Download Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive Psychology
Xiaolin Zhou
Department of Psychology
Peking University
Beijing, China
[email protected]
周晓林博士
• 北京大学脑科学与认知科学中心主任
• 中国心理学会普通心理学与实验心理学
专业委员会主任
• 心理学系发展与教育心理学教研室主任
• 东南大学、中山大学、北京师范大学等
学校兼职教授
研究生的论文
实验室研究方向
• 语言加工、注意与执行控制、以及社会
神经科学。
• 力图以多种研究手段、从行为和神经机
制两个层面上阐述人类认知和社会活动
的本质
• 当前的研究手段包括计算机行为实验，
神经心理学测验，脑电和核磁共振
（fMRI）脑功能成像。
• Yu, R., & Zhou, X. (in press). To bet or not to bet? The
Ne/ERN associated with risk taking choices. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience.
• Yue, Z., Zhang, M., & Zhou, X. (2008). Updating verbal and
visuospatial working memory: Are the processes parallel?
Chinese Science Bulletin, 53, 2175-2185.
• Ye, Z., & Zhou, X. (2008). Involvement of cognitive control
in sentence comprehension: Evidence from ERPs. Brain
Research, 1203, 103-115.
• Zhang, X., Li, T., & Zhou, X. (2008). Brain responses to
facial expressions by adults with different attachmentorientations. Neuroreport, 19, 437-441.
• Wei, P., Müller, H., Lü, J., & Zhou, X. (2008). Searching for
two feature singletons in the visual scene: The localized
attentional interference effect. Experimental Brain
Research, 185, 175-188.
Structure of this lecture
• Purpose and plan of the Course
• An Overview of the Course
• What is Cognitive Psychology
• 重新审视基因、环境对行为的影响
•
Science,Volume 298, Number 5591, Issue of 4 Oct 2002, pp. 71-
– A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach
– The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
– Fields Related to Cognitive Psychology
• Research Method – cognitive neuroscience
methods
• Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology
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Plan and Requirements of the
Course
Purpose of the Course
• What are the main issues and various
fields of study in cognitive psychology
• What methods and techniques do
cognitive psychologists use
• How should experimental research be
conducted
• Practical training in research
– searching and reading papers
– planning experiments
– writing up research report
• Attending lectures, reading papers, and
writing reports (50%)
– 5 papers (each having at least 10 related
references, at least 5 pages)
– 3 tests, one after “attention”, one after
“imagery”, and one after “language”
• Designing an experiment (20%)
– Original, publishable
• Attending final examination (30%)
Research Project
Organization and Arrangement
• Course Coordinator
– a bridge between the lecturer and
students
– responsible for a variety of matters
such as buying reference books and
creating a mailing list
• Two supervisors
–李想 ([email protected])
–李晓倩 ([email protected])
• Find a general field you want to be in
• Search for all the relevant papers
published and making a detailed list
• Read those papers, and write a review
• Find one or two review papers about the
general field
• identify a specific question you want to ask
• design experiment(s) and run subjects
• write up the paper (and send it out for
publication)
Research Project Schedule
• By 25 October: searching a list of
papers published in English, talk with
your supervisor；Report the progress
of reading
• By 15 November: find a project and
design the experiment(s)
• By 10 January, 2007: hand in your
report
Schedule of the Course
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Introduction (1 lecture)
Perception (2－3 lectures)
Attention and Consciousness (2－3 lectures)
Memory and Knowledge Representation (3
－4 lectures)
Imagery (1 lecture)
language Processing (3－4 lectures)
Problem Solving and Creativity (1 lectures)
Reasoning and Decision Making (1 lectures)
2
An Overview of the Course (1)
• Introduction
– what are cognition, cognitive psychology,
and cognitive approach
– the history of cognitive psychology
– research methods in cognitive
psychology
– key issues and and fields within cognitive
psychology
Schedule of the Course (2)
• Perception
– how does the human mind perceive what
the senses receive
– how does the human mind distinctively
achieve the perception of forms and
patterns
– does the perception of human faces have
a special mechanism
Figure or Ground?
Illusions in Visual Perception
Hermann Grid
• At other times, we perceive what
cannot be there
3
Schedule of the Course (3)
• Attention and Consciousness
– what are the basic processes of the
mind that govern how information enters
our minds, our awareness, and our highlevel processes of information
processing
Asymmetries in Visual
Search
Patients with Brain Damage
Inhibitory
Effect of
Feature
Singleton
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Types of Memory
Schedule of the Course (4)
Prospective
• Memory
– how are different kinds of information
represented in the memory
– how do we move information into memory,
keep it there, and retrieve it from
memory when needed
– how do we mentally represent
information in our mind
– how do we manipulate and operate on
knowledge
Retrospective
LTM
STM
Implicit
Priming
Explicit
Skills
Semantic
Episodic
Conditioning
Generation
Verification
Recogntion
Recall
Schedule of the Course (5)
• Imagery
– whether mental images truly resemble
perceptual images
– how do we form and use cognitive maps
for physical settings
Schedule of the Course (6)
• Language Processing
– how do we derive and produce meaning
through language
– how do we acquire language
– how does our use of language interact
with our ways of thinking
– how does our social world interact with
our use of language
5
Can Animals Speak?
signing chimps,
discerning parrots, &
grammatical bonobos
Schedule of the Course (7)
• Problem Solving and Creativity
– how do we solve problems
– what processes aid and impede use in
reaching solutions to problems
– why are some of use more creative than
others
– how do we become and remain creative
What are characteristics of
language?
Structured
Arbitrary
Generative
Dynamic
Tower of London
• Match start configuration to the goal
configuration in the minimum number of moves
• Constraints
– the three bins hold three balls, two balls and
one ball, respectively
– can move only the top-most balls to a different
bin
Schedule of the Course (8)
• Reasoning and Decision Making
– how do we reach important decisions
– how do we draw reasonable conclusions
from the information we have available
– why and how do we often making
inappropriate decisions and reach
inaccurate conclusions
• Jim is short, slim, and likes to read poetry.
Is Jim more likely to be a classics professor
at an university or a truck driver?
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Main Journals
Main Reference Books
• Hunt & Ellis, 《认知心理学基础》，
人民邮电出版社（影印版）
• Eysenck & Keane, 高定国翻译，《认
知心理学》，华东师大出版社
• 《与“众”不同的心理学》，中国轻工业
出版社
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•
•
•
•
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Trends in Cognitive Science
Nature Review Neuroscience
Current Opinions in Neurobiology
Current Opinions in Psychology
Nature，Science
Many Other Journals on the internet
What is Cognitive Psychology
Don’t Panic!!!
• Cognition (mental activity)
– involves the acquisition, storage,
transformation, and use of knowledge
• Cognitive Psychology
– a synonym for the word cognition
– OR a particular theoretical approach to
psychology
• Cognitive Approach
– a theoretical orientation that
emphasizes mental structure and
processes
Why Study Cognitive
Psychology (1)
• Cognition occupies a major portion of
the study of human psychology
• Cognitive approach has widespread
influence on other areas of
psychology
• Cognitive psychology has also
influenced interdisciplinary areas
• Cognitive psychology is related to
your own personal life
Why Study Cognitive
Psychology (2)
• The study of cognition has become
essential not only for those
interested in COGNITIVE SCIENCE,
in general, and COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY, in particular, but for
almost all those with an interest in
the MIND.
• (The Nature of Cognition, edited by Robert
J. Sternberg, 1999)
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Cognition plays a central role in
• SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study of social
cognition)
• DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY (the
study of cognitive development)
• CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study and
implementation of cognitive therapy)
• EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY (the study
of cognition in the classroom)
• COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE (the study
of the cognitive processes related to brain
functioning)
• And practically every other area of
psychology as well.
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (2)
• Plato and Aristotle disagreed not only
about what is truth but also about
how to find truth
– To Plato, observations of imperfect,
concrete objects and actions would
mislead us and take us away from truth.
The route to knowledge is through
logical analysis
– To Aristotle, observations of the
external world were only the means to
arrive at truth
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (1)
• Philosophical Antecedents
– Rationalism vs. Empiricism
– Knowledge and experience
• Plato: reality resides not in the concrete objects
we perceive through our body’s senses, but in the
abstract forms that these objects represent, i.e.,
in the abstract ideas of the objects that exist in
our mind.
• Aristotle: reality lies only in the concrete world of
objects that our bodies sense.
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (3)
• Seventeenth century
– Rene Descartes vs. John Locke
– whether knowledge is innate or is
passively acquired through experience
• Eighteenth century
– Immanuel Kant
– both rationalism and empiricism have
their places and must work together in
the quest for truth
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (4)
• Psychological Antecedents
– should we gain an understanding of the human
mind by studying its structure or by studying
its functions?
• Structuralism
– to understand the structure of the mind and
its perceptions through analyzing those
perceptions into their constituent components
• Mind = machine?
– Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener: the optimal
method was to study sensory experience
though introspection
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A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (5)
• Functionalism
– to study the processes of how and why
the mind works as it does, rather than to
study the structural contents and
elements of the mind
– to use whichever methods best
answering given questions.
• This leads to pragmatism
• William James, John Dewey
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (7)
• From Associationism to Behaviorism
– Thorndike: voluntary responses to stimuli
– Ivan Pavlov: involuntary responses (classically
conditional learning)
• Behaviorism focuses entirely on the
association between the environment and
an observable behavior. It has no use for
internal mental contents or mechanisms
– John Watson, B. F. Skinner
– Tolman (goal, plan), Bandura (social learning)
The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (1)
• Psychobiology
• Karl Lashley (a former student of Watson)
– how the organization of the brain governs
human activity
– to consider the brain as an active, dynamic
organizer of behavior
• Donald Hebb
– how the structure of neural connections in
the brain changes as a result of learning
– a mental representation of some external
event is represented by a hierarchical
structure of multiple cell assemblies
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (6)
• Associationism
– to study how events or ideas can become
associated with one another in the mind,
to result in a form of learning
– Hermann Ebbinghaus, Edward Thorndike
– law of effect (1905): A stimulus will tend
to produce a certain response over time
if an organism is rewarded for that
response.
A Brief History of the
Cognitive Approach (8)
• Gestalt Psychology
– psychological phenomena is best viewed as
organized, structured wholes.
– A reaction not only against the
behaviorism, but also against
structuralism
– “the whole differs from the sum of its
parts”
– profound influence on the study of the
perception of forms and the study of
insight, an aspect of problem solving
The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (2)
• Linguistics
• Noam Chomsky
– the creative potential of language defies
behaviorist notion that we learn language by
reinforcement
– language understanding is constrained not
so much by what have heard, but by an
innate language acquisition device (LAD)
– it is the structure of the mind, rather than
the structure of environmental
contingencies, that guides language
acquisition
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The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (3)
• Computer and Communication
Sciences
– Following many issues faced in computer
information processing, psychologists
began to talk about information codes,
about limitation in processing capacity,
and about the processing either serially
or in parallel
The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (5)
• Information-processing Approach
– a mental process can best be understood by
comparing it with the operation of a
computer
– a mental process can be interpreted as
information processing through the system
in a serious of stages, from stimuli to
responses
– a number of simple mental operations can be
grouped together to produce complex
cognitive behavior
Fields Related to Cognitive
Psychology (1)
• Cognitive Science
– includes psychology, philosophy,
linguistics, anthropology, artificial
intelligence, and neuroscience
– tries to answer questions about the mind.
– examines the nature of knowledge, its
components, its development, and its use.
– No consensus yet about either its
content or its methods
The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (4)
• Artificial Intelligence
– to construct systems that show
intelligence, and particularly, the
intelligent processing of information
– more interested in maximizing
information processing efficiency,
rather than in simulating human
intelligence and how humans solve
problems
– Herbert Simon and Allen Newell
The Emergence of Cognitive
Psychology (6)
• The Born of Cognitive Psychology in
1956 (11 September)
– a symposium at MIT
– many books and articles on a variety of
mental processes were published
• Ulric Neisser
– Cognitive Psychology (1967)
Fields Related to Cognitive
Psychology (2)
• Cognitive Neuroscience
– examines how the structure and function of
the brain explain cognitive processes
– began to flourish at the end of 1980s, when
cognitive psychologists and neuroscientists
began to use brain-imaging techniques to
record brain activity during cognitive tasks
– it is a challenge to build explanatory bridge
between the level of the neuron and the
level of cognitive concept
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Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology (1)
• Goals of research
– data gathering,
– data analysis,
– theory development,
– hypothesis formulation,
– hypothesis testing,
– application to settings outside the
research environment
Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology (3)
• Laboratory or controlled experiments
– to control as many aspects of the
experimental situation as possible
– to manipulate the independent variable,
controlling for the effects of irrelevant
variables, and to observe the effects on the
dependent variable
– to establish a likely causal link between the
given independent variables and the
depedent variables
Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology (2)
• Self report, case studies, and
naturalistic observation
– particularly useful for the formation
of hypotheses
– Ecological validity
Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology (4)
• Computer Simulation
• Computer programs must be detailed,
precise, unambiguous, and logical
• If the computer and the human show
equivalent performance on a particular
task, then we can speculate that the
program represents an appropriate
theory for describing the human‘s
mental operations
Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology (5)
• Psychobiological or Cognitive
neuroscience Research
– to investigate the relationship
between cognitive performance and
cerebral events and structures\
• Various methods
– Brain lesion
– Functional imaging
– Single cell recording
– Genetic research
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Brain as an Information Processing
Device
Brain functions in terms of
• Computational theory
– about the goal of the information
transformation process and the strategy by
which the goal is achieved
• Codes and algorithms
– the nature of the codes and the algorithms by
which the transformation from one code to
another is achieved
• Neurophysiological implementation
– the implementation of the process in terms of
interactions between neurons
Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (1)
Key Themes of Cognitive Psychology (2)
Nature vs. nurture
Rationalism vs. empiricism
Structures vs. processes
Domain generality vs. domain
specificity
• Validity of causal inferences vs.
ecological validity
• Applied vs. basic research
• Biological vs. behavioral methods
• The cognitive processes are active,
rather than passive
• The cognitive processes are
remarkably efficient and accurate
• The cognitive processes handle
positive information better than
negative information
• The cognitive processes are
interrelated with one other; they do
not operate in isolation
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•
•
•
Key Themes of Cognitive
Psychology (3)
• Many cognitive process rely on both
bottom-up and top-down processing
– bottom-up processing stresses the
importance of information from the
stimuli
– top-down processing stresses the
influence of concepts, expectations, and
memory upon the cognitive processes
Questions for This Lecture
• What is cognitive psychology
• How did cognitive psychology develop
from psychology
• How have other disciplines contributed
to the development of theory and
research in cognitive psychology
• What methods doe cognitive
psychologists use in research
• What are the current issues and various
fields of study within cognitive
psychology
12
Keep on Searching and
REsearching
Reading List
• 《认知心理学基础》第一章
• 《21世纪的心理科学与脑科学》，北京大学出
版社，2002。
• The cognitive revolution: a historical
perspective Trends in Cognitive Sciences
Volume: 7, Issue: 3, March, 2003, pp.
141-144 Miller, George A.
• Neural modeling, functional brain imaging,
and cognition Trends in Cognitive Sciences
Volume: 3, Issue: 3, March, 1999, pp. 9198 Horwitz, Barry; Tagamets, M-A.;
McIntosh, Anthony Randal
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