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Ethos of Friendship, Compassion and Reverence towards Animals in Classical Indian
Philosophical and Cultural Tradition
In the mainstream Ethical tradition, ‘Virtue Ethics’ which is one of the three strands of western
classical ethical theories, has been extensively used by present day ‘Ecological Ethics’
proponents. Bio-centrism, an off shoot of Ecological Ethics (which in itself started around
1970s) has propagated that the Cartesian dualism between human persons and other natural
species has caused environmental degradation, it is interesting to note and highlight that
traditional Indian philosophical and cultural wisdom had clearly enunciated an amicable and
sustainable relationship between humans and non - human species, and these, together, were
perceived and conceptualised as a unit of life and righteous living.
I shall be expounding on three systems of traditional Indian philosophical-ethical and religious
thoughts, viz., Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu on their respective delineation of human-animal
amicability and relationship. The core ethical tenets of these traditions have emphasised on
valuing a symbiotic relation between humans and non-humans, so as to keep the natural
world in harmony. It is well known that both Jaina and Buddhist traditions have deliberated on
ethics of compassion and friendliness to establish human-nature bond. Hinduism being a large
system of philosophy, theology and mythology has dwelt upon cosmic inclusiveness of
individual beings, all life forms and even material objects, thereby establishing companionship
between humans, animals and plant life by treating some members, both from flora and nonhuman animals, as divine deities and symbols of divinity.
1. Jaina Ethics: Ethics of Equality; Non-Violence towards All Living Species
Jinas, the Jaina prophets, propound and preach essential equality of all living beings. This equal
treatment is an entitlement according to their metaphysical belief that consciousness is the
essence of all jivas, i.e., the living beings- from complex souls like humans to the smallest
unperceived like ‘microbes’. Besides consciousness, sentience, in varying degrees, belong to all
the jivas or living entities. Jaina ethics, as drawn from this metaphysical principle commanded
us to bear in mind this fundamental truth and conduct our life strictly in accordance with it.
Equality, according to Jains is natural to all beings, while differences and distinctions found
among them are adventitious. All the differences regarding bodily form, complexion, strength,
wealth, status, power, prosperity and intelligence are due to adventitious causes. They are the
consequences of auspicious and inauspicious karmas. But in their pure and pristine state, all
beings are equal. In that state, there is no place whatsoever for any difference and distinction
The principle of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is the most fundamental and well-known
aspect of Jainism. The everyday implementation of the principle of non-violence is more
comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity. Jains believe in
avoiding harm to others through thoughts, speech, and actions . According to a famous Jaina
text, Purushartha Siddhyupaya, ‘killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā (injury) and
abstaining from such act is ahimsa (non-injury)’.
Jainas extend the practice of nonviolence not only towards other humans but towards all
living beings. For this reason, vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity, with the majority of
Jains practicing even veganism, since it is a bad karma even if there is violence against animals
during the production of dairy products. Their belief in consciousness and sentience being
present in all living beings make them emphasize to even safe guard the insect kingdom, and
even microbes. For example, insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed. Jainism
teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent.
After nonviolence towards humans, animals and insects, Jains make efforts not to injure plants
any more than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food,
they accept such violence only as much as it is indispensable for human survival. Strict Jains,
including monastics do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions and garlic because tiny
organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout
is seen as characteristic of a living being.
The ethic of non-violent karma or conduct is intimately related to the feeling of compassion in
Jaina tradition. If on seeing someone suffering from pain a feeling of compassion is not roused in
man, then it is impossible for him to observe the vows like non-violence, etc. So the feeling of
compassion has been deemed necessary. Thus at the root of the feeling of compassion is the
attitude of compassionate disposition or empathy towards all beings or the attitude of one's
identity with all beings.
Another virtuous or non-physical/ non-obstructive karma aiding right knowledge , according
to Jaina philosophy, is to establish amicability between all living species. Friendships flourish
among men of similar conduct and character, habits and hobbies. According to them, all worldly
embodied souls-from those at the lowest scale of evolution to those at the highest one-are
uniform in nature. In other words, all worldly beings are identical when viewed from the
standpoint of their original pure state. And keeping in view this uniform and perfectly identical
nature of these beings, there may arise in one's mind a delighting conception of their mutual
friendship. Animals, the non-humans are without any power of discrimination, discretion and
judgment, but human beings are endowed with understanding and special power of
discrimination, and it is expected of humans to use this power and think and act rightly. This is
possible only when one realises the unity of all beings and consequently in consonance with this
realisation there arises in her/his heart the feeling of friendship towards all beings. To cultivate
and nourish feeling of friendliness towards all beings is called maîtri bhavana or friendliness.
Cultivation of this feeling alone makes one a Jina or a victor, i.e., a true Jaina exemplifying
values, in practice, of non-violence and truth. Universal love can be called spiritual love. It
depends on the development of spiritual life. The attitude of one's identity with others goes on
expanding and the affection for others, both humans and other living forms of life. One becomes
more and more free from defilements as the mind attains more and more purity. Removal of
enmity, pride, attachment, hatred, anger, etc., implies the purification of mind. Mind attains
purity on the removal of all these defilements. Process of reducing attachment and other passions
is the process of purifying mind, of becoming a Jaina.
2. Buddhism: Compassion and Friendliness towards All
Buddhism as a philosophical thought advocated a middle path between self-abnegation and selfindulgence. This philosophical system has undergone many variations since its inception by the
Buddha himself. However, the core of the thought and essence remained the same. Buddha's
central message is contained in the four noble truths, and relating these with the theory of kamma
ie, karma , Buddha advocated eightfold noble path in consonance with four brahmvihāras.
The first noble truth states that all forms of existence are unsatisfactory. The second states that
the origin of the dissatisfaction is an incessant craving or ceaseless desiring. The third states the
ideal of liberation from this state and like fourth the methodology of eight fold path for the
liberation from suffering. The truth of suffering is explained through 12 causal links starting
from birth or decay and rebirth. The root of this bhava charka or the wheel of existence which
makes one suffer is craving and the way to remove this suffering is through righteous karma
which is explained in eight fold path, which are: right views, right resolve, right speech, right
conduct, right livelihood, right mindfulness, right effort and right concentration. These eight
fold steps have to be conducted with right discipline(shila)and right concentration(samadhi) and
should be practiced through four brahmvihāras, which are: Universal Friendship(metta),
Universal Compassion(Karuna), Happiness in the prosperity of the others(mudita) and
Detachment from self-centeredness(upeksha). All of these were to be followed by both saints
(boddhisatvas) and by householders i.e. laymen through his exposition of 10 precepts.
The theory of Karma provides the linkage between suffering and performance as well as in the
doctrine of no-self i.e. denouncement of ego-centeredness of human beings. The concept of
karma, even though has been around since the vedic time found a unique prominence in early
Buddhism. Buddha called it “an intentional action done by body, by speech and by thought.”
Chetna or intention was adjudged as moral only when it was ‘willed, owned up, was cultivated
upon and is directed towards expansion of moral sentiments through empathy’. Buddha had
advised his disciples to remember the traditional Indian doctrine of karma. 'Karma' literally
mans 'action.' The law of karma states that all our thoughts, words and deeds shape our
experiences in the future. What each one of us is experiencing now is the outcome of what we
have thought, said and done in the past. So, far from being a doctrine of fatalism, the law of
karma encourages us to take responsibility for our present situation as well as for how our lives
will unfold in the future.
The Buddhist analysis of condition of dukha or suffering as disharmony and correction of it
through virtuous or dharmic or moralistic karma conveys a wider and reference to a balance in
self-society-nature spectrum than the fragmented references made about ‘ecological crisis’ and
‘anthropocentric predicament’,i.e., the problem of human selfishness.
In Buddhist ethics, therefore, one sees a clear link between morality and the broader philosophy
of leading a meaningful life. In addition to above mentioned self-culture matrix, Buddhism also
simultaneously refers to maintaining a balance with the natural world. Through practice of right
mindfulness, Buddhism provides resources for coevolving then and practice for a sustainability
ethic and a holistic orientation for human nature solidarity. Buddhism with its insistence on shila
and Samadhi and on cultivation of friendship, empathy, compassion and respect seeks
deliberation both at the individual and at the collective level to review the given disorderliness.
I am going to cite a long passage from one of the earliest texts of Buddhism, where the Buddha
described how a disciple should cultivate loving-kindness:
‘ In a joy and safety
Let every creature's heart rejoice,
Whatever breathing beings there are, (emphasis mine)
No matter whether timid or bold,
With none excepted, long or big
Or middle-sized or short or thin
Or thick or those seen or unseen
Or whether dwelling far or near,
That are or that yet seek to be.
Let every creature's heart rejoice.(emphasis mine)
Let none betray another's trust
Or offer any slight at all,
Or even let them wish in wrath
Or in revenge each other's ill.'
Thus as a mother with her life
Will guard her son, her only child,
Let him extend without bounds,
His heart to every living being.
And so with love for all the world
Let him extend without bounds… (all emphasis to hold my position)
It can be concluded from the exposition of Buddhist ethics that the doctrines presented here
provides sense of realism and refined or enlightened ecological sensibility into our concerns with
ecological or natural environment which includes both humans and non- human animals. It is
also clear that for the Buddha, the root of compassion is wisdom. Wisdom is not an introverted
intellectual' quality but, as the Buddha explains here, gives rise to a spontaneous concern for all
kinds of life
The notion of attainment to nature is given due expression in Mahayana-Vajaryana tradition, the
latest variant of Buddhism being followed by Tibetans, the legendary exponent of which is
Dalai Lama XIV. Excerpts from his of public addresses validates this point about this pragmatic
wisdom,. some of his addresses like the following ratify these points:
“Whether it be the environment that is inhabited, or the inhabitants, both of them are composed
of five basic elements. It is on the basis of these five basic elements that there is a very close
interrelatedness or interrelation between the habitat that is the natural environment and the
inhabitants, the sentiments living within it .... (Address , 1996).
Two of the most important qualities to be developed by Buddhists are loving-kindness and
compassion. Loving-kindness is understood as the wish for others to be happy, and compassion
as the wish to alleviate suffering. Both start with our selves, by recognizing the fact of our own
suffering and seeking to uproot its causes. Before turning to the plight of others, it is necessary to
understand deeply the origins of suffering within ourselves. Such insight can then lead to a
genuine capacity to show others the way to freedom from their inner pain. Ultimately lovingkindness and compassion extend to all living things: people, animals, plants, the earth itself.
These ought to be achieved by: i) taking moral responsibility, ii) cultivating a conduct of
compassion and empathy, and iii) living a prudential virtuous middle path of avoiding
indulgence and austerity.
3. Hindu Philosophical Wisdom on Revering All Forms of Natural Life
Hinduism can be referred to as an inclusive tradition, which has extended divine forms and
symbols to both human and animal life forms. Besides these, Hindu thought has always extended
the gamut of divine species to trees and plants- to all forms of natural life. According to Hindu
thought, there is no separation between the Divine and the world of nature. They are the two
aspects of the same reality. The cosmic reality is one, an absolute, the formless, but spiritual,
is referent of the right knowledge, and represents the pure state of bliss.
Ultimately for the Hindu Philosophy, as the Upanishads say, Everything is Brahman, ( you are
that or I am Brahman/atman). This does not mean that the informed Hindu mindlessly
worships the forces of nature on an outer level out of superstition and fear. The Hindu
perceives a Divine and sacred presence working behind the forms of nature as their inner spirit,
which is the real object of their adoration. Hinduism is all for introspection as well as for an
all- inclusive vision of the cosmos.
The divine presence of Brahman, or the Supreme Divine Reality, as an essence is present both in
what is called Ishvara or the cosmic lord, and is also present in the soul or reincarnating entity,
what is called the Jiva as our higher Self. The important argument, as put forth in the
Upanishadic tradition, is that this Absolute/ Spiritual/Universal Essence is present in the world
of nature, i.e., the Jagat too. God, soul and the world are aspects of One Reality, but not in a
limited way. Each shares the entirety of the underlying Reality. Each is sacred and holds the
same deeper nature of Being, Consciousness and Bliss (Sat-chit-ananda).
This Vedic vision of unity, as ratified in the vedantic philosophy, is the basis for an ecological
approach in which we can honor the entire universe as part of our own higher Self. It takes us
beyond the duality of God and the creation. God does not create the world out of nothing. The
world, God and the soul are inherent aspects of the same Eternal Being. We need not protect
nature as we would an inferior creature. We can honor nature as our own greater life and
expression, only by being an inclusive whole, wherein divine is both human, non-human animals
and natural endowments.
Hindus honor all the forms of the Divine but also recognize the formless Divine even
beyond the Creator, extending to the Absolute. Vedanta teaches us that this Absolute or
Brahman is the being, self and soul of everything animate and inanimate. It says our very
Self is the entire universe and the entire universe dwells within us. To honor nature is to honor
ourselves. To honor ourselves, one should honor all of nature. For the Hindus the Earth is sacred
as the very manifestation of the Divine Mother.
In the popular western religions, God is, generally, looked upon in anthropomorphic terms, as a
glorified human being, mainly as a father. It is considered sacrilegious to look at the Divine in
the form of an animal, plant or force of nature. Hinduism is an aggregate of innumerable
religious cults ,customs and practices from antiquity, it is difficult to limit its analysis and
explanation. However, for the present context, it would safely suffice to argue that in the
Hindu mythical and cultural tradition, known popularly through a Pantheon of divine
deities, a kind of a mix of polytheism and pantheism is explicated. All living and even nonliving features of the world are revered as potent divine symbols, and this fact has drawn
its sustenance from its monistic philosophical tradition of universal oneness, as explained in
the preceding paragraph(s). The sense of the Divine in all of nature is the reason why Hindus
find sacred places everywhere. The Hindus have sacred mountains and hills, sacred rivers and
lakes, sacred trees and groves, sacred flowers and grasses. They can honor the Divine not only in
the human form but in all the forms of nature. It is not a worship of the cosmic nature externally
rather it is a recognition of the Divine reality within all things. The Divine is not only the father,
mother, brother, sister, lord and friend, but also takes form as the sacred animals, plants, rocks,
planets and stars. ‘Hindu temples contain not only human representations but also deities
with animal heads and animal bodies. They contain sacred plants, flowers, rocks, fire and
water as well.’
Hindu mythology abounds with stories about divine being represented in animal forms or with
animal features, and in most cases animals have been worshipped since they have been vehicles
of divine deities. Divinity in a hybrid form of human and non-human animal are revered in
popular theological culture, Lord Ganesha with the head of an elephant and the body of a
human male is invoked as a patron of letters and learning and all things auspicious, and is one of
the most popular divine deities. Likewise, Hanumana, the monkey faced deity evolved through
a couple of centuries, by 7th century CE, as a devout sanctified to a divine deity in His own right,
and is revered for valour and righteousness.
Animal forms like Cobra snake and Cow are the most revered divine symbols. Cobra has been
venerated as the symbol of wealth and fertility, and is associated with Lord Shiva. Cow has been
worshipped as a sacred animal, since it represents goodness, altruism and pure form of motherly
love. Also, Cows have been associated with Lord Krishna, whose another name is Gopala(cowherd). Both cows and snakes have been venerated in Jaina tradition(cow symbolizing nonviolence) and in Buddhist literature, snakes have held position of esteem since they transferred
their power over nature to Buddha. However, in some myths, butterfly, lion, squirrel, mouse,
crows etc. are also revered either in their own right as symbols of divine or powerful attributes or
as vehicles of divine deities.
Conclusion
Thus all Indian philosophers propound that all beings are uniformly of the nature of divinity,
sentience and consciousness, and consequently declare that one should not bear any ill-will
towards any being. There should, instead be an emphasis on cultivating virtues and noble
feelings of friendliness, respect and compassion towards all beings. When we injure others, or
even think of being inimical towards others, we injure our essential spiritual nature. Vices like
jealousy, envy, hatred, enmity, etc., harm others and generate social unrest and disturbances and
perpetrate violence on one's own self.
***
References:
1. A History of Indian Philosophy by S.N. Dasgupta. Motilal Banarsidas: Delhi. This
edition,2003.
2. Jaina: Philosophy and Religion, translated by Nagin J. Shah, Motilal Banarsidas:
Delhi,1998.
3. Buddhism and Ecology, edited by Martine Batchelor and Kerry Brown. Motilal
Banarsidas: Delhi.1994
4. An Introduction to Hindu Philosophy of Religion, by U.S. Shaji. Cyber Tech
Publications: Delhi.2009.
5. Web links on Animal welfare in Context: Positive Attitudes towards Animals. Links on
various religious traditions.
***
Rekha Navneet
Gargi College( University of Delhi), India