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Alexandria History The second largest city and the main port of Egypt, Alexandria was built by the Greek architect Dinocrates (332-­‐331 BC)on the site of an old village, Rhakotis, at the orders of Alexander the Great. The city, immortalizing Alexander's name, quickly flourished into a prominent cutural, intellectual, political, and economic metropolis, the remains of which are still evident to this day. But long before Alexander the Great visited the site of Alexandria, Homer had written about Pharos in his Odyssey. What remains of the prehistoric harbor have been found off the shores of the island, now the peninsula of Ras-­‐El-­‐Tin. Opposite of Pharos, on the Egyptian mainland, was a small village centered around the area where "Pompey's Pillar" now stands. It was called Rhakotis. Archeological evidence suggests that it existed as long ago as the 13th Century BC. Because the Ancient Egyptian civilization thrived mainly along the Nile River, very little is known about both Pharos and Rhakotis at that time. Was it a strategic defense base to repel raiders from the West? Was it an important city during the reign of King Nectanebo II, who was planning to be burried there? Probably throughout most of its ancient history, Rhakotis was merely a fishing village. Then came Alexander the Great When he reached Memphis in Egypt, he was welcome by the people who hated Persian rule. He was twenty five years old. Yet, he was King of Macedon. He was the hailed conqueror who started a long journey through Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria, sweeping both Greek and the Persian forces on his way. He had plans for a longer journey to Persia, Central Asia, and India. But first, he had to visit the Oasis of Siwa to consult the Oracle of Amun. While on his way, Alexander admired that stretch of land between the Mediterranean Sea and lake Mareotis, and the nearby island. He ordered a city to be founded there in order to serve as a regional capital. The location was ideal for it was intermediate between Greece across the Mediterranean and the rest of Egypt. At that time, the Nile was connected to the Red Sea through a canal, and Alexandria could serve as a gateway to the Indian Ocean. The city plan was designed by the Greek architect Dinocrates. The city walls outline was marked by Alexander himself. Egypt's new capital was born April 7, 331 BC. She was named after Alexander, yet he never saw a single building rise there. Only after his death, had he returned to her to be burried. Ptolemaic Era Alexandria Golden Age Upon Alexander's death, no single successor emerged to claim his kingdom. Rather, the widespread territories were divided among several rulers. Egypt was the share of the most skilled of these: Ptolemy. He was Macedonian by birth, but witnessed the birth of Alexandria and wanted her to be the cultural and intellectual capital of the world. He ruled in 323 BC, reigned in 304 BC, and expanded his kingdom to include Cyrene (Lybia), Palestine, Cyprus, and others lands. His royal titles included King Soter (Savior), and Pharaoh. Under the reign of Soter, the golden age of Alexandria, the new capital of Egypt, started. His successor, Ptolemy II Philadelphus (King in 287 BC), was a less ambitious person. Unlike his father, he turned his back to military campaigns and focused on buiding Alexandria. He was more "Egyptian" than his father: he married his sister Arsinoe, a custom, then, widely accepted among Egyptians and despicable in the eyes of the Greeks. His son, Ptolemy III Euergetes (Well-­‐doer), was full of will and motivation. He reigned in 246 BC, and was praised as a military leader and a supporter of science. He married his cousin Berenice. Their reign, marked the peak in Alexandria's glamor and fame. Ptolemy Euergetes was succeeded by less influential Kings. The list includes: Ptolemy IV Philopator (King 221 BC) Ptolemy V Epiphanes (King 205 BC) Ptolemy X Alexander I (King 107 BC) Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus (King 80 BC) Cleopatra VII Philopator (Queen 51 BC) The reign of the Ptolemaic Dynasty ended in 30 BC, when Cleopatra lost the famous battle of Actium in the Adriatic. Egypt then became a Roman province, under the rule of Octavian. Alexandria thrived during the reign of the first three Ptolemies and grew into one of the largest, if not the largest metropolis in the world and became the world's scientific and intellectual Mecca. The legacy of the Ptolemies is highlighted by major achievements. The Pharos Lighthouse was built; the Mouseion/Great Library system was founded; the Palace was constructed; the Heptastadion Dyke was completed; and the Temple of Serapis was erected. On the other hand, one must acknowledge the pitfalls of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Under their rule, common Egyptians suffered from economical hardships. Except for the earlier period, taxes imposed were the highest in the Ancient World. The Royal Palace was frequently the site of family scandals, including Kings executing their parents and relatives, and Queens killing their step-­‐children. In conclusion, it is fair to say that the reign of the first three Ptolemies marked Alexandria's golden age. The Roman Period By the time the Romans conquered Egypt, Alexandria had already attracted immigrants from the Mediterranean and beyond. There was the Egyptian community, centered around the old site of Rhakotis (Kom-­‐el-­‐Dikka), the Greek community downtown, and the Jewish community occupying the eastern districts. Octavian, the new Roman Emperor, having had bitter memories about Alexandria, Cleopatra, and Mark Antony, founded a new town, Nicopolis, just east of Alexandria (now part of the greater city, known as El-­‐
Raml). Higher taxes were imposed, may be as a sort of "punishment" to the Egyptians, and were collected by the local appointee who served as the regional ruler of the new Roman province. Octavian's successors were less harsh and more appreciative. Matters improved further when the Red Sea Canal was recut to link the Nile to the Red Sea, serving the purpose of the modern Suez Canal. During the early rule of the Romans in Egypt, the world witnessed one of the most important events in history: the birth of Christianity. The new religion was introduced into Alexandria by St. Mark who was martyred in 62 AD for protesting against the worship of Serapis. Early Christian centers, such as the oratory of Saint-­‐Mark, and, later, the Catechetical School were among the first of their kind in the world. As the Christian population grew, so did the persecution from Roman Emperors -­‐ Decius, Severus, and Diocletian to name a few. Persecution reached unprecedented levels during the "Era of the Martyrs" around 284 AD, when an estimated 144,000 martyrs including St. Menas, Ste. Catherine, and St. Peter of Alexandria died over a nine year period. However, the Catechetical School, where Clement of Alexandria and Origen taught around 200 AD, grew in size and influence. And when in October 312 AD the Roman Emperor Constantine announced Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, Alexandria was ready for the change. Towards the end of the fourth century, events took a tragic turn with conflicts growing, again, between the Christian community and the Pagans -­‐ the Catechetical School and the Mouseion. In 389 AD, the Temple of Serapis at Canopus (Abou-­‐Qir) fell. Sentiments reached a peak during the eventful year of 391 AD, when the Roman Emperor Theodosius issued a decree which authorized the destruction of the Temple of Serapis at Alexandria, the last refuge of the Pagans and home of the Mouseion. Fourteen years later, the Neo-­‐Platonist mathematician and the last person known to have taught at the Mouseion, Hypatia, was murdered, marking the end of Paganism in Alexandria. During the next two centuries, the spiritual power of the Coptic Church in Alexandria grew among Egyptians. The power of the "Royal" Patriarchs, appointed by the Roman Emperor, was more political than religious. The Coptic Patriarchs, on the other hand, had no political interests. In the early seventh century, both the Persian and the Roman Empire started to fall apart. In 617, the Persians peacefully captured Alexandria for a short period of 5 years. By the time the Roman Emperor Heraclius regained his forces and captured the lost provinces back, the world was ready to witness the birth of a new power. Out of the Arabian peninsula, and spiritually powered by the new religion of Islam, came the Arab forces that swept both the Romans and the Persians, and established an Empire that would last for over a thousand years. After negociating with the Roman Patriarch, Cyrus, who was also serving as the Roman ruler of Egypt, Alexandria was peacefully captured by the Arab general Amr Ibn-­‐el-­‐'Aas in 642 AD. The Arab Years By the time they reached Alexandria, the Arab forces, inspired by the new religion of Islam and led by Amr Ibn-­‐
el-­‐'Aas, had already captured the strategic fort of Babylon near modern Cairo. They advanced towards the Capital, Alexandria, and camped near present Nouzha Gardens. Amr, who was a politician rather than a commander, negociated a treaty with the Roman viceroy, the Patriarch Cyrus. The treaty was signed on November 8th 641 AD, and Amr and his soldiers entered a city which "contains 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, and 400 theatres". Amr was appointed as ruler of Egypt, and now had to make a critical decision. He knew the Arab civilization was of the land, not of the water. Omar, the Muslim Caliph, had bitter memories about thousands of soldiers drowning in Persia when a bridge fell on the Euphrates. "Establish your capital wherever you wish, but let be no water between you and me", said Omar. This meant that Alexandria could not serve as the Capital as long as the Nile river existed. The Arabs moved east of the Nile, where they established another city, Al-­‐Fostat, the nucleus of modern Cairo. For the next thousand years or so, the glamor of Alexandria declined. The Arabs greatly admired the city, and the most descriptive accounts of the Pharos Lighthouse and the monuments come from Arab records. But they were more interested in Cairo, their new capital. They were horseriders, not sailors, and the Mediterranean meant little for them. When the lantern of the Lighthouse fell in the 8th century, and when the building collapsed during the 956 and 1323 earthquakes, they had no plans for repair. In 1498, the medieval fort of Qait-­‐Bay was eventually constructed on the foundation of the Pharos. Among the few landmarks constructed during the Arab period are the Shrine of Abul-­‐Dardaa, a muslim scholar and one of the companions of the prophet Muhammad; and the mosque of Al-­‐Mursi Abul-­‐Abbas, an Andalusian-­‐style mosque built by the Murcian immigrant. Alexandria was further struck by the discovery of the new route around Africa to the Far East. The port would not regain its power until the inauguration of the Suez Canal in the mid 19th century. The population of the city shrank, and was centered in the vicinity of the newly accreted land around the heptastadion. The area, formerly known as the Turkish town, later became the city center (El-­‐Mansheya). Towards the end of the Mamelouk rule (late 18th century), corruption reached its peak. Egyptians were burdened by heavy taxes, and were scientifically and economically lagging behind other nations. Europe had started witnessing global political changes with the French revolution and the emergence of Napoleon as a military and political leader. And, indeed, the Frenchman gave Egypt and Alexandria a wake-­‐up call on July 1st, 1798. Modern Times When Napoleon Bonaparte and the French army entered Alexandria on July 1st 1789, she was no more than a small town. The population of the city that was once the second largest in the world had shrunk to a mere 8000. Illustrations and maps shown in "Déscription d'Egypte", the comprehensive book compiled by the French expedition, suggest that the population was mainly centered around the Turkish Town, now known as Mansheya. only ruins, sand dunes, and two obelisks known as Cleopatra's Needles (one of them fallen) could be seen at today's city center, Raml Station. Napoleon's army of 5000 men captured the city with little or no resistance. Although the French expedition eventually failed when in 1799 the British Lord, Nelson, defeated the French at Abou-­‐Qir (Canopus), its influence on Egyptian history was dramatic. It was a wake-­‐up call to a country that was struck by Ottoman isolationism and Mamelouk corruption. It also brought to the attention of the British the importance of Egypt's strategic location. For the next decade, Alexandria wittnessed military confrontations between the Ottomans and the Mamelouks as well as the British who sent another expedition in 1807. During the course of the events, a new political figure started to emerge. An Albanian officer by the name of Mohamed Ali who had been appointed by the Ottoman Sultan as ruler of Egypt was gradually gaining power. He finally declared Egypt as an autonomous state under the Ottoman sovereignty, and started a dynasty of Khedives and Kings that lasted for over a century. Mohamed Ali is one of the most controversial figures in Egyptian history. Some consider him a great leader who had ambitious plans to revive Egypt's old glory. Others believe he was just another dictator who was abusive of the country and the people. Most, however, agree, that Egypt experienced an age of "Renaissance" under his rule. He gave away Alexandria's own Cleopatra's Needles as "gifts" to the British and American governments. But he also cut the new Mahmoudeya Canal and connected it to the Nile, an achievement that revived Alexandria's as well as Egypt's economy. The city center (Mansheya) as we see it today is mainly the work of his engineers. He also prepared the Western Harbor to be Egypt's main port, and built a modern lighthouse at its entrance. When Mohamed Ali died, Alexandria's population had grown from a meager 8,000 to a prosperous 60,000. Under the rule of Mohamed Ali's successors, Alexandria continued to grow. When the Suez Canal was inaugurated in 1867, Alexandria's exports increased to constitute 94% of Egypt's total. New communities emerged east of Ancient Alexandria, as far as Octavian's Nicopolis (El-­‐Raml), to accomodate the growing population. In 1882, Ahmed Orabi, an Egyptian nationalist then minister of war, led a revolt against the Khedive (King) Tawfik to protest British intervention in Egypt. The situation was aggravated when the British fleet arrived in Alexandria in May. On July 11, Alexandria suffered greatly when she was bombarded by the British. The bombardment lasted for 2 days and the city surrendered, marking the beginning of a British occupation to Egypt which lasted for 70 years. During the 20th cetury, the city became Egypt's summer Capital. Al-­‐Montazah Palace was designated as the King's summer residence, and the official government headquarters were based in Bulkeley. In 1944, Arab delegates signed the birth document of the Arab League in Alexandria. She witnessed the abdication of King Farouk and his departure to exile in Italy on July 26th 1952. And exactly four years later, president Nasser (who was born in the middle-­‐class district of Bacos in Alexandria) announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal at her very own heart, Al-­‐Mansheya Square. Today, the city looks different from that of the Ptolemies. Greater Alexandria stretches nearly 70 kilometers (45 miles) along the Mediterranean coast, with urban areas covering more than 100 square kilometers. Her rich population of more than 4 million still reflects her ancient history and close ties to the Mediterranean. With ethnic minorities including Armenians, Greeks, Italians, Lebanese, Maltese, and Syrians among others, Alexandria is considered the most diverse culturally of all Egyptian cities. Her diverse experiences are deeply engraved in the names of her districts: Greek names Bacos (Bacchus), Quartier Grec (Greek Quarter); Ptolemaic names Soter, Cleopatra; Roman/Coptic names Camp César, Sainte Catherine, San Stefano; Arab names Shatby, Sidi Bishr, Sidi Gaber; Jewish names Smouha, Menasha (Menasce); modern European names Fleming, Glymenopoulo, Lambruzo, Schutz, Stanley; and modern Egyptian names Moharram Bey, Moustafa Kamel, Rushdy, Saba Pasha. She is home of Alexandria University, the Arab Institute of Science and Technology, the African Francophone Univeristy (Université Senghor) and the Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of the World Health Organization. Most recently, a project is underway to revive Alexandria's old library. On the Corniche (seafront) at Silsila, site of the Ancient Ptolemaic Palace and the Caesarium, the new building will be erected, and will carry the name of Bibliotheca Alexandrina.