a supporter of Russia, as
leader of the KSC.
Causes and effects of the Prague Spring
Causes of the Prague Spring
1. The policy of détente encouraged the uprising. Romania had also broken
free of Russian control, and was improving relations with the West.
2. The Czechs hated Russian control, especially:
- Russian control of the economy, which had made Czechoslovakia poor.
- The censorship and lack of freedom.
3. Some Czechs thought the USA would help them.
Effects of the invasion of Czechoslovakia
1. Czechoslovakia returned to communist control and Russian troops were
stationed there. Half the leadership of the KSC, along with the directors of
many firms (especially publishing companies) were sacked and 47 anticommunists were arrested.
2. Russia stayed in control behind the Iron Curtain. The Brezhnev Doctrine
stated that Iron Curtain countries would not be allowed to abandon
communism, "even if it meant a third world war".
3. Increase of the Cold War. People in the West were horrified and so were
many communist countries, especially Romania and Yugoslavia.
Similarities and Differences between Hungary 1956 and Czechoslovakia 1968
Similarities
- Same causes - hostility to Russian control, repression, poor economic
performance/poverty.
- Change started when Russia refused to support the old regime.
- Rakosi = Novotny, Nagy = Dubcek
- Brief period when the new government introduced reforms and freedom of
speech.
- Russia got scared when Hungary planned to leave the Warsaw Pact; Tito
visited Czechoslovakia.
- A letter from some Communists asking for Russia's help was used as the
excuse to invade.
- Russia invaded with overwhelming force.
- Kadar = Husak
- The West failed to help either Nagy or Dubcek.
Differences
- Started with riots in Hungary, but not in Czechoslovakia.
- Czechoslovakia was much more planned than Hungary; Dubcek's
government had a proper Action Plan.
- Nagy announced he was going to leave the Warsaw Pact; Dubcek stressed
that he would stay in the Warsaw Pact.
- The Hungarians introduced democracy; Dubcek stressed that he wanted
communism, albeit "democratic communism".
- Four months of freedom in Czechoslovakia; five days of freedom in Hungary.
- The Catholic Church took a lead in events in Hungary, but not in
Czechoslovakia.
- Hungary fought back; Czechoslovakia had passive resistance.
- Some 4,000 Hungarians executed, while 47 Czechoslovaks were arrested.
- Dubcek was arrested; Nagy was executed.
Complete Mission 18
November Brezhnev
1968
Doctrine
December Space Race
21st 1968
20th July Space Race
1969
November Nixon Doctrine
3, 1969
Detente
When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of
some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a
problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern
of all socialist countries."
US launched Apollo 8 - first manned orbit of the Moon.
US Apollo 11 landed on the Moon and Neil Armstrong became the first
man on the Moon.
1) United States will keep all of its treaty commitments.
2) provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens the freedom of a
nation allied with us
3) military and economic assistance when requested
4) Leads to Détente
Nixon (1969-1973)
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty: powers with
1968 nuclear weapons agreed not to give any other
countries nuclear technology.
1971 The US table tennis team played in China.
1971
The US dropped its veto and allowed China to join
the United Nations.
1972 President Nixon visited China.
Russia and America signed the SALT1 Treaty
1972 (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) agreeing to limit
their anti-ballistic missiles and bombers.
Brezhnev (1964-1982)
Detente
You will have come across the term détente when reading about the Cold War
during the late 1960s and 1970s. The policy of détente refers to the time
when the two superpowers eased tension and tried to co-operate to avoid
conflict.
The Helsinki Agreement recognized Soviet control
1975 over Eastern Europe, concluded a trade agreement,
and Russia promised to respect human rights.
1975 Russian and American spacecraft docked in space.
Causes and limitations of détente
Causes of détente
1. America was shocked by the Vietnam War and wanted to stay out of world
affairs. There was also a vociferous CND movement in the West.
2. The arms race was very expensive for both superpowers.
3. The price of oil rocketed in the 1970s, and both superpowers experienced
economic problems.
Limitations of détente
1. The Non-Proliferation Treaty did not stop other countries developing
nuclear weapons (eg China, and perhaps South Africa and Israel).
2. Neither Russia or America kept to the SALT1 agreement. Neither side
reduced their conventional weapons. Further talks were much less successful
and a SALT2 Treaty in 1979 added little.
3. In the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, America supported Israel, and Russia
supported Egypt and Syria.
4. The Helsinki Agreement achieved nothing - it confirmed the Iron Curtain
and Russia ignored its promises about human rights.
5. Table tennis and space meetings were just one-off propaganda stunts.
6. Brezhnev said that Communists would still try to destroy capitalism. Some
historians suggest that Nixon only went to China to drive a wedge between
Russia and China.
April 30th Vietnam War
1970
President Richard Nixon ordered US troops to go to Cambodia.
February China
1972
Nixon visits China
May 1972 Moscow
Nixon visits Moscow
May 26th SALT I
1972
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty signed between the US and USSR.
Anti-Ballistic Missiles
August
Vietnam
15th 1973
The Paris Peace Accords ended American involvement in Vietnam.
September Chili
1973
US helps overthrow Chili Gov’t
October
Egypt asks for Soviet help
Egypt and
Ford (1974-1977)
1973
Syria attack
Israel
August
1974
Nixon
Resigned
Watergate
April 17th Cambodia
1975
Killing fields
The Khmer Rouge attacked and took control of Cambodia. Any
supporters of the former regime, anyone with links or supposed
links to foreign governments as well as many intellectuals and
professionals were executed in a genocide that became known as the
'killing fields'.
April 30th Vietnam
1975
North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam. The capture of Saigon by
the North Vietnamese led to the whole country becoming
Communist.
July 1975 Apollo-Soyuz
Test Project
Joint space venture between USA and USSR heralded as an end to the
'Space Race'
January Carter
20th 1977 President
Jimmy Carter became the 39th President of the United States
July 1979 SALT II



November Iranian hostage A group of Iranian students and militants stormed the American embassy
and took 53 Americans hostage to show their support for the Iranian
4th 1979 crisis
Revolution.
December Afghanistan
24th 1979
Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan
Complete Mission 19
January
1980
Carter Doctrine “Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force
to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an
assault on the vital interests of the United States of America, and
such an assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including
military force.”
July 1980 Olympic
Boycott by
USA
A number of countries including the USA boycotted the summer
Olympics held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan. Other countries including Great Britain participated under
the Olympic flag rather than their national flag
Brezhnev (1964-1982)
Carter(1977-1981)

1979 – SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles.
Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
USSR claimed they had been asked to ‘restore order’. US saw it as an
invasion and supported Afghan rebels
Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko
December Poland
13th 1980
Martial law was declared to crush the Solidarity movement
January Iranian hostage The Iranian hostage crisis ended 444 days after it began
20th 1981 crisis ended
June 1982 START
Reagan (1981-1989)
July 1984 Olympic
boycott by
Russia
Ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States
from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles
Russia and 13 allied countries boycotted the summer Olympics held
in Los Angeles in retaliation for the US boycott of 1980.
Chernenko
(1984-1985)
“Star Wars”
Andropov
(1982-1984)
1983
During a summit in Geneva Reagan proposed Strategic Arms Reduction
Talks
March
Govbachov
Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union
11th 1985 leader of USSR
1985
Iran-Contra
Affair
Arms sold to Iran, profits used to support contras (rebels) in
Nicaragua
An explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine
remains the worst nuclear disaster in history
June 1987 Glasnost and
Perestroika
Mikhail Gorbachev announced his intention to follow a policy of
glasnost - openness, transparency and freedom of speech; and
perestroika - restructuring of government and economy.
He also advocated free elections and ending the arms race.
February Afghanistan
15th 1989
The last Soviet troops left Afghanistan
June 4th
1989
Tiananmen
Square
Anti Communist protests in Tiananmen Square, Beijing, China were
crushed by the government. The death count is unknown.
August
1989
Poland
Tadeusz Mazowiecki elected leader of the Polish government - the
first eastern bloc country to become a democracy
October Hungary
23rd 1989
Hungary proclaimed itself a republic
Gorbachev
(1985-1991)
Bush (1989-1993)
Complete Mission 20
Gorbachev (1985-1991)
April 26th Chernobyl
1986
Disaster
November Fall of the
9th 1989 Berlin Wall
The Berlin wall was torn down
November Velvet
17th Revolution
December
29th 1989
The Velvet Revolution, also known as the Gentle Revolution, was a
series of peaceful protests in Czechoslovakia that led to the overthrow
of the Communist government.
December Malta Summit This meeting between Mikhail Gorbachov and George H W Bush
2nd, 3rd
reversed much of the provisions of the Yalta Conference 1945. It is seen
by some as the beginning of the end of the cold war.
1989
December Romanian
16th Revolution
25th 1989
Riots broke out which culminated in the overthrow and execution of the
leader Ceauşescu and his wife.
October
3rd 1990
German
reunification
East and West Germany were reunited as one country.
1st July
1991
End of Warsaw The Warsaw Pact which allied Communist countries was ended
Pact
31st July
1991
START
The Strategic Arms Reduction treaty was signed between Russia
and the USA
25th
Gorbachev
December resigned
1991
Mikhail Gorbachev resigned. The hammer and sickle flag on the
Kremlin was lowered
26th
End of the
December Soviet Union
1991
Russia formally recognized the end of the Soviet Union