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Geological Society, London, Special Publications
SE Asian carbonates: tools for evaluating environmental
and climatic change in equatorial tropics over the last 50
million years
Moyra E. J. Wilson
Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2011; v. 355; p. 347-372
doi: 10.1144/SP355.18
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© The Geological Society of London
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SE Asian carbonates: tools for evaluating environmental and climatic
change in equatorial tropics over the last 50 million years
MOYRA E. J. WILSON
Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth,
Western Australia, 6845 (e-mail: [email protected])
Abstract: This study reviews how shallow water carbonates are revealing environmental and
climatic changes on all scales through the last 50 million years in SE Asia. Marine biodiversity
reaches a global maximum in the region, yet the environmental conditions are at odds with the
traditional view of ‘blue-water’ reefal development. The region is characterized by complex
tectonics, major volcanism, high terrestrial runoff, nutrient influx, everwet and monsoonal
climates, low salinities, major currents and ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation) fluctuations.
Terrestrial runoff, nutrient upwelling, tectonics, volcanism and recent human activities are
major influences on the modern development of carbonate systems. Coral sclerochronology is
revealing how these factors vary locally over annual and decadal scales. The strong impact of
vertical tectonic movements and the interplay with eustasy is evaluated from Quaternary and
Pleistocene coral reef terraces. Isotopic data from terrace deposits indicates that interglacials
may have been up to 3– 6 8C warmer than glacials, consistent with the region’s record from
terrestrial and deep marine deposits. Study of outcrop and subsurface carbonate deposits reveals
the impact of tectonics, siliciclastic, nutrient influx, eustasy and oceanography on individual
systems over millennial timescales. Major changes in oceanography, plate tectonics, climate
change and perhaps fluctuating CO2 levels impacted Cenozoic regional carbonate development.
Results of studies from terrestrial and deep marine realms are comparable with those from the
carbonates, but have yielded higher resolution records of changing currents, precipitation and
the monsoons. There is considerable scope for further research, however, SE Asian carbonates
are powerful tools in evaluating past environmental change in the equatorial tropics.
There is intense debate over the role of the
equatorial tropics as a participant in natural or
human-influenced environmental change, and/or
as a major driver of global change (Kerr 2001;
Pearson et al. 2001). SE Asia is renowned as the
region of highest modern global reefal biodiversity,
with an extensive and continuous geological record
of reefal and non-reefal carbonates spanning the last
50 million years. Carbonate rocks form through the
accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) sediments, most commonly in shallow waters from the
skeletons of marine organisms, such as corals or
foraminifera. The biota, textures and geochemical
signatures within these deposits respond directly to
variations in environmental and climatic conditions
(Montaggioni & MacIntyre 1991). The hypothesis
here is that SE Asian carbonates can be used as
tools in evaluating the unique but poorly understood
conditions of the equatorial tropics and its past
environmental changes together with the response
of marine systems. This paper reviews how
carbonates have been, and may continue to be,
used to evaluate environmental change, on annual
to millennial scales, over the last 50 million years
in SE Asia (Fig. 1).
The mention of coral reefs and other tropical
carbonates generally conjures up images of a
myriad of brightly coloured creatures shimmering
and darting through crystal-clear, warm, shallow
waters. One can be mesmerized by just such a
scene on days of ‘glass-flat’ calm in some parts of
SE Asia. However, due to the unique regional conditions it is not uncommon to find yourself shivering
in a wet suit, peering through turbid waters or
‘plankton-soup’ trying to make out the inhabitants
of the reef. The equatorial tropics are characterized
by a range of conditions that are commonly underappreciated and may at first appear incompatible
with the high diversity of carbonate biota and
systems found in the region (Figs 2 & 3; Fulthorpe
& Schlanger 1989; Tomascik et al. 1997; Wilson
2002, 2008; Park et al. 2010).
SE Asia has been arguably the most tectonically
active area of the world throughout much of the
Cenozoic (Hall 1996, 2002). This complex tectonic
setting together with high rainfall and lush tropical
vegetation results in common influx of volcaniclastics, siliciclastics, fresh water and nutrients into the
coastal water of the region (Figs 2 & 3; Tomascik
et al. 1997; Wilson & Lokier 2002). A locally monsoonal climate causes strongly seasonal terrestrial
runoff together with shifts in wind and current
patterns (Umbgrove 1947; Park et al. 2010). The
region lies outside the cyclone belt and strong
From: Hall, R., Cottam, M. A. & Wilson, M. E. J. (eds) The SE Asian Gateway: History and Tectonics
of the Australia– Asia Collision. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 355, 347–372.
DOI: 10.1144/SP355.18 0305-8719/11/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2011.
General SE Asia Modern
Modern Makassar Straits
Burollet et al. (1986) Roberts et al.
(1988), Tomascik et al. (1997), Roberts
& Sydow (1996) Renema & Troelsta
(2001), Wilson & Vecsei (2005)
Java & Sumatra modern deposits
Umbgrove (1939), Scoffin et al. (1989),
Gagan et al. (1998), Park et al. (1992,
2010), Risk et al. (2003), Abram et al.
(2003), Baird et al. (2005) Campbell et
al. (2007), Hagan et al. (2007);
Huon Peninsula & offshore N. Papua New
Guinea
Chappell (1974), Chappell & Polach
(1976), Chappell et al. (1996),
Galewsky et al. (1996), McCulloch
et al. (1996, 1999) , Webster et al.
(2004a, b), & others in text
Papua New Guinea modern deposits
Eastern Indonesia coral reef terraces
Pulau Seribu, NW Java & Java Sea
Carbonates,
Batu Putih Limestone & Mahakam Delta
associated carbonates, E. Borneo
Atmospheric CO2
Biotic evolution
Monsoons
Indonesian Throughflow and global
ocean currents
ENSO-like fluctuations
Eustasy
Glacial-interglacial or
greenhouse-icehouse
Tectonics & volcanism
Temperature
Currents
Siliciclastic or volcaniclastic influx
Salinity & Precipitation
Tectonics
Volcanic/hydrothermal activity
Relative sea-level change
Regional or global changes:
Dating
U/Th, C14
Chappell & Veeh (1978), Sumosusastro
et al. (1989), Pirazzoli et al. (1993),
Hantoro et al. (1994), Bard et al. (1996)
Burbury (1977) , Park et al. (1992,
2010), Carter & Hutabarat (1994)
Roberts & Sydow (1996), Wilson &
Lokier (2002), Wilson (2005), Lokier
et al. (2009), Saller et al. (2010)
Nutrients
Local environmental factors:
Subsurface–Seismic (S), Wireline (W)
Geochemistry
Sedimentology
Biota
Platform
Type of study:
Basin
Strata
Cenozoic
Biota
Palaeogene
Neogene
Recent (Holocene & Quaternary)
Studied:
M. E. J. WILSON
Banda Sea modern deposits
Brown & Holley (1982), Tudhope &
Scoffin (1994), Brown (2005),
Phongsuwan & Brown (2007);
Scoffin et al. (1989), Tudhope et al.
(1995), Fallon et al. (2002), Aycliffe
et al. (2004) Pichler et al. (2000)
Wallace (1869), McManus & Wenno
(1981), Best et al. (1989), Heikoop
et al. (1996), Tomascik et al. (1997)
Thailand modern deposits
Cenozoic scales (107–108 years)
Key References
Kuenen (1933), Umbgrove (1947),
Tomascik et al. (1997), Kleypas et al.
1999, Latief (2000), Montaggioni
(2005), Gordon, 2005, Stoddart, 2007,
Peñaflor et al. (2009)
Annual to centennial (1–102 years)
Thousand to hundred thousand years
(103–105 years)
Millennial scales (106 years)
Study (stratigraphic formation and/or area)
Period:
348
Timescales:
S
U/Th, ESR
C14, (Seismic
picks)
Seismic picks, Bio:
LBF, Pk, Nanno,
U/Th
Fig. 1. Study areas and key references in which local environmental change and regional or global controls have been inferred from carbonate deposits in SE Asia. Also
shown are the timescales of change, the period of study, what elements of the carbonate system have been studied and the main types of analyses. Key references and examples are
given in the text, and all reference details are provided (see Wilson 2002, 2008 for further details). Abbreviations for the dating techniques are: bio, biostratigraphy; LBF, Larger
benthic foraminifera; pk, planktonic foraminifera; nanno, nannofossils; Sr, strontium isotope stratigraphy; C14, carbon 14; U/Th, uranium thorium; ESR, electron spin resonance.
Ardila (1983), Rose (1983), Collins et al.
(1996), Park et al. (1995)
May & Eyles (1985), Rudolph &
Lehmann (1989), Bachtel et al. (2004),
Paterson et al. (2006),
Epting (1980), Ali & Abolins (2000),
Vahrenkamp et al. (2004), Zampetti
et al. (2003, 2004)
Lokier (2000), Wilson & Lokier (2002),
Lokier et al. (2009)
Fig. 1. Continued.
Regional SE Asia
Fulthorpe & Schlanger (1989), Wilson &
Rosen (1998), Wilson (2002, , 2008),
Wilson & Vecsei (2005), Wilson & Hall
(2010), Park et al. (2010)
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Seismic picks, Sr,
Bio: LBF
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Francis (1988), Stewart & Sandy (1988),
Wilson et al. (1993)
Bio: LBF, Nannos
Seismic picks, Sr,
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nannos
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Seismic picks, Sr,
Bio: LBF, Nannos
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Seismic picks, Sr,
Bio: LBF, Pk
Seismic picks
Seismic picks
Seismic picks, Sr
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
Seismic picks, Bio:
Pk, Nannos
Seismic picks
Bio: LBF, Pk,
Nanno
S
S
S
Seismic picks, Bio:
Pk
Adams et al. (1965), Wannier (2009)
Grötsch & Mercadier (1999), Fournier
et al. (2004, 2005)
Wilson & Bosence (1996), Wilson
(1999, 2000), Wilson et al. (2000)
Jurgan & Domingo (1989), Muller et al.
(1989), Porth et al. (1989)
Vincelette (1973), Redmond &
Koesoemadinata (1976), GibsonRobinson & Soedirdja (1986),
Brash et al. (1991)
Saller et al. (1993), Burollet et al.
(1986), Saller & Vijaya (2002)
Wilson et al. (1999), Wilson & Evans
(2002)
Kenyon (1977), Cucci & Clark (1993,
1995), Kusumastuti et al. (2002),
Adhyaksawan (2003), Johansen (2003),
Carter et al. 2005, Sharaf et al. (2005),
Hughes et al. (2008), Ruf et al. (2008)
Pieters et al. (1983), Leamon &
Parsons (1986), Pigram et al. (1990),
Sarg et al. (1995), Eisenberg
New Guinea/Darai Limestone & equivalents, et al. (1996), Allan et al. (2000),
Tcherepanov et al. (2008a, b)
Papua & Gulf of Papua Area
New Guinea Limestone & equivalents, Irian
Jaya
New Guinea Limestone equivalents in
northern Papua and islands to NE of New
Guinea
Visayas, Central Philippines
Berai Limestone, Paternoster Platform, SE
Borneo
Melinau, & other, Limestone(s), Onshore N
Borneo
Nido Limstone, Offshore Palawan
Philippines
Tonasa Formation, South Sulawesi,
Indonesia
NE Java & E Java Sea Carbonates,
Ngimbang, Prupuh, Rancak & Kujung
Carbonates
NE Kalimantan, Taballar & Kedango
Limestones, Indonesia
Tacipi Formation, South Sulawesi, Indonesia Mayall & Cox (1988), Ascaria (1997)
Matthews et al. (1997), Mayall et al.
(1997)
Vietnam Carbonates
Ziujiang Carbonates, Liuhua & northern S.
Erlich et al. (1990, 1993), Tyrrel &
Christian (1992), Sattler et al. (2004)
China Sea Carbonates
Bali Flores Sea
Tyrrel et al. (1986)
Wonosari Limestone, S. Java, Indonesia
Luconia Carbonates, S. China Sea
Terumbu Formation, Natuna, S. China Sea
Backarc Carbonates of Sumatra, Peutu,
Batu Raju Formations
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
349
350
M. E. J. WILSON
Fig. 2. Map of SE Asia showing present-day plate tectonic context, locations of volcanoes and sediment discharge
from six major SE Asian islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, Timor, New Guinea; from Milliman et al. 1999 with
base map after Wilson & Lokier 2002).
cyclonic winds and waves are rare (Umbgrove
1947; Tomascik et al. 1997). Tectonic faulting, subsidence and uplift combined with glacioeustasy
control localized relative sea level changes that
influence carbonate deposition, coral reef growth,
their subaerial exposure and flooding (Wilson
2002, 2008; Park et al. 2010; Wilson & Hall
2010). Within the region volcanism, seismic activity
and associated tsunami’s cause major environmental change to both land-, and seascapes. On
the short term these wreak devastation on communities, but longer term may bring ecological opportunities (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Stoddart 2007;
Satyana 2005; Pandolfi et al. 2006). SE Asia is now
the last remaining equatorial ‘oceanic gateway’
allowing interchange of oceanic waters between the
Pacific and Indian Oceans via the major Indonesian
Throughflow Current (Fig. 3; Gordon 2005). The
region’s climate and current systems are influenced
by, and/or interact, with global ocean and atmospheric phenomena including the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD),
fluctuations in the monsoons and the Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ; Tudhope et al. 2001;
Kuhnt et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2005; Abram et al.
2009). These factors are influential on annual to millennial scales in changing sea surface temperatures
to both locally warmer and cooler than ambient
(Gagan et al. 1998; Peñaflor et al. 2009). Nutrient
influx and areas of upwelling are also affected,
and in turn cause changes in water clarity associated
with plankton blooms (Fig. 3; Gagan et al. 1998;
Wilson & Vecsei 2005). Longer term oceanographic
(temperature, acidity and compositional changes)
and atmospheric (CO2) changes over the scale of
the Cenozoic (Zachos et al. 2001; Jia et al. 2003;
Pagani et al. 2005) during the switch from greenhouse to icehouse climatic states are also major
influences on the marine biota and systems of
the region (Wilson 2008). Both the long and shortscale changes as well as influencing marine
systems are now known to be major drivers in
global climate change (Gordon et al. 2003; Visser
et al. 2004).
Fig. 3. Maps of SE Asia showing present day environmental conditions. (a) Satellite (AQUA-Modis) derived sea
surface temperatures during the SE Monsoon (from Gordon 2005). Wind directions are shown with arrows and the
position of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone as a dashed line. (b) Sea surface chlorophyll-a (a nutrient proxy) from
satellite-derived SeaWIFs data during the SE Monsoon (from Gordon 2005). Areas of wind induced upwelling are
associated with elevated levels of chlorophyll-a. (c) Indonesian throughflow pathways and estimates of total volume
transport (in Sverdrups Sv ¼ 106 m3 s21; from Gordon 2005). (d) Annual mean rainfall across the globe with data
derived from Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I). Satellite data collection began in 1987 NOAA data from Sidi
et al. 2003). (e) Present-day sea surface aragonite saturation at 380 ppm atmospheric CO2 (from Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
2007). The minimum aragonite saturation that coral reefs are associated with today is 3.25. Aragonite saturation in
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
351
Fig. 3. (Continued) seawater (Varg) is the ion product of the concentrations of calcium and carbonate ions, at the
in situ temperature,
salinity,
and pressure, divided by the stoichiometric solubility product (K*sp) for those conditions:
Ksparg .
Varg ¼ Ca2þ CO2
3
352
M. E. J. WILSON
Fig. 4. Examples of annual to centennial scale environmental changes from modern deposits. (a) Comparison between
PNG rainfall records (Port Moresby) with fluorescence banding pattern from offshore slabbed coral (from Scoffin et al.
1989). Fluorescent banding correlates with periods of runoff. (b) Modern reefal deposit from turbid, sedimentinfluenced area in 1–2 m depth, east coast of Borneo near Balikpapan (photograph by M. Wilson). (c) Paired
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
The combination of major tectonism, frequent
relative sea level changes, low marine salinities,
clastic and nutrient influx, changing oceanographic
and temperature conditions all strongly influence
regional and local carbonate development. These
conditions may be at odds with the perceived view
of ideal conditions for coral reefs and tropical
carbonate production principally developed from
studies in warm, more arid, subtropical regions
such as the Bahamas, Red Sea or Persian Gulf
(Wilson 2002). Although no individual factor is
mutually exclusive to SE Asia, it is the unique
combination of factors that results in the distinctiveness of equatorial carbonates. This paper assesses
to what extent the carbonate record from SE Asia
has been, and may continue to be, used to evaluate
environmental conditions and changes in the equatorial tropics.
Annual to centennial-scale changes
The majority of annual to centennial-scale changes
in SE Asian shallow carbonates are inferred from
geochemical proxies obtained from modern to
sub-recent unaltered marine skeletons. The most
widely used record is from corals, where unaltered
samples typically extend back tens, hundreds or
perhaps thousands of years. Coral sclerochronology
studies in the region have mainly concentrated on
Porites (particularly Porites lutea and lobata),
which have dense skeletal structures and for which
fractionation effects in skeletal precipitation are
studied (i.e. if there are systematic variations in
skeleton chemistry compared with ocean water
chemistry). Annual and decadal variations have
been compared with results of recent monitoring
of factors including temperatures, terrestrial
runoff, currents and nutrients (Fig. 4; Scoffin et al.
1989; Gagan et al. 1998; Fallon et al. 2002). In
turn these have been variously linked to changes
in upwelling, strength of the monsoons, ENSO
fluctuations as well as volcanic and anthropogenicinduced events (Fig. 4; Tudhope et al. 1995;
Heikoop et al. 1996; Tomascik et al. 1997;
Gordon 2005; Peñaflor et al. 2009).
In an early study, rainfall data and distance from
the coastline were compared with density of skeletal
growth and fluorescence bands from corals off
353
north Java (Pulau Seribu) and Papua New Guinea
(Fig. 4a; Scoffin et al. 1989). Heavy wet season
deluges (.150 mm/month) correlate with less
dense growth bands and distinctive bright fluorescence banding in offshore corals. In nearshore
areas (,2–5 km for the coast) sufficient influx of
organic compounds appears to swamp any seasonal
effects (Scoffin et al. 1989). Fluorescence intensity
decreases offshore, presumably reflecting decreasing freshwater and nutrient influence (Scoffin et al.
1989). Seaward spread of freshwater plumes, was
more localized off Java than Papua New Guinea,
and may be modified by marine currents or local
runoff from islands. Strong monsoonal driven currents are widely known to result in east –west
elongation of reefal buildups in the Java Sea at the
present day (Park et al. 1992, 2010) and in the past
(Carter & Hutabarat 1994). The shape of emergent
coral reef islands strongly affects monsoonally
influenced circulation on carbonate buildups and
the dynamics of reef island shorelines (with circular
islands most heavily impacted; Kench et al. 2009).
Increased growth (low density skeleton) during
freshwater and/or nutrient influx and no or low
growth during exceptionally high runoff events
(Scoffin et al. 1989) is seen in other corals from
the region (Tomascik et al. 1997), but is at odds
with some studies from outside the equatorial
tropics (Isdale 1984; Tomascik & Sanders 1985).
Although high sedimentation does limit coral
and carbonate production within the region, there
are many examples where diverse modern communities are present in areas of sedimentation,
turbidity, upwelling and nutrient influx (Fig. 4b;
e.g. Banten Bay (Java), Seram, Borneo, Ambon;
Tomascik et al. 1997; Rosen et al. 2002; Wilson
& Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). In these areas the
depth of abundant coral or larger benthic foraminifera may be strongly depth and light limited
(Titlyanov & Latypov 1991; Renema & Troelsta
2001). In addition many organisms are sediment
or nutrient adapted, and filter feeders or deposit
feeders are common and diverse (Tomascik et al.
1997). The Makassar Straits has a wide range of
examples of carbonate systems influenced by
clastic sedimentation and nutrients. In the north,
patch reefs with abundant soft corals, detritivores
and foliaceous hard corals develop to 5–8 m water
depth in highly turbid waters just 8 km from the
Fig. 4. (Continued) X-radiograph (A) and slabbed coral (B) from offshore Banda Api. Dashed line and arrow show the
position of iron-rich precipitate related to volcanic and hydrothermal activity associated with the 1988 eruption of Banda
Api Volcano (from Heikoop et al. 1996). (d) Comparison between coral Sr/Ca in Porites lutea and blended ship and
satellite-derived sea surface temperature data from SE Java (from Gagan et al. 1998). Strong upwelling along the south
coast of Java produces cooler SSTs recorded in the Sr/Ca ratios, but not recorded by the satellite data due to spatial
smoothing of data (Gagan et al. 1998). (e) Stable oxygen isotope record from coral core from PNG (Madang) compared
with climatic indices. Years with strong El Niño events are shown stippled (from Tudhope et al. 1995).
354
M. E. J. WILSON
Berau Delta (Tomascik et al. 1997). At Pulau
Sangalaki 60 km east of the Berau Delta strong
tidal-currents keep siliciclastic sedimentation to a
minimum but bring nutrient-rich coastal waters
that support a highly diverse reef community
(Tomascik et al. 1997). Seaward of the Mahakam
Delta Plio-Pleistocene carbonate buildups and
reefs are more common to the north where a less
active delta lobe and strong south-directed currents
from the Indonesian Throughflow Current result in
less turbid-water and sedimentation than to the
south (Roberts & Sydow 1996). Halimeda buildups
form in nutrient-rich, current swept or deltainfluenced areas of the southern Makassar Straits
(Roberts et al. 1988; Roberts & Sydow 1996).
Also in the south, large land attached platforms
influenced by strong currents, nutrients & clastics
are dominated by larger benthic foraminifera
below 5–20 m with shallow coral rimmed margins
or patch reefs (Burollet et al. 1986; Renema &
Troelsta 2001; Wilson & Vecsei 2005). In general
the marine systems of western SE Asia are strongly
runoff influenced and those of the eastern archipelago have a major upwelling influence (Tomascik
et al. 1997). Rather than falling into the traditional
view of ‘blue water’ oceanic reefs, most living
Indo-Pacific reefs (53% and much of the 20%
from the Indian Ocean) are concentrated on the
shallow continental shelves of SE Asia, Australia
and the Indian Ocean where they are affected to a
greater or lesser extent by adjacent land masses
(Potts 1983; Tomascik et al. 1997).
Despite the co-occurrence of high diversity coral
reefs and carbonate production in areas of runoff
and nutrient upwelling there are signs that some
systems may be operating close to their tolerance
limits (Tomascik et al. 1997). In some areas this
may be a natural state (Tomascik et al. 1997) with
examples of natural mass mortality and demise or
subsequent recovery of reefs from the region’s
geological record associated with volcanism or
sedimentation and/or nutrients (Wilson & Lokier
2002; Wilson 2005; Pandolfi et al. 2006; Lokier
et al. 2009). It has been inferred that human activities (including destructive fishing practices, pollution and coastal development) have significantly
increased the frequency of disturbance to reefs and
have pushed reefs closer to their tolerance limit
(Hughes et al. 2003; Pandolfi et al. 2003, 2006;
Wilkinson 2008). Umbgrove (1939) described the
‘unrivalled splendour and wealth of . . . reef
animals’ after a visit in 1928 to an island 6.6 km
away from Jakarta. These coral reefs that dazzled
Umbgrove are now considered ‘functionally dead’
replaced by muddy deposits (Tomascik et al.
1997). In a comparable example Wallace (1869)
portrayed the ‘most astonishing and beautiful . . .
continuous series of corals . . . and other marine
productions, of magnificent dimensions, varied
forms and brilliant colours’ from Ambon Harbour.
Today most coral communities in the vicinity of
Ambon City have been destroyed through a
combination of pollution, siltation and destructive
fishing practices (McManus & Wenno 1981; Best
et al. 1989; Tomascik et al. 1997).
A range of studies have shown corals can be
excellent proxy recorders of localized natural or
human activity, including volcanism, hydrothermal
venting, mining activity and forest fires. Within
the growth bands of corals from the flanks of the
volcanic island of Banda Api are hydrothermalassociated iron-rich lamina, tuffaceous material
and death surfaces that correlate with the 1988 eruption of the volcano (Fig. 4c; Heikoop et al. 1996).
Significantly negative d13C and d18O isotopic
records in coral growth bands from areas of hydrothermal venting off Papua New Guinea reflect
higher than background temperatures and fractionation effects (Pichler et al. 2000). Major fires
across Indonesia in the El Niño drought year of
1997 are associated with negative shifts in d13C
records from coral growth bands that may reflect a
shift to more heterotrophic feeding mechanisms
(Risk et al. 2003). Iron fertilization from the 1997
Indonesian wildfires together with anomalous
Indian Ocean Dipole upwelling and a giant red
tide are inferred to have caused demise of a coral
reef in the Mentawai Islands south of Sumatra
(Abram et al. 2003). Growth bands from corals in
the area that survived this event record evidence
for cooling associated with upwelling (Sr/Ca) followed by a sharp increase in d13C associated with
increased Mn, La and Y, the later interpreted as
evidence for a large phytoplankton bloom (Abram
et al. 2003). The start of open-cast gold mining
and associated sediment runoff from Misima
Island (Papau New Guinea – PNG) correlate with
dramatic increases in the elements Y, La and Ce in
coral growth bands. Although fluxes of the above
elements ceased after mining activities finished,
zinc and lead continued to be transported to the offshore reef via sulphate-rich waters (Fallon et al.
2002). Adjacent to a tin smelting site in Thailand
heavy metal concentrations were noted in bivalves
and alga, but not corals, perhaps because the metals
are mainly detrital (Brown & Holley 1982). The
examples above infer individual causal mechanisms
for changes in coral development and their skeletons.
However, in practice, the task of attributing changes
to specific causal mechanisms is not always straightforward (B. R. Rosen pers. comm. 2010).
The enormity of the human tragedy and coastal
devastation of the 2004 Boxing Day Tsunami
brought into sharp global focus the destructive
force of tsunamis (Borrero 2005; Liu et al. 2005;
Stoddart 2007; Spencer 2007). However, in the
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
marine environment, from Sumatra and around the
Indian Ocean margins, .50% of reefs in tsunami
affected areas showed minimal impact and ,15%
showed major impact (in which .50% of hard
corals were affected; Brown 2005; Hagan et al.
2007; Phongsuwan & Brown 2007). Most impacted
reefs were likely to recover within 5 –10 years
(Brown 2005; Hagan et al. 2007) and broad sand
sheets spread by tsunami waves were partially
eroded and bioturbated within 1–2 years (Kench
et al. 2007; Nichol & Kench 2008). It has been
stated that ‘the damage caused to coral reefs by
the December 26 earthquake and tsunami was
rarely of ecological significance and in northern
Aceh (Sumatra), tsunami damage was trivial when
compared with that from chronic human misuse
(including bombing, cyanide fishing and anchor
damage)’ (Baird et al. 2005; Campbell et al. 2007;
Hagan et al. 2007). Close to the epicentre of the
earthquake generating the tsunami the most lasting
associated effects were: (i) ‘uprooting’ of massive
coral colonies from unstable substrate at depths
.2 m (Baird et al. 2005; Campbell et al. 2007),
(ii) boulder fields (with less than 7% directed
onshore; Paris et al. 2010), (iii) post-tsunami
burial of reefs by sediment (Baird et al. 2005), and
(iv) localized uplift, emergence (by 1–2 m) or subsidence of reef flats (Zachariasen et al. 1999;
Borrero 2005; Hagan et al. 2007). Although Indonesia with its significant tectonic instability has at least
105 historical records of tsunamis between 1699 and
1990 (Latief 2000), it seems likely that evidence for
these or past tsunami activity may be difficult to
discern from the geological record.
Regional and long-term monitoring and sclerochronology studies are beginning to pick up
repeated oceanographic or climatic events and
trends across the SE Asian seas. A thirty year
study (1985–2006) of satellite-derived sea surface
temperatures (SST) reveals an average warming
rate of 0.2 8C/decade for the region (Peñaflor
et al. 2009). Warming is regionally non-uniform
and was greatest in the north and east, with shortterm warming and coral bleaching events tied to
La Niña years. There was .1 8C of cooling during
the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption (Peñaflor et al.
2009). The inner seas of Indonesia appear to
afford some natural protection from warming
events, perhaps related to complex geometries and
strong current flushing (Peñaflor et al. 2009).
Areas of upwelling experience cooler SST with seasonal temperature fluctuations recorded in Sr/Ca
ratios in corals (such as offshore South Java;
Fig. 4d; Gagan et al. 1998). Decreased freshwater
runoff (inferred from coral d18O, d13C and UV fluorescence) and slightly decreased SST (0.5–1 8C
from Sr/Ca and or d18O) are associated with El
Niño events in PNG (Fig. 4e; Tudhope et al. 1995;
355
Aycliffe et al. 2004). Sudden cooling of SST by
1 8C offshore PNG (from coral Sr/Ca) correlate
with seasonal establishment of the NW monsoon
and enhanced mixing of the water column (Aycliffe
et al. 2004). There is a suggestion on the basis of isotopic studies that the western equatorial Pacific may
have been less important in modulating inter-annual
climatic variability between the 1920s and 1950s
than subsequently (Tudhope et al. 1995). Due to
reduced marine salinities, SE Asian waters typically
show aragonite saturations of c. 0.5 –1 less than
those for the Caribbean or Red Sea, translating to
c. 10% reduction in calcification rates (Fig. 3e;
Kleypas et al. 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).
Simulations of ocean chemistry related to postulated
rising CO2 levels over the next century show that the
aragonite saturation in Australasia will drop below
those suitable for reef development (V-aragonite
.3.3) this century and earlier than other areas
such as the Caribbean (Kleypas et al. 1999;
Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2007).
Thousand to hundred thousand year
scale changes
Uplifted coral reef terraces provide the most
common record of effects of environmental
change on shallow marine carbonates on timescales
of thousand to hundreds of thousands of years in
SE Asia (Fig. 5). Spectacular ‘flights’ of uplifted terraces dated via U/Th, C14 or Electron spin resonance (ESR) techniques reveal significant recent
local uplift (Fig. 5a–c & Table 1). On the Huon
Peninsula, PNG, uplift rates of 1–3 m/ka over the
last 300 000 years are associated with arc –continent
collision (Bloom et al. 1974; Chappell 1974; Ota &
Chappell 1996; Cutler et al. 2003). In Eastern
Indonesia collision related uplift varies from 0.4
to 1.8 m/ka (Table 1; Chappell & Veeh 1978;
de Smet et al. 1989; Sumosusastro et al. 1989;
Pirazzoli et al. 1993; Hantoro et al. 1994; Bard
et al. 1996). Arc uplift associated with oceanic subduction and sediment underplating is 1.6 + 0.4 m/
ka on New Britain (Riker-Coleman et al. 2006). In
all areas prominent terrace levels mainly correlate
with major eustatic sea level highstands associated
with interglacial stages and substages (Fig. 5c, d;
e.g. isotopic stages 1, 5a, 5c, 5e and 9; Chappell
1974; Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Pirazzoli et al.
1993; Hantoro et al. 1994; Bard et al. 1996).
Patchy sub-terrace development with regressive
configurations may be due to metre-scale discrete
uplift events or possibly rapid falls in sea level
(Yokoyama et al. 2001). Periodic iceberg discharges from partial breakup of northern Hemisphere icesheets (‘Heinrich’ events) or Antarctic
icesheet surges that precede times of cold climates,
356
M. E. J. WILSON
Fig. 5. Examples of centennial to thousand year scale environmental changes from coral reef terrace deposits. (a)
Geomorphic block diagram from the Luwuk area of East Sulawesi showing three groups of uplifted reefal terraces (from
Sumosusastro et al. 1989). Vertical exaggeration is approximately 2. The low terrace offshore Luwuk town is attached
by a recurved spit to the mainland, the middle series above Luwuk town consists of a moderately seaward slanting
surface and an upper group is dated at c. 229 ka. (b) Photograph of uplifted coral reef terraces with a stepped appearance
from the Tukang Besi Islands, SE Sulawesi (by M. Wilson). (c) Age-height plot of terraces from the Huon Peninsula,
based on extrapolation of uplift rate estimated from 120 000 a old terrace, tentatively correlated with major
transgressions (from Chappell & Polach 1976). (d) Stratigraphic section of the raised coral reef terraces of the Huon
Peninsula, with age constraints from U– Th dating (from McCulloch et al. 1999). (e) Sea level heights derived from
U-series dating of corals together with planktonic foraminifera d18O variations for the Sulu Sea ODP site 769, and
temperature data from the Huon Peninsula for the period prior to, and including, the Last Interglacial (from McCulloch
et al. 1999).
Table 1. Studies of uplifted coral reefs terraces in SE Asia, uplift rates, dating techniques used and inferred reasons for uplift are shown together
with main references
Uplift rate (& timeframe)
Dating technique
14
Huon Peninsula, PNG
0.5– 3.0 m/ka (300 ka)
Th– U, C
SE New Britain
1.6+0.4 m/ka (9 ka and less)
230
Th
Alor Island
1.0– 1.2 m/ka (500 ka)
230
Th/234U, C14, ESR
Atauro Island &
adjacent N Timor
0.47 m/ka – 0.5 m/ka (Atauro &
Timor, dated to 120 ka
extrapolated to 700 ka) and
0.03 m/ka near Dili, Timor
0.2– 0.5 m/ka (600 ka
extrapolated to 990 ka)
Th230 – Ur234
Sumba Island
Th/U, ESR
Luwuk, East Arm & SE
Arm, Sulawesi
0.53– 1.84 m/ka variable over
time & local area (67 – 350 ka)
U/Th, C14
Banda Arc
Up to or . 0.5 m/ka
Palaeontology
Inferred reason for uplift
Arc (Finisterre Volcanic Arc)
– continent (New Guinea
Highlands) collision
Arc uplift associated with
oceanic subduction &
sediment underplating
Uplift associated with
Australian continental crust
collision
Uplift associated with
Australian continental crust
collision
Uplift associated with
Australian continental crust
collision
Tectonic uplift of coast facing
Sula Platform, but also
block faulting and regions of
subsidence
Collision processes in Banda
Arc area
References
Chappell (1974), Bloom et al.
(1974), Chappell & Polach
(1976), Cutler et al. (2003)
& others in text
Riker-Coleman et al. (2006)
Hantoro et al. (1994)
Chappell & Veeh (1978)
Pirazzoli et al. (1993), Bard
et al. (1996)
Sumosusastro et al. (1989),
Fortuin et al. (1990)
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
Area
de Smet et al. (1989)
357
358
M. E. J. WILSON
correlate with rapid sea level rises and have been
correlated with a number of the Huon Peninsula terraces (Aharon et al. 1980; Yokoyama et al. 2001).
From dating of corals in Aladdin’s Cave on the
Huon Peninsula Esat et al. (1999) have suggested
that ice sheet breakup may have paused during
major deglaciation and that meltwater pulses were
non uniform and episodic. Uplift rates along individual terraces may vary in both time and space
and some are segmented by faulting, or dip, due to
tectonic tilting (Chappell 1974; Chappell & Veeh
1978; Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Hantoro et al.
1994). Cave sediments and speleothems from the
Melinau Limestone of Borneo have been used to
evaluate base-level change over the last 2 Ma
(Farrant et al. 1995). Uplift rates of 0.19 m/ka
may be related to isostatic uplift associated with
regional denudation and flexure associated with
offshore sediment loading (Farrant et al. 1995).
A series of modern and fossil corals from
Sumatra and PNG have been used to infer oscillations in the extent of the Indo-Pacific Warm
Pool since the mid Holocene through Sr/Ca
derived sea surface temperatures (Abram et al.
2009). Mid Holocene cooling at the study sites
was related to a more northerly position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and associated
strengthening of the summer monsoon (Abram
et al. 2009). Caliche horizons formed during dry
climates and subaerial exposure of carbonate platforms in the South China Sea have been related to
major Pleistocene sea level lowstands (i.e. glacial
periods; Gong et al. 2005). The caliche may indicate
reduced extent of the Western Pacific Warm Pool,
a southerly shift of the ITCZ and reduced strength
of the East Asian Monsoon during glacial periods
(Gong et al. 2005). Oxygen isotope data from speleothems in Borneo have been used to infer lower
rainfall and weakening western Pacific convection
related to a southward shift of the ITCZ during
deglaciation 18– 20 ka ago (Partin et al. 2007).
Areas of significant subsidence may occur in
close proximity to regions of contemporaneous
rapid uplift (e.g. Luwuk and Huon Peninsula;
Sumosusastro et al. 1989; Galewsky et al. 1996;
Webster et al. 2004a, b). In the actively subsiding
foreland basin of the Huon Gulf a series of
backstepping platforms now at depths of 0.1–
2.5 km have been systematically drowned
approaching the trench due to subsidence rates of
c. 5.7 m/ka over the last 450 ka (Galewsky et al.
1996; Webster et al. 2004b). Submarine terraces
are also tilted along strike, probably due to thrust
loading (Webster et al. 2004a). Relative sea rise
during early major deglaciation events or interglacials when combined with regional subsidence was
.10–15 m/ka and was critical in terrace and platform drowning (Webster et al. 2004b). Tectonic
subsidence and basement substrate morphology
influenced overall geometries and tilting over timescales of .100– 500 ka (Webster et al. 2004a). A
change in the drowned reefs from high energy to
low and moderate energy assemblages around
300–350 ka may be related to tectonic constriction
in the Huon Gulf and/or perhaps changes in the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (Webster et al.
2004b).
In uplifted reef terraces older than 10 000 years
from SE Asia, most corals are altered from their
original aragonite mineralogy. Rare samples from
the Huon Peninsula and Sumba have extended the
record of unaltered corals back to 130 and 600 ka,
respectively (Pirazzoli et al. 1993). Oxygen
isotope results from giant clams linked to uplifted
reef terrace data from the Huon Peninsula have
been used to suggest SST of tropical oceans
during interstadials of isotope stages 5 and 3 were
similar to, or up to 3 8C cooler than, the present
day (Aharon & Chappell 1986). More recent work
on Sr/Ca ratios from unaltered corals from the
penultimate deglaciation at 130 + 2 ka reveal that
SST were significantly cooler, by c. 68 + 2 8C,
than either the last interglacial or present day tropical temperatures (Fig. 5e; 298 + 1 8C; McCulloch
et al. 1996, 1999). Sr/Ca corals records also
reveal seasonal temperature fluctuations from 8.9
and 7.3 thousand years ago in the range of +1 8C
with possible ENSO related fluctuations of +2 8C
(McCulloch et al. 1996). ENSO fluctuations have
now been shown to operate over the last 130 ka
and during glacial time periods from d18O original
coral mineralogy from the Huon Peninsula
(Tudhope et al. 2001). However, the magnitude of
ENSO fluctuations today appears strong compared
with previous cool (glacial) and warm (interglacial)
periods, with changes related to glacial dampening
and orbital driven precession (Tudhope et al. 2001).
Millennial and Cenozoic-scale changes
A range of shallow marine SE Asian carbonate
deposits, known from outcrop and subsurface data,
provide an extensive record spanning much of
the Cenozoic (last 50 million years; Fulthorpe &
Schlanger 1989; Wilson 2002, 2008). Individual
systems variably show the strong influence of
clastic and/or nutrient influx, tectonics, eustasy,
biotic change and oceanographic factors acting
over millennial scales (Fig. 6a, b). Over the Cenozoic
timescale a significant change in biota from larger
benthic foraminifera to coral-dominated systems
occurred around the Oligo-Miocene boundary and
had a major impact on carbonate platform development (Wilson & Rosen 1998; Wilson 2008). Longterm changes over the scale of the Cenozoic have
been related to changing oceanography, plate
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
tectonic configurations, climatic changes and
perhaps global fluctuations in CO2 levels (Fig. 6c;
Wilson 2008).
Regional tectonics via plate tectonic movement,
extensional basin formation and uplift was a major
control on the location of carbonates during the
Cenozoic in SE Asia (Wilson 2008; Wilson &
Hall 2010). These processes controlled movement
of shallow marine areas into the tropics and their
disappearance through emergence or subsidence.
Locally, the creation of faulted highs, volcanic edifices, microcontinental blocks, and basins trapping
siliciclastics influenced the location of carbonate
initiation (Wilson 2008). Individual carbonate
platforms are influenced by tectonics through: (1)
fault-margin collapse and reworking, (2) fault
segmentation, (3) tilting of strata, subsidence,
uplift and differential generation of accommodation
space and (4) modification of internal sequence
character and facies distribution (Fig. 6a; Wilson
& Bosence 1996; Wilson 1999, 2000; Wilson
et al. 2000; Bachtel et al. 2004; Wannier 2009;
Wilson & Hall 2010). Eustasy, particularly during
the Miocene, was also a major impact on changing
accommodation space influencing sequence development, facies distribution and platform geometries (Epting 1980; Rudolph & Lehmann 1989;
Vahrenkamp et al. 2004; Paterson et al. 2006). A
subsurface study of Oligo-Miocene carbonates
from the Philippines is amongst the first in SE
Asia to relate high-frequency, metre-scale platformtop cycles to 4th and 5th order eustatic fluctuations
(10–1000 ka) dated using strontium isotopic analysis (Fournier et al. 2004). In the Gulf of Papua it has
been suggested that Oligo-Miocene patterns of carbonate stratal aggradation, progradation and backstepping imaged on seismic relate directly to
global sea level fluctuations (Fig. 6b; Tcherepanov
et al. 2008a, b). These have been correlated with
a eustatic-driven global stratigraphic signature
(Fig. 6b, c; Tcherepanov et al. 2008a, b). In areas
of strong oceanographic or monsoonal driven currents elongation of carbonate buildups, progradation
of sediment and windward-leeward facies differentiation are all common (Tyrrel et al. 1986; Carter
& Hutabarat 1994; Grötsch & Mercadier 1999;
Wilson & Evans 2002; Carter et al. 2005).
Although many of the Cenozoic SE Asian carbonate systems are located away from clastic
influx, c. 70% formed as land-attached features
(Wilson & Hall 2010). Many of these were affected
by clastic or volcaniclastic influx, and that .80% of
these developed around small-scale islands is probably a reflection of more limited or periodic influx
compared with large-scale islands (Wilson &
Hall 2010). In volcanic areas carbonate production
is often hindered in the local vicinity of active volcanoes, but distal from these or during periods of
359
relative quiescence volcanic edifices often form
sites for prolific carbonate development (Fulthorpe
& Schlanger 1989; Wilson 2000; Wilson & Lokier
2002; Satyana 2005). Studies of Miocene carbonates in fore-arc settings from Java and delta-front
areas in Borneo show that a range of carbonate producers occur in regions of near constant or punctuated influx (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005;
Lokier et al. 2009). Habitats characterized by frequent or heavy clastic influx favour organisms that
can move around or shed sediment (Wilson &
Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). If light dependent
organisms are present in these areas their presence
is typically restricted to the upper few metres of
the water column as a result of reduced water
clarity (Wilson & Lokier 2002; Lokier et al.
2009). Nutrient runoff was also a factor controlling
biotic change in these systems, with coralline algae
and heterotrophic feeders becoming more common
(Wilson & Lokier 2002; Wilson 2005). Nutrient
runoff and upwelling causing plankton blooms and
reduced water clarity is inferred to promote the
regional development of low-light level perforate
foraminifera assemblages on the deeper parts
(.20 m) of many Cenozoic platforms in the
region (Wilson & Vecsei 2005).
The analysis of factors influencing temporal
trends of Cenozoic carbonates in SE Asia given
below is from Wilson (2008), and further explanation can be found therein (Fig. 6c). ‘The Early
Miocene acme of coral-rich facies extent and abundance in SE Asia lags Oligocene coral development
in the Caribbean and Mediterranean, despite local
tectonics providing apparently suitable habitable
areas (Wilson & Rosen 1998; Perrin 2002; Wilson
2008). Regional and global controls, including
changing, oceanography, nutrient input and precipitation patterns are inferred to be the main cause of
this lag in equatorial reefs. It is inferred that moderate (although falling) levels of CO2, Ca2þ and Ca/
Mg when combined with the reduced salinities in
humid equatorial waters all contributed to reduce
aragonite saturation (Stanley & Hardie 1998;
Kleypas et al. 1999; Hallock 2005). This hindered
reefal development compared with warm more
arid regions during the Oligocene. By the Early
Miocene, atmospheric CO2 levels had fallen to preindustrial levels (Fig. 6c; Zachos et al. 2001; Pagani
et al. 2005). Although this was a relative arid phase
globally, in SE Asia palynological evidence indicates the Early Miocene experienced everwet, but
more stable and less seasonal conditions than
periods before or after (Morley 2000; Morley et al.
2003). Tectonic convergence truncated deep
throughflow of cool nutrient-rich currents from the
Pacific to Indian Ocean around the beginning of the
Miocene (Kuhnt et al. 2004), thereby directly, and
perhaps indirectly (though less seasonal conditions)
360
M. E. J. WILSON
Fig. 6. Examples of millennial scale environmental changes inferred from carbonate deposits of Cenozoic age. (a)
East–west cross section through the Eocene to Miocene Tonasa Formation from Sulawesi showing the influence of
tectonic faulting, differential uplift and subsidence on the development of the carbonate platform and its facies (from
Wilson et al. 2000). (b) Seismic section through the Gulf of Papua with interpretation of carbonate packages correlated
with global eustatic sea level fluctuations, also shown in red on the eustasy column of Figure 6c. Interpretation is (1) late
Oligocene–early Miocene aggradation, backstepping and partial drowning, (2) late Early Miocene–early Middle
Miocene vertical growth or aggradation, (3) Middle Miocene downward shift of deposition, (4) late Middle Miocene
progradation (systematic lateral shift of sedimentation) and (5) late Miocene and Early Pliocene re-flooding and
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
reducing nutrients. It is inferred that aragonitic reefs
were promoted during the Miocene where previously
the waters had been more acidic, more mesotrophic,
more turbid and less aragonite saturated. Extensive
reefal development resulted in an order of magnitude
expansion of shallow carbonate areas through
buildup and pinnacle reef formation in the Early
Miocene. Tectonics via basin formation, increased
habitat partitioning and reducing distances to other
coral-rich regions may also have contributed to
enhanced reefal development (Wilson & Rosen
1998; Renema et al. 2008). Declining reefal importance at the end of the Early Miocene resulted from
uplift of land areas, enhanced oceanic ventilation,
through thermohaline circulation (Halfar & Mutti
2005) and narrowing of oceanic gateways as well
as increased seasonal runoff, at least in SE Asia
through initiation/intensification of the monsoons
(Jia et al. 2003)’ (Wilson 2008).
Discussion
Data sources, limitations and
further research
Tomascik et al.’s (1997) study is a major contribution to our understanding of modern SE Asian
coral reefs and seas. This work expands on early
studies by those such as Semper (1881), Umbgrove
(1946, 1947) and Kuenen (1933) which were
amongst the first to evaluate the biology, morphology
and controls on development of the regions reefs.
Recent decades have also seen the setting up of projects to evaluate the unique oceanography, complex
environmental settings, marine biodiversity and
impacts of climate change in SE Asia (Wilkinson
2000; Spalding et al. 2001; Gordon 2005; Peñaflor
et al. 2009). Whilst Tomascik et al. (1997) and
others studies do ‘introduce . . . the fascinating
marine environment of the Indonesian Seas’ they
also point out ‘serious gaps in our knowledge . . .
and a lack of basic research’. There is considerable
potential to better evaluate the biota, communities,
regional conditions and environments of the
modern seas of SE Asia. To quote Tomascik et al.
(1997), ‘a solid knowledge and understanding of
the marine and coastal environments must form
the foundation . . . for the region’s most precious
asset, its people, to manage and conserve its secondmost valuable asset, the seas’.
361
The handful of sclerochronology studies on
modern and Quaternary SE Asian corals highlight
the value of recently developed techniques in determining environmental change. Factors such as
temperatures, runoff, upwelling are now being
related to local, regional or global change, both
human-induced and natural (e.g. mining, ENSO,
glacials and interglacials; McCulloch et al. 1999;
Tudhope et al. 2001; Fallon et al. 2002). Currently,
most of these studies are restricted to more easily
accessible areas (Java) and relatively well-studied
areas such as the Huon region of PNG (Scoffin
et al. 1989; Tudhope et al. 1995; Gagan et al.
1998). Due to the region’s high rainfall and abundant vegetation (hence humic acids) conditions for
preservation of original aragonite coral mineralogy
are not good and many corals show signs of recrystallization or complete alteration within a few thousand years of formation (Riker-Coleman et al.
2006). Recent studies have highlighted the potential
for preservation of original aragonite to hundred(s)
of thousand(s) of years in strongly seasonal parts
of the region or highly local areas, such as caves
(Pirazzoli et al. 1993; McCulloch et al. 1999;
Tudhope et al. 2001). As yet no studies of growth
banding on organisms other than corals or those predating the Quaternary have been undertaken in SE
Asia (cf. Purton & Brasier 1997, 1999). There is
the opportunity to continue to develop combined
growth banding and geochemical studies to evaluate
short-term environmental change in the region over
Quaternary and deeper timescales.
The range of studies on the uplifted Quaternary
coral reef terraces of the Huon Peninsula reveal
the potential for extracting environmental change
data on factors including tectonics, eustasy, temperatures, ENSO, glacials/interglacials and ice
sheet dynamics (Chappell 1974; McCulloch et al.
1996, 1999; Esat et al. 1999; Tudhope et al.
2001). The now submerged (up to 2.5 km water
depth) time-equivalent platform and reef terraces
offshore in the Huon Gulf (Webster et al. 2004a,
b) are the only such systems in SE Asia to have
undergone detailed subsea imaging, dating, facies
and biological mapping. Although spectacular, these
Papuan examples are by no means unique in the
region (Pirazzoli et al. 1993; Hantoro et al. 1994).
There is the potential to undertake considerable
further studies of uplifted and submerged coral
reef terraces to better understand regional tectonics,
Fig. 6. (Continued) aggradation (from Tcherepanov et al. 2008b). (c) Carbonate biofacies, numbers of platforms/
buildups in SE Asia plotted against regional and global events during the Cenozoic (from Wilson 2008; with equatorial
climate after Morley 2000; Morley et al. 2003, global framework reefs after Perrin 2002, oceanic Ca & Mg from
Stanley & Hardie 1998, global climatic events, d18O & Atmospheric pCO2 from Zachos et al. 2001; eustasy from Haq
et al. 1987, and additional atmospheric pCO2 data from Pagani et al. 2005).
362
M. E. J. WILSON
relative sea level variations and the impact of
regional and global environmental change.
A major review of reef development since the
last glacial maximum (23 ka) across the greater
Indo-Pacific region (far Western India to far
Eastern Pacific Oceans) is based on drill core data
(684 cores) through shallow water carbonates
(Montaggioni 2005). Despite the comprehensive
review of available data, no cores were available
from the central Indo-Pacific biodiversity hotspot
(Indonesia and the Philippines). Cores are predominantly from oceanic ‘blue-water’ reefs that are unlikely to be representative of many SE Asian
carbonate systems (Tomascik et al. 1997). Montaggioni (2005) defined three main Indo-Pacific reef
building periods: 17.5 –14.7, 13.8–11.5 and 10 ka
to present. Nutrient levels, hydrodynamic energy
and to a lesser extent substrate availability and
ocean circulation were major influences on reef
accretion at local and regional scales (Montaggioni
2005). There is a need for a programme of shallow
water carbonate drilling in SE Asia to better characterize the variability of Indo-Pacific reefs, their
history and controlling influences.
The growing number of studies on SE Asian Cenozoic carbonates are beginning to reveal factors controlling carbonate development over timescales of
millions of years (Fulthorpe & Schlanger 1989;
Wilson 2002, 2008; Renema et al. 2008; Wilson &
Hall 2010). However, just 10% of the regions 299
carbonate formations documented by Wilson
(2002) have detailed biofacies studies. There is
little recent systematic palaeontology, (with the
exception of the foraminifera; Wilson & Rosen
1998; Renema et al. 2008 and early Dutch studies
on corals and molluscs [e.g. von Fritsch 1878;
Martin 1879; Gerth 1930, 1931; Umbgrove 1939,
1946], geochemistry has been undertaken on very
few deposits, and isotopic dating of sections is
limited. There is a need for further detailed sedimentological, biotic, geochemical and rigorous dating
studies of outcrop and subsurface Cenozoic carbonates. In short, further baseline data together with
targeted studies are required to continue to test
hypotheses of environmental change and influences
on equatorial carbonates on all timescales and
during all time periods.
Environmental change: comparisons
from terrestrial, shallow and deep
marine systems
To investigate environmental change in the
equatorial tropics a holistic approach is required
integrating data from terrestrial, coastal and deep
marine systems as well as the shallow marine
systems discussed here. Notwithstanding the need
for further studies in all fields (see above, Oldfield
1998) how do the emerging trends from the
shallow marine carbonates compare with those
from other realms? Also what can be learnt about
the role of the equatorial tropics in global climate
change?
The terrestrial and deep marine records, similar
to shallow water carbonates, show the major influence of local environmental perturbations and
climate change on annual to thousand year scales
(e.g. fire, volcanism, deforestation, precipitation, ENSO, glacials–interglacials). Palynological
research of marine cores is now providing a connection between marine and terrestrial environments
(Dam et al. 2001). There is recognition of a correlation between droughts, biomass burning and
extreme ENSO events in the equatorial tropics
(Goldammer 1999). Cores extending back .20 ka
reveal charcoal records showing that in some areas
tropical forests may never have been continuously
fire-free for long (Hope 2001). Changes in forest
structure and replacement by grassland vegetation
together with increases in disturbance pollen indicators and charcoal levels have been related to
increased human impacts on the landscape particularly during Holocene, but also the late Pleistocene
(X. Wang et al. 1999; van der Kaars et al. 2000;
Anshari et al. 2001), and possibly development of
ENSO climatic variability (Anshari et al. 2001;
Haberle et al. 2001). Many palynological and/or
deep marine records show evidence for reduced
precipitation, reduced temperatures (by up to or
greater than 4 8C), grassland expansion and altitudinal lowering of montane floras during glacial
periods (Flenley 1979; van der Kaars 1991; van
der Kaars & Dam 1995; Dam et al. 2001; Hope
2001; Rosenthal et al. 2003). This may not have
been the case for what are now the most humid
regions today, and increased strength of the
winter monsoon may be a possible cause during
recent glacial maxima (Sun et al. 2000; Visser
et al. 2004). Over longer time periods everwet conditions have been inferred for SE Asia during the
Middle Eocene and Early Miocene (Morley 2000).
Although everwet conditions persisted in areas
such as Borneo for extended periods, more seasonal
conditions were experienced in Java and Malaysia
during the late Oligocene and from the middle
Miocene (Morley 2000; Lelono & Morley 2011),
both periods of ice cap expansion (Zachos et al.
2001).
Deep marine cores are revealing high resolution
records of changing current, monsoonal as well
as ENSO and glacial –interglacial climatic fluctuations in SE Asia over Cenozoic and Quaternary
timescales. Geochemical data from the intermittently dysoxic Kau Bay in Halmahera is used to
suggest diminished ENSO amplitude or frequency
CARBONATES AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE
during the Medieval Warm Period (1000–750 a BP)
and decreasing El Niño activity during, and after,
the Little Ice Age (Langton et al. 2008). Oceanic
productivity increases are associated with reduced
precipitation during glacial periods from a 460 ka
record in the Timor Sea (Kawamura et al. 2006).
This data supports the hypothesis that the IndoPacific Warm Pool (IPWP) experienced ENSOlike conditions during glacial periods (Stott et al.
2002), with low summer radiation and a weak
austral summer monsoon (Kawamura et al. 2006).
Regional variations are inferred for the Western
Pacific marginal seas from sedimentation rates and
geochemistry (Wang 1999). The South China Sea
experienced emergence and cooling during glacials
and has been linked to aridity in China. Conversely
strengthened winter monsoons and intensified seasonality of the marginal seas could bring moisture
to the islands of SE Asia during glacial periods
(Wang 1999; also seen in the palynological record
above). Many of the region’s other shallow
shelves, such as the Sunda and Sahul Shelves
experienced emergence during glacials (Umbgrove
1938; Pelejero et al. 1999; Wilson & Moss 1999).
Emergence and drowning of SE Asian shelves
impacted monsoonal transport of moisture, hydrological and geochemical cycles of the western Pacific,
impacting global climate with La Nina conditions
inferred for glacials (Pelejero et al. 1999; L. Wang
et al. 1999). Emergence and drowning also dramatically influenced biogeographical connectivity
between areas resulting in a region of dynamic geographical, ecological and biogeographical mosaics
in which shallow marine carbonate platform and
coastal terrestrial development were influenced
(B. R. Rosen, pers. comm. 2010; Potts 1983; Rosen
1984). There is debate on the timing of initiation
and intensification of the monsoons using a range
of proxy data including lithologies, grain textures
and geochemistry of marine sediments (Jia et al.
2003; Wang et al. 2005). There is the possibility
of inception of a monsoon around 20 Ma, initial
strengthening in the early to middle Miocene and
strengthening of the winter monsoon around 7 Ma
(Clift et al. 2002; Jia et al. 2003). In the Maldives
it is proposed that onset and intensification of the
monsoon promoted vigorous bottom currents, triggered nutrient upwelling and caused a switch from
aggradation to backstepping sequences and ultimately drowning of carbonate platforms (the latter
when associated with periods of eustatic sea level
rise; Betzler et al. 2009). Any potential link
between monsoons, platform development and
drowning in SE Asia requires further testing, but
may be important where currents are intensified
and/or nutrient influx occurs (Wilson 2008).
There is growing consensus that not only are the
equatorial tropics involved in global environmental
363
change, but that this region may be far more important in controlling climate variability than previously thought (Kerr 2001). Visser et al. (2003)
showed that 3.5–4 8C rises in SST in the Makassar
Straits during glacial to interglacial transitions are
synchronous with atmospheric CO2 rises and Antarctic warming, but pre-date Northern Hemisphere
icecap melting. The inference was that the tropical
Pacific region was driving glacial –interglacial
cycles perhaps through ENSO regulation of transfer
of water vapour and heat to the poles (Visser et al.
2003). The theory is that as the IPWP warms, the
region supplies additional water vapour and CO2
(reduced solubility in warm waters) to the atmosphere, resulting in atmospheric transfer of heat poleward and enhanced greenhouse effects thereby
warming the planet (Kerr 2001; Dunbar 2003;
Visser et al. 2003). In addition, changing configurations of land and sea in SE Asia associated with
tectonics and glacial cyclicity influenced ocean –
atmosphere circulation patterns with impacts on
regional and global climates (Dam et al. 2001).
The Indonesian Throughflow Current is a major
influence on global thermohaline circulation which
in turn impacts global climate. Restricting the
deep Throughflow due to tectonic convergence
around 25 Ma reduced the input of cool deep
waters to SE Asia (Kuhnt et al. 2004). The resultant
increase in sea surface temperatures is inferred to
have promoted evaporation and the development
of humid, but stable conditions in the central archipelago (Morley et al. 2003). Change in position of
the Throughflow passages, again due to tectonic
change in the Pliocene are inferred to have caused
reduced atmospheric heat transfer from the tropics
to high latitudes (Kuhnt et al. 2004). An unrestricted
Throughflow (from benthic foraminifera records)
between 1.6 to 0.8 Ma is inferred to influence
initiation of the Leeuwin Current along Western
Australia and the transfer of heat to southerly latitudes (Gallagher et al. 2008). A range of studies
show the complex links between the Indonesian
Throughflow, ENSO fluctuations and the Asian
Monsoon (Wang et al. 2005; Kawamura et al.
2006). During the boreal winter monsoon there is
cooling of the tropical Indian Ocean since the
warm surface flow of Indonesian Throughflow is
hindered by monsoonal winds. This enhances the
contrast in sea surface temperature between the
western Pacific and Indian Ocean with potential
feedback for ENSO, the Indian Ocean Dipole and
weakening monsoonal phenomena (Gordon et al.
2003; Xu et al. 2008).
Conclusions
This study highlights the use of carbonate producers
and deposits in evaluating environmental and
364
M. E. J. WILSON
climatic changes on all scales through the last 50
million years in SE Asia. Major drivers of local
and regional changes at a variety of temporal
scales are inferred to include oceanography, nutrients, precipitation patterns and terrestrial runoff.
At a higher level these are driven by tectonic
changes in SE Asian ocean gateway configurations,
subsidence versus uplift, eustasy, and global/
regional climatic and ocean–atmosphere changes
(e.g. ENSO, monsoons and CO2 fluctuations).
Despite conditions that commonly differ significantly from the more traditional view of ‘bluewater’ oceanic reefs, SE Asia has the highest modern
shallow marine biodiversity and the most volumetrically extensive and complete record of equatorial
carbonates spanning much of the Cenozoic.
In general the western SE Asian seas are strongly
influenced by terrestrial runoff, the Indonesian
Throughflow current and monsoonal effects,
whereas the east experiences major nutrient upwelling and ENSO impacts. These factors all influence
carbonate producers and the edifices they build, as
evidenced from geochemical signatures, facies and
carbonate platform studies of modern and Quaternary deposits in SE Asia. Spectacular coral reef terraces reveal significant localized tectonic uplift
and coeval subsidence during the Quaternary and
Pleistocene with rates (up to 3–6 m/ka) similar to
some of the fastest known. Quantification is possible
of amounts, or timing, of factors such as interglacial
to glacial temperature changes (up to 3–6 8C),
ENSO fluctuations (+2 8C extending back at least
130 ka), meltwater pulses associated with ice sheet
breakup, and movement of the ITCZ. Over millennial timescales siliciclastics, nutrients, tectonics,
eustasy and oceanography all influence the location,
evolution and variability of individual carbonate
systems. Over the Cenozoic major changes in
oceanography, plate tectonics, climate change and
perhaps fluctuating atmospheric CO2 influenced
significant changes in carbonate producers and the
types of platforms that were constructed. Comparison with parallel studies from terrestrial and deep
marine deposits reveals many similar trends to
those emerging from the carbonate record, but the
former are currently yielding more information
about variations in precipitation, currents and the
monsoons. There is considerable scope for further
study in all fields. It is anticipated that study of SE
Asian carbonates will continue to aid evaluation of
the relative response of tropical marine systems to
global or regional change versus their potential to
be dominant drivers of climatic change.
I thank Robert Hall and the SE Asia Research Group for
their continued support, aiding my research of the fascinating carbonate systems of the region, and enabling me to
present this study at the SAGE 2009 conference. Funding
through an Internal Curtin University Research Grant to
undertake this study is acknowledged. Bob Park and
Brian Rosen are thanked for their constructive reviews.
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