Download Chapter 11: The Revolutions of 1848 and 1849

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Chapter 11: The Revolutions of 1848 and 1849
Framework of Events:
1848
1849
January: Revolt of Palermo, Sicily
February: Abdication of Louis Philippe and proclamation of the Second Republic in
France
March: Intro of universal manhood suffrage and the ‘right to work’ in France.
Resignation of Metternich. Violence in Berlin. war between Piedmont and
Austria.
May: First meeting of the Frankfurt Parliament
June: Meeting of Pan-Slav Congress in Prague. Cavaignac suppresses insurrection in
Paris. Windischgrätz bombards Prague
July: Radetzky defeats Piedmontese at Custoza. Meeting of Constituent Assembly in
Vienna
October: Windischgrätz occupies Vienna
November: Pope Pius IX abandons Rome
December: Louis Napoleon is elected President of the French Republic
February: Establishment of the Roman Republic by Mazzini and Garibaldi
March: Dissolution of the Austrian Constituent Assembly. Defeat of Piedmontese at
Novara
April: Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses the offer of the German Crown
July: Suppression of the Roman Republic by French troops
August: Hungarian rebels surrender to Austrian and Russian troops
VOCAB:
Neo-guelph – in medieval Italy the Guelph faction supported the political claims of the Papacy, as
opposed to the Ghibelline faction, which favored the rival claims of the Holy Roman
Empire. Because Vincenzo Gioberti and his followers also placed the Pope in a position of
political prominence, they were regarded as the ‘new Geulphs’
Amnestied – granted official state pardons
Confidant – a person with whom people can discuss private problems and other secret matters
Sovereign Pontiff – a sovereign is the person who is regarded as having the highest level of authority;
the Pontiff is the Pope
Proletarian – relating to the class of people in a country who are paid wages for work that they do with
their hands
Insurgents – people fighting against the government/army of their own country because they want a
different regime
Regency – when a person is given royal authority on behalf of another (usually applies to when the
monarch is underage)
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Overview
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Political tensions that beset the governments of Europe were compounded by a complex
socio-economic crisis
Unemployment and high food prices provoked angry urban demonstrations that added to
the intellectual discontent of the middle classes
The liberal and radical movements of 1848 had not brought about much lasting change
Political interests of middleclass liberals rarely coincided with unemployed workers
In 1848, this community of political interests was often cancelled out by conflicts between
the nationalist demands that often accompanied progressive constitutional ideas
The most important failure of all lay in the enduring strength of the government system that
they appeared to have overthrown
The revolution did leave behind certain achievements
o Prussia and Piedmont retained constitutions that their rulers could not easily ignore
o Feudal obligations were abolished in parts of Eastern Europe
o The main beneficiaries of the 1848 revolutions were the government conservatives
The revolutions of 1848 acted permanently and sought to exploit a ‘revolutionary situation
that did not really exist
The events of this ‘year of revolutions ‘, provided a clear indication of the evolutionary
direction that European politics were following
11.1: What role was played by economic factors in making 1848 ‘a year of revolutions?
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Traditional form of European society under pressure from economic and demographic change
(most severe phase in 1845-1847)
Ernest Larousse (French historian) made our understanding of the events in 1848 better when
he described the revolts as “a conjugation of several crisis’” rather than one from single crisis.
AGRICULTURAL CRISIS
o Acute crisis in 1845
o Potato blight that year impacted Ireland, lost up to a million lives; also affecting
Belgium, Holland, Germany, Poland with widespread hunger
o 1846: unusually hot dry weather killed grain crop-impossible to make good shortfall
from the surplus of the previous harvest
o Sudden, steep price increases!
o Imports of bread could not work because of undeveloped European railway: to get the
bread into many parts of the continent impossible
INDUSTRIAL CRISIS
o Partly a crisis of overproduction-manufacturers saturate markets and cut back
production, made unemployment and wage cuts, industry production fell dramatically
o European industry still an ‘infant’ and inexperienced
o 1845-1847 most severe (crisis hit Europe every decade since Napoleonic wars)
o Crisis worsened by factory production (in areas where older forms of production used:
hostility from skilled craftsmen to factories for causing their suffering)
o Industry crisis linked to agriculture crisis: banks and government used all money to buy
foreign corn, and had none to spare for the industry investing
o High food prices and decreased wages damage living conditions of people (worst in
towns)
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3 elements of discontent: unemployed hungry artisans; peasants fleeing rural problems
(starvation, semi-feudal oppression); middle class liberal and nationalist opposition to
regimes.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRISIS AND REVOLT
o Violence in 1848 occurred during the improvement of the European crisis, not the
height of it (steady accumulation of frustration during 2.5 yrs of hardship)
o 1848-49 rebellions withered, after promising beginnings. Violence source from political
disputes between the very different European states not rebels.
o Views of revolutionary leaders were much more diverse than what most people
thought, so the leaders had organized followings, These leaders had ‘the same
vocabulary, the same programme, concealed dissimilar situations’. –C. Pouthas
11.2: Why did the Provisional government come to power in France, and why was it unable to
implement its radical policies in the long term?
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THE ABDICATION OF LOUIS-PHILIPPE
o 1848- French government falls, almost by accident after accumulation of discontent·
Louis-Philippe launched moderate phase of oppression in 1847- but danger of collapse
had little reason, despite problems. Political gatherings forbidden, opposition held series
of banquets with speakers to spread political views on reform. When the government
banned even this form of protest, demonstrations in Paris started.
o 40-50 demonstrators shot by troops on Feb. 23, 1847 led to King dismissing Guizot.
o Next day, population of Paris started a rebellion, National Guard refused to perform its
peacekeeping duties, so a confused Louis-Philippe abdicated in exile to England.
PERSONNEL: A COMPROMISE SOLUTION
o A coalition (opposition) had not toppled the French monarchy (forces not defeated, but
abandoned by the commander)
o Events of Paris echoed in some provincial outbursts, but rest of accepted revolution
because of no agreed alternative, but saw its artificial character.
o Provisional Government formed Feb. 25, 1847, was a compromise. It was essentially
liberal, envisioned by Alphonse de Lamartine, and expanded to include radical elements
to prevent Parisian insurgents forming a rival administration. This uneasy coalition was
an odd mixture of very different people.
o Important people in the government: Lamartine-Foreign Minister; Louis Garnier-Pagesfinances; Adolphe Cremieux and Alexandre Ledru-Rollin- Minister of Justice and Minister
of the Interior.
POLICIES: RADICALISM OR REASSURANCE?
o Government had difficulty formulating policy to suit radical’s demands and also reassure
the bourgeoisie.
o Foreign policy was to reassure Europe’s powers that 1848’s events would not
internationally affect them like in 1792. Lamartine’s ‘Manifesto to Europe’ wanted
others to think of France as peaceful, not like Napoleon’s France. This was undermined
by France’s idea that they were no longer bound by Bourbon Treaties.
o Revolution broke out in other European capitals, so the powers’ minds were no longer
on revolution in France.
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Financial policy was compromise. Maintain business confidence, debts to the monarchy
were honoured, and Bank of France was left alone. (the moderate policy was however
the greatest failure of administration).
o Failed to arrest share price drop or gold reserve drain. To try to strengthen itself, the
Provisional imposed a 45% tax on direct income, causing resentment. The farmers
(freshly freed from feudalism) were helped minimally.
LUXEMBOURG COMMISSION AND THE ‘RIGHT TO WORK’
o Provisional gov’t broke new radical ground in terms of domestic political reform.
o Decision to form republic (ignore Louis-Philippe’s regency) recalled the extreme phase
of the ‘great’ revolution. Started mostly by Parisian radicals pressure.
o Universal manhood suffrage raised electorate (group of people voting) from 240,000 to
about 9 million.
o Most controversial decisions were when helping social distress- Luxembourg
Commission created: an assembly of workers’ delegates discussing problems and
solutions. ‘National Workshops’ to provide work for the unemployed.
o These workshops based on Louis Blanc’s theories on state intervention and the ‘right to
work’. Louis Blanc- socialist, critical of Louis-Philippe, member of Provisional
government, chairman of Luxembourg Commission, returned from exile in England to be
a socialist deputy in the Third Republic.
o These works failed, showing no obvious results, workshops not given important
projects, attracted resentment of middle-class by changing normal employment
relationships and using lots of public money.
11.3: Why did the events of 1848 end in the triumph of conservatism?
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ELECTORAL CONSERVATISM
o Constituent Assembly of the Republic gave the general population of Frenchman a
voice in the election of April 23. 100/880 seats were radical/socialist, all the rest
were conservative or supporters of monarchy. Counter-revolution occurring fast!
o Karl Marx saw the counter-revolution as class warfare, saw the alliance between
the middle and working classes against the common enemy, which dissolved when
common enemy fled. Bourgeois were more sympathetic to Louis-Philippe’s society.
o Georges Duveau stressed diversity of Parisian working class’ views, and cannot be
treated as a unit. Peter Amann saw 1848 violence not as a statement of united class
interest, but of anger accumulated over time from many causes.
THE JUNE DAYS
o Major clash between radicals and conservatives showed through demonstrations by
radicals, supporting the rebels in Poland by invading assembly on May 15, in
attempt to ‘educate’ the electorate. ‘June Days’ were outbreaks of violence in Paris
as result of the confrontations.
o Outburst immediate cause was decision to fire unmarried men from the National
Workshops, eventually to shut them down. June 23-26 was fighting between
insurgents and opponents before troops (under General Cavaignac: military
commander Algeria, Governor General in 1848, Minister of War in the Provisional,
crushed ‘June Days’ rising, arrested in Louis Napoleon’s reign.) 1500 lives lost during
the fighting in the streets,.
o Defeat of insurgents represented defeat of radical phase of revolution. This was the
first conservative victory in revolution.
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11,000 people prosecuted, Paris remaining under martial law until October,
National workshops and political clubs dissolved, press censorship instilled, ‘right of
work’ clauses deleted from constitution. February’s revolution work reversed.
THE ELECTION OF LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE
o Republic’s first president elected in December 1848. 5/6 candidates lost by a
landslide, having made only some achievements over the past year’s revolutions.
o General Changarnier got 5000/7500000 votes.
o Alphonse de Lamartine got 18,000 votes (foreign ministry lasted about a month)
o Francois-Vincent Raspail got 37,000, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin got 370,000 (thought of
as too radical, and got fewer votes from provinces)
o General Louis Cavaignac, 1,448,107 votes (thought of as champion of public order or
the butcher of June)
o Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, 5,434,226 votes. Advantage of no association with
radicals or reactionaries (not present for first 4 months of revolution), bore a name
reminding Frenchmen of international prestige and domestic stability. Already
elected by the four departments in June. First and only president of the Second
Republic.
o Second Republic: new elections to Assembly: 500 conservative and 250 republicans.
Showed domestic conservationism as triumphant.
 Falloux Law (March 1850) giving church powers to supervise education
in localities. This was most notable domestic legislation. Catholic church
also had a say in foreign policy, military expedition overthrowing radical
Roman Republic, the Pope was restored to Rome with a French
‘guardian’.
 Formed a lasting form of conservatism, the Second Empire.
Chapter 11.4 Who was Louis Napoleon Bonaparte and what did he offer the French electors?
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Louis Bonaparte was the nephew of napoleon he was born (April 20th 1808)
Louis Napoleon pursued a political career with some success his name being his greatest asset
Louis achieved an appointment for the high office in 1848
Louis attempted to pursue what he believed to be his own and Frances destiny but attempts to
raise revolt in Strasbourg (October 1836) and Boulogue (August 1840) led, first to flight, then to
imprisonment in the fortress of Ham and finally further exile in England in 1846
Though Louis had achieved little success he showed his worth as a propagandist by writing two
books in exile and sold half a million copies by 1848 The Napoleonic Ideals (written 1839) The
extinction of pauperism (1844)
These books put forth the theory that all Frances problems had only been tackled by the regime
of the Emperor. Louis electoral manifesto published in Dec1848 pledged Louis to the reduction
of taxes and unemployment and the expansion of private economics as well as the freedom of
press and protection of educational rights of the Church
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11.5 Why did the movement for liberal reform achieve such success in Germany, and then
collapse so rapidly?
The Combination of crisis in Germany
 Events in France early 1848 had an impact on many German States the crisis in two
German towns displayed two distinct characteristics first was the material distress from
failed harvest second was distress of traditional artisans
 Rulers of many German principalities were unfit as ceaseless inbreeding and power
being territorially circumscribed produced mad princes and petty princes hardly one
being sane
The first wave of Reforms
 In German states and central Europe news of the February revolution in Paris was
the trigger that turned long term resentment into political confrontation.
 By the second week of March leaders of most German states lost hope of surviving
where the king of France had perished.
 King Ludwig abdicated and his successor Maximilian II accepted this led to feudal
obligations being abolished in March
The Frankfurt Parliament
 Liberal reforms were only one element for the victory of the insurgents
 Rulers of Prussia Bavaria Baden and Württemberg agreed to participate in German
national parliament to unify the nation
 Group of academics formed a preliminary parliament which would in turn supervise
election to a German representative assembly
 They realized it was much harder to construct a new state and society than they
imagined.
The failure of the Frankfurt Parliament
 Historians have been very critical of the German liberals that dominated the
Frankfurt parliament
 Historian’s do not agree with how German liberals handled the Frankfurt
parliament and believed the failure of the parliament was because the
opportunities of 1848 were deceptive and misleading
 Conservatives could not decide which of the royal houses should predominate and
how
 In June under the influence of President Heinirch von Gagern the parliament
decided to claim executive power superior to any state
 Also entrusted leadership of Germany to the greatest if German family’s the
Habsburgs.
The Challenge of non-German nationalism
 Another set of problems with the Frankfurt parliament was its lack of material
power it had no army and had to rely on good will of the major German princes for
basic functions such as collection of taxes.
 Parliament faced more challenges when various nationalities laid claim to
territories seen by the parliament as part of the father land.
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The Challenge of working class radicalism
 The working class was making economic demands against the middle class
The Recovery of Prussia
 Three factors paved the way for triumph of conservatism in Germany: The national
issue, The growing fear of working class violence, The steady recovery of nerve by the
king of Prussia
 Prussia’s parliament sought to abolish the feudal legal and financial privileges of the
Junker class, Junkers openly opposed liberals
 Friedrich Wilhelm dismissed his liberal ministers and ordered his troops back to
Berlin and dissolved the Prussian Parliament
 Anti-nationalist stance of the Austrian Habsburgs in March 1849 gave the Frankfurt
assembly little alternative but to offer the crown of Germany to Friedrich Wilhelm “who
refused to pick up a crown from the gutter” and this sealed Frankfurt’s failure.
 Prussian and Austrian delegates withdrew from Frankfurt and the parliament was
dispersed by Prussian troops in June of 1849
11.6 In what respects was the crisis in the Austrian Empire more dangerous than other parts
of Europe
Political and Economic weaknesses within the Empire
 In 1848-49 the Austrian Empire was threatened with radical constitutional change and
the threat of collapse of its complex multinational structure
 Over the years there were some half-hearted attempts by Metternich at political and
fiscal reform also the political scene was dominated by rivalry and jealously between
Metternich and Count Kolowrat
 The ascension in 1835 of Emperor Ferdinand who was physically sick and mentally
abnormal ensured further political malaise throughout the system
 Economically the Austrian Empire had produced nothing to rival Prussia’s industrial
modernization and the government had attempted to impose an intellectual straight
jacket on the empire
The challenge of nationalism within the Empire
 The rise of nationalism gave the Austrian crisis a distinctive flavour of its own
 The state had much racial diversity and each nationality aimed to improve its status
within the Empire
The fall of Metternich
 In February 1848 a revolution in Paris triggered political revolt in Austria middle class
students and working class people joined together in street demonstration to present
petitions to the Emperor the Emperor who had already lost his wits now lost his nerve
and later that day the imperial chancellor Klemens von Metternich resigned.
 Emperor Ferdinand in April conceded freedom of the press and gave permission for a
constitution for the German speaking areas of the Empire he later promised a
constituent assembly and accepted the arming of a volunteer national guard in Vienna
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Reform in Hungry
 Opposition in the provinces in the Empire was inevitable with the collapse of imperial
willpower
 Hungry formulated the so called March laws a mixture of classic liberal demands with
more specific national ones
 Freedom of the press, equality of taxation, equality before the law, and freedom of
religion stood alongside the removal of all non-Hungarian troops from Hungry as well as
other demands Ferdinand conceded all the demands and effectively accepted the
establishment of an in depended Hungarian estate
Bohemia and Austro-Slavism
 In Prague the Pan-Slav congress shows not the path of national independence but within
a reformed Habsburg Empire
 Prague demanded that the Czech language had equal status with German and that the
robot be abolished and that there be peace and liberty within the nation
 Austro-Slavism represented an impossible paradox it depended upon the weakness of
the Viennese government for its success and upon the voluntary dismantling of
absolutism by the Habsburgs. Yet it trusted in Habsburg strength against German or
Russian domination
11.7 How was the Austrian Government able to Re-Establish its Authority?
Radical Defeat in Prague and Vienna
 Alfred von Windischgrätz (1787-1862)
o military commander of Bohemia (1840-48)
o successful against insurgents in Prague and Vienna (1848)
o captured Budapest (1849) but was unable to crush the Hungarian uprising, and was
recalled to Vienna in disgrace
 Johann Radetzky (1766-1858)
o Austrian military commander
o Commander-in-Chief in Lombardy (1831)
o defeated Piedmontese at Custoza and recaptured Milan (1848)
o Military Governor of Lombardy and Venetia (1849-57)
 Count Josef Jellacic (1801-1859)
o Croat soldier and politician
o enthusiastic supporter of Habsburg authority
o played a major role as Governor of Croatia, in the suppression of the 1848 risings
 Count Felix von Schwarzenberg (1800-1852)
o Austrian statesman
o Ambassador to Naples (1846-48)
o active in the re-establishment of Austrian authority in Italy in 1848-49
o appointed chief minister of the Emperor (November 1848)
o active role is disbanding the Constituent Assembly and restoring imperial authority and
in negotiating Russian intervention against the Hungarian uprising in 1849
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the first major success of the counter-revolution in 1848 occurred in Prague. As the seven
Czechs seemed convinced of their own weakness it is scarcely surprising that those commanding
the undefeated Austrian forces in the north moved towards the same conclusion
in reaction to renewed radical and student violence in the city (13 June), General Windischgrätz
took the decision to bombard Prague. Within three days the city was under his control. The
hostility of the Frankfurt Parliament was repeated in the violent language of radicals in Vienna.
the revolution in Vienna suffered from a steady decline rather than from a sudden collapse. By
the time of Windischgrätz’s triumph, the Viennese radicals had achieved some notable
triumphs.
o they had formed a constituent assembly and a National Guard
In September, the assembly struck at the social bases of rural Austria by abolishing the robot
and the hereditary rights of nobility in local administration. These were major and lasting
changes wrought by the “Year of Revolutions” in the Empire.
The end of the practice of robot had a ruinous effect on the lesser gentry, who lost valuable
source of cheap labour.
fatal weaknesses were already becoming evident in the position of the revolutionaries. The
dynasty remained in power and continued to be served by ‘old school’ ministers
Divisions began to appear in the ranks of the revolutionaries.
some elements among the German-speaking radicals favoured the cutting of links with the nonGerman provinces of the Empire. They aimed at a form of grossdeutsch unity with the other
states represented at the Frankfurt Parliament. Others wished to see the territorial
preservation of the Empire and applauded the victories of Alfred von Windischgrätz and Johann
Radetzky
the discussion of a constitutional settlement aggravated the divisions.
o liberals remained content with a constitutional monarchy
o while stricter radicals wanted a republic
the emergency of workers’ organizations in Vienna revived memories of the ‘June Days’ in Paris,
and in August, demonstrations were broken up by the National Guard
the government’s decision (3 October) to declare war on the Hungarian rebels brought matters
to a head. Radical demonstrations in favor of Hungary, in which the Minister of War was
lynched, emboldened the conservatives to treat Vienna as Prague had been treated. By the end
of the month, Windischgrätz and Jellacic had conquered Austria’s capital
The Re-Establishment of Imperial Government
 the regeneration of a conservative government was steadily consolidated
 in November, a new government, under Count Schwarzenberg, took office. In December, as the
living symbol of regeneration, the 18-year old Franz Josef ascended the Imperial throne upon his
uncle’s abdication.
 the new administration was based upon realism and power politics
 the fate of the constituent assembly illustrates the methods of Austria’s new masters. Since
October, it had lingered in exile in the Moravian town of Kremsier deliberating over an Austrian
constitution. By the completion of its task (1 March 1848), Schwarzenberg felt strong enough to
do without an assembly, but not without a constitution.
 within three days of the formation of the “Kremsier Constitution” he had dissolved the assembly
and allowed the Minister of the Interior, Count Stadion, to introduce an Imperial constitution of
a different kind
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it permitted the parliament based upon universal manhood suffrage, it stressed the indivisible
nature of the Empire. Although Hungary received recognition of its linguistic separatism, it now
could only expect direct government from Vienna
Schwarzenberg’s reaction to the 1848-49 events had significance for the Habsburg Empire in the
later 19th century. It suggests that he had learned much about the weaknesses of the nationalist
movements, but little from the weakness of his own state.
while the 1850’s were a period of economic modernization and reform in France, in Prussia and
Piedmont-Sardinia, they witnessed only the consolidation of political conservatism in Austria
The Reconquest of Hungary
 the most important factor leading the government to grant constitutional concessions was the
need to keep a degree of general support while Hungary remained undefeated
 from October 1848, the policy of Imperial government towards Hungarian autonomy had been
one of open hostility
 Firstly, tactic support from the Slav minorities alienated by Kossuth’s ‘March Laws’ became
active and overt. The advance of the Croat General Jellacic into southern Hungary was shortlived (September 1848) and unsuccessful
 Secondly, the hope that Windischgrätz might win a third counter-revolutionary success with
Austrian troops proved ill-founded
 in response to Schwarzenberg’s constitution, a Hungarian republic was proclaimed and the
Viennese government was forced to appeal for foreign aid
 the attack of Jellacic, Windischgrätz, and 140 000 Russians ended the life of the Hungarian
republic at Vilagos on August 13, 1849, and opened a period of bloody regression and
retribution.
 the official annulment of the Hungarian constitution in 1851 finalized the conservative triumph
in the Austrian Empire
11.8 What did Italian Nationalists Consider the Prospects of Italian Freedom and Statehood so
Promising in 1846-1848?
The economic and political state of Italy: the beginnings of conservative reform
 the disturbances in Italy were predictable. The political and economic crisis in the Italian states
had roots going back the restoration of 1815 and, in many cases, far beyond.
 economic hardship in Italy was the result
 radical and nationalist politics had a long history in Italy, yet there were some signs before 1848
that the time was ripe for change
 traditionally, Italy’s political regimes have been portrayed as reactionary, out of date and as
resistant to change. It is also possible that the years before 1848 witnessed changes that might
have offered hope to more moderate Italian reformers
 some of Italy’s conservative regimes were gradually realizing the advantages of modernization
and efficiency as the mid-century approached. Metternich seemed to have realized the
advantages of combining legitimist principles with the greater efficiency that the Napoleonic
administrations had achieved
 Vittorio Fossombroni in Tuscany and Luigi de Medici in Naples provide examples of ministers
who attempted to implement such policies. A revisionist study by Narcisso Nada emphasized
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the extent of the legal, administrative, financial, and military reforms brought about by Charles
Albert in Piedmont well before he placed himself at the head of the national cause
1848 doesn’t represent a clean break with the Italian history, and the actions of both Charles
Albert and Pope Pius IX can be seen as a part of a longer process of ‘conservative reform’.
the reformist policies of Cavour may be seen to have had a much older pedigree
for the churchman, Vincenzo Gioberti, the future of Italy lay with the Papacy, not Piedmont. He
condemned revolutionary means towards unity and advocated a confederation of Italian states
under the presidency of the Pope. The scheme preserved the local status of the individual
princes and placed Austrians in the potentially embarrassing position of opposing the head of
their own Church.
The Election of Pope Pius IX
 Pope Pius IX was a key figure in the events of the years that followed 1846 directly
 in his initial burst of political reform, Pius amnestied political prisoners and accepted a measure
of non-clerical participation in government.
 1847 – he put forward the suggestion of an Italian customs union
 when Austria was thrown off balance with the ‘liberal’ Pope, they dropped a hint of establishing
a garrison at Ferrara (July 1847) within Papal territory. Pope Pius IX protested so vigorously that
he became a national hero for such an anti-Austrian gesture
Charles Albert and Piedmont
 another key figure was Charles Albert, King of Piedmont since 1831
 he sacrificed his own interests, even his throne, in the national cause
 Charles did not stop at the granting of a constitution as uprising and strikes occurred.
 he committed Piedmont to war against the apparently disintegrating Austrians, in support of the
uprisings in Lombardy and Venetia. With reluctant initial support from Naples and the Papacy,
Albert had at least the superficial appearance of leading the greatest bid in modern Italian
history for freedom and nationhood
11.9 How was Austria able to Reassert its Conservative Influence over Italy?
The Defeat of Piedmont
 the chance for nationalist action in Italy was provided by the disruption of the European status
quo and by the distraction of the Austrian armed forces
 the return of European stability, and the recovery of the Austrian government spelled the doom
of Italian freedom
 a month after the triumph of Windischgrätz in Prague, the Piedmontese army met the forces of
Marshal Radetzky at Custoza (25 July 1848). The Papacy and the King of Naples had already
withdrawn their troops, and defeat badly undermined the Piedmontese morale.
 although the army survived largely intact, Charles Albert’s own fear of radical activity at home
led to retreat from Lombardy
 renewed pressures on the King led to another defeat to Austrians at Novara (23 March 1849)
 The price paid was the permanent removal of Charles Albert from political life through his
abdication in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel. As well as an indemnity of 75 million lire was
required of Piedmont from Austria
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The Flight of Pius IX
 the war showed the limitations of Pius IX as a leader of the national cause. Leading a
confederation of Italian states was one thing; to lead one Catholic state against another was a
completely different thing
 Pius IX continued to work with his constitutional government until November. He then fled
Rome for the safety of Naples
 with his flight, died the last hope of the Papacy, fulfilling the role that Gioberti (his confidant)
had mapped out for it
The Defeat of Radicalism
 “The royal war is over, the war of the people begins”, declared Mazzini in a national appeal in
August 1848
 after the Pope fled, a second, unsuccessful republican phase began
 February 1849 – a Roman Republic was proclaimed with Mazzini providing its political
inspiration, and Giuseppe Garibaldi conducting its military defense
 the Republic represented the pinnacle of radical aspirations. Its decrees (below) could not offset
its weaknesses:
o calling for the distribution of Church lands to the peasantry
o public housing of the poor
 it was made worse with inflation, starved of support from other quarters of Italy, and subjected
to the combined hostility of France and Austria
 the Republic was defeated in June 1849 and the presence thereafter of a French garrison in
Rome strengthened foreign interest in Italy’s future
 with the defeat in Piedmont, both Venice and Tuscany had gone their respective ways.
 under the leadership of Daniele Manin, Venice once more declared itself a Republic (as it had
been until the Napoleonic invasion)
 Venice resisted Austrian siege warfare until late August 1849. Tuscany radicals expelled their
Grand Duke, in February 1949, but couldn’t do the same to the Austrian forces that came to
restore him in April
 what the years 1848-49 achieve in Italy?
o according to Trevelyan, it was “a turning point at which modern history failed to turn”
(Trevelyan)
o the judgment of patriot would say that ‘this generation made Italy’ (Luigi Settembrini)
o although the rebels of 1848 achieved nothing material in Italy, except the Piedmontese
constitution, the future course of Italian history was altered
o the refusal of Pius IX to put himself at the head of the national cause, and hiss
conservative response to the events in Rome, killed the hopes of Gioberti and the neoguelphs
 the failure of the radical republicanism demonstrated once more its various faults
o failure of advocates to cooperate
o its impotence in the face of opposition from a major power