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Origins
Lecture 9; April 29 2014
Previously on Origins
•  Demarcation: what is science?
•  Falsification: how do you test scientific
theories?
Today on Origins
•  Repeatibility: science and the supernatural
•  Corroboration: what is a “good” scientific
theory
•  Is Earth a special/unique place?
Physical cosmology
•  Experiments and Observations force us to modify/change
our view of the Universe. Examples:
–  Galileo’s observations of Sun spots proved that the
heavens are not time-invariant
–  Hubble’s measurement of galaxy redshifts showed that the
Universe is not static
–  High speed motions of stars in galaxies show that either we
do not understand gravity or there is a large amount of
“dark matter”, i.e. different stuff that the ones that makes
you and me (and Earth)
Tools of the trade:
Telescopes as time machines
Physical cosmology:
a fundamental dilemma
•  Experiments and observations can only be
from one point in space and time: Earth now.
•  Yet we would like to construct a scientific
theory that describes the universe everywhere
and at all times.
…and its solution
•  Hypothesis: our local sample of the universe is
no different from more remote and
inaccessible places
•  This assumption is deeply rooted in two
fundamental principles of physics:
–  The laws of physics (whatever they are!) do not
depend on space and time. Popper calls it “the
principle of the uniformity of nature”
–  Physical explanations of natural phenomena
should be as simple as possible (Ockham’s razor)
A testable working solution
•  We can measure whether we are in anyway in
a special place in the Universe.
–  We will discuss this at length in this class
•  We can test the laws of physics through
observations. Examples:
–  Spectroscopy of distant stars and galaxies to probe
atomic physics. Do we see the same transitions?
–  Constants of nature (such as the electron charge).
Where they different a few billion years ago?
Unexplained…
•  There are plenty of
phenomena we do not
“understand”. Example:
–  How does your cell-phone
work?
•  However, they are
measurable phenomena
with repeatable
experiments
•  Technology may appear
“magic” or “myth” but it IS
FUNDAMENTALLY NOT
…vs magic/miracles
•  Magic and miracles imply a
behavior that differs than
expected - i.e. NON
REPEATABLE
•  If miracles were proven to exist,
this would falsify one of the
fundamental hypothesis of
science, that is that the laws of
nature do not “bend” to people’s
or (deity’s) will.
•  SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE OF
MAGIC/MIRACLE WOULD BE
MOST REVOLUTIONARY
AND TRANSFORMATIVE
A “good” scientific theory
•  What constitutes a “good” scientific theory?
•  If a theory can never be proven right, how is one theory better
than another?
–  Note the use of the derogatory expression “just a theory” by creationists
•  According to Popper:
–  The better theory is the one that passes more stringent tests, both in
number and in quality
–  The better theory is the more falsifiable one, if it doesn’t fail
•  Old theories often become limiting cases of new theories
–  (e.g. Newton vs Einstein)
How about validating
the method?
• 
• 
• 
• 
What constitutes a “good” method?
Is the scientific method good?
Does the question even make sense?
My view is that a method is good as long as it allows you to
achieve what you want. What do you want?
•  The scientific method answers some questions/obtain some
results. What are they?
•  If we need to answer other questions we need different tools.
Outline:
Is Earth a special/unique place?
•  Extrasolar planets
–  Techniques
–  State of the art
–  Limitations
•  Habitable Planets
–  Selection effects
•  Extraterrestrial life
–  Drake’s Equation
A physicist’s answer
•  We phrase the question in statistical terms:
–  How frequent are planets like the Earth?
–  In other words, is Earth “unique”?
•  Let’s take a look! Let’s measure!
But before looking at
exoplanets…
•  The question can be rephrased in statistical terms:
–  How frequent are planets like the Earth?
•  Let’s take a look! Let’s measure!
How many planets does our solar system have?
What is a planet?
2006 IAU RESOLUTION B5: Definition
of a Planet in the Solar System
•  Contemporary observations are changing our
understanding of planetary systems, and it is
important that our nomenclature for objects reflect
our current understanding. This applies, in particular,
to the designation "planets". The word "planet"
originally described "wanderers" that were known
only as moving lights in the sky. Recent discoveries
lead us to create a new definition, which we can make
using currently available scientific information.
2006 IAU RESOLUTION B5: Definition
of a Planet in the Solar System
•  The IAU therefore resolves that planets and other bodies,
except satellites, in our Solar System be defined into three
distinct categories in the following way:
–  (1) A planet is a celestial body that
•  (a) is in orbit around the Sun,
•  (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so
that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape, and
•  (c) has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.
–  (2) A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that
•  (a) is in orbit around the Sun,
•  (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so
that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape2,
•  (c) has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and
•  (d) is not a satellite.
2006 IAU RESOLUTION B5: Definition
of a Planet in the Solar System
•  The IAU therefore resolves that planets and other bodies,
except satellites, in our Solar System be defined into three
distinct categories in the following way:
–  (3) All other objects,except satellites, orbiting the Sun shall be referred
to collectively as "Small Solar System Bodies".
•  Notes:
–  The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.
–  An IAU process will be established to assign borderline objects to the
dwarf planet or to another category.
–  Class 3 currently includes most of the Solar System asteroids, most
Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs),comets, and other small bodies.
2006 IAU RESOLUTION B6: Pluto
•  The IAU further resolves:
–  Pluto is a "dwarf planet" by the above definition and is
recognized as the prototype of a new category of TransNeptunian Objects.
–  An IAU process will be established to select a name for this
category.
Extrasolar planets
•  A minimalist definition. Celestial body that is:
–  Gravitationally bound to a star
–  No nuclear fusion
•  How do we find them? As of today
–  Radial velocities: 507
–  Transit: 302
–  Microlensing: 18
–  Direct Imaging: 30
–  Timing: 16 (not discussed here)
http://exoplanet.eu/
Radial Velocities
Very difficult measurement! Speed <m/s. Orbital inclination
Planet Transit
Mercury’s 2006 transit
as imaged by
NASA satellite Soho
Extrasolar Planets Transit
Planet Transit: Kepler
Launched 3/6/9; first light 4/8/9; expect ~50 “Earths”
Kepler’s new planets
The amazing system Kepler 11
The amazing system Kepler 11
The amazing system Kepler 11
Microlensing
Direct Imaging
Summary of findings
5-10% of stars surveyed show planets. Fraction increases with
abundance of heavy elements
Check out http://exoplanet.eu
Planet Hunting in Santa Barbara
Limitations. Selection effects
•  Most methods depend on ratio of properties of star
and planet. Small planets are hard to find!
–  Mass ratio (wobble)
–  Luminosity ratio (direct detection)
–  Radius ratio (transit)
•  And on orbital properties. Small orbits are easier to
find.
–  We have only surveyed for 10 years, it’s hard to find long
periods
Future prospects
Habitable planets
•  When is a planet
habitable?
•  For humans:
–  Liquid Water?
(distance from star)
–  Gravity? (mass range)
–  Atmosphere?
–  Rocky? (mass range)
–  Shielded by meteors?
–  Stable orbit?
•  For other forms of
life?
–  Very difficult to say
A habitable planet?
•  Mass similar to Earth
•  Liquid water on the
surface
movie
Extraterrestrial life: how many?
Check out: http://www.pbs.org/lifebeyondearth/listening/drake.html
Crude estimates
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R*~1/yr (large stars are too “fast”; small stars are too “cold”)
fp~1 (most sun-like stars probably have planets)
Ne? 1 like our own?
fl~1? Life arose very fast on Earth
fi? 1
fc? 1
L? >100yr
=>N=10? More in section
If you are interested, read article by Bounama et al. posted on
the web site describing more sophisticated models.
•  According to their model, complex life is common enough that
there is a chance to detect life in the atmosphere of a planet
within the next decades!
Summary:
Is Earth a special/unique place?
•  What does the question mean?
•  How do we find planets?
•  What are habitable planets?
–  Selection effects
•  Is there extraterrestrial life?
–  Drake’s Equation
The End
See you on Thursday!