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Norwegian salmon
aquaculture and the
environment
by
Sigbjørn Tveterås
Centre for Fisheries Economics
Norwegian School of Economics and
Business Administration
1
Introduction I
Examine the sustainability of the Norwegian
Salmon Aquaculture:
There are two main groups of environmental
concerns
1) Pollution of local and regional environment
due to discharges from the production
process, and in some cases destruction of
habitat
2) Increased pressure on wild fish stocks due
to the use of fishmeal and fish oil in salmon
feed
2
Introduction II
• The environmental problems of the
Norwegian salmon aquaculture seem to
have followed an inverse-U-shaped
curve over time; first increasing, then
decreasing.
3
Local and Regional
Environmental Issues I:
• Waste discharges
• Loss of ecological systems in
immediate vicinity of cages
• Eutrophication, algal blooms
• Drugs and chemicals
• Antibiotic resistance spreading to the
wild
• Residue of chemicals in fish, farmed
and wild.
4
Local and Regional
Environmental Issues II:
• Escaped farmed salmon
• Genetic ”contamination” of wild
salmon. Loss of genetic diversity
• Potential problems of transgenic
salmon
• Diseases and parasites
• Furunculosis, Gyrodactylus salaries
etc. spreading to wild salmon
• Sea-lice problem
5
Internalisation of Waste
Discharge Problems
The local external effects from organic waste
discharges, i.e. eutrophication and
sedimentation of organic waste, have a
negative impact on salmon production,
 Salmon farmers have internalised waste
problem due to economic incentives
 Salmon farms in Norway have moved away
from fjords with poor flushing + feed and
feeding regimes have improved
6
Development in
Cost Components
Interests
Other costs
Wages
Insurance
Feed
19
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
Smolt
19
88
19
86
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
50 %
40 %
30 %
20 %
10 %
0%
7
Average Feed Conversion Ratio
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
1980
1985
1990
1993
1997
8
Situation Today
• Salmon farms are located in places with good
water exchange
 Organic waste is spread thin over large areas
 Eutrophication and sedimentation do not in
general present any problems
 Organic waste from salmon farms can
contribute to net nutrient flow to sea, but
• Nutrient discharges from salmon farms represent
a fraction compared with other sources like
agriculture, industry and sewage from Northern
Europe
• Outtake of marine resources for use in salmon
feed makes it uncertain whether salmon farming
represent net input or outtake of nutrients to the
sea
9
Diseases and Parasites
• Major outbreaks of diseases in 1986 – the hitra
disease, 1990-1992 – furunculosis and ISA, 19941996 – ISA
 Public and private R&D for drugs
 In 1992 an effective vaccine against
furunculosis was developed.
10
Use of Antibiotics
60000
400
Antibiotics
Salmon production
50000
350
250
30000
200
150
20000
100
10000
50
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
0
19
80
0
19
Kilo
40000
1000 ton
300
11
Use of Chemicals
35000
400
Chemicals
Salmon production
30000
350
20000
200
15000
150
10000
100
5000
50
98
19
97
19
96
19
95
19
94
19
93
19
92
19
91
19
90
19
89
19
88
19
87
19
86
19
19
85
0
84
0
19
Kilo
250
1000 ton
300
25000
12
Escaped Farmed Salmon
and Wild Salmon
• Salmon escapes have been reduced:
• 1,5-2 million salmons escaped on average
through 1988 to 1992
• 277 900 and 123 000 escapes were reported
in 1995 and in 2000 respectively
• However, salmon escapes have not been
internalised like waste problems
 Government has considered restrictions, e.g.
fjords banned for salmon farming
13
Situation Today II
• Escaped salmon is together with sea lice
probably the most serious environmental
concerns in salmon farming today
• More research regarding the impact of farmed
salmon on wild salmon is needed
• Vaccines against sea lice are tried being
developed
• The use of antibiotics is minor
14
The world’s fishmeal and
vegetable oilmeal markets
• Oilmeals are first and foremost used in
animal feeds as rich protein sources
• The crucial question is if fishmeal is
primarily demanded because:
a) it is a unique product with
special qualities (e.g. unique amino
acid profile) that other oilmeals
lack, or because
b) it is a cheap protein source. If
this is the case fishmeal is a
substitute with vegetable oilmeals
like soymeal
15
World production of oilmeals 1996/97
Other meals
17 %
Corn meals
(a)
9%
Fish meal
4%
Soybean
meal
53 %
Rape & Sun
(b)
17 %
16
Fishmeal consumption
Aquaculture
1996
3%4%
2000
Poultry
Pigs
17 %
9%
Ruminants
3%
Others
35 %
20 %
29 %
56 %
24 %
17
81
-0
1
81
-1
2
82
-1
1
83
-1
0
84
-0
9
85
-0
8
86
-0
7
87
-0
6
88
-0
5
89
-0
4
90
-0
3
91
-0
2
92
-0
1
92
-1
2
93
-1
1
94
-1
0
95
-0
9
96
-0
8
97
-0
7
98
-0
6
USD per tonne
Monthly European fishmeal and soya meal
prices 1981-1999
800
Fishmeal
700
Soybean meal
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
18
Situation Today III
• Aquaculture’s share of fishmeal and
consumption is increasing. Still, the fishmeal and
soybean meal markets are integrated.
 Since there are close substitutes to fishmeal,
increased fishmeal demand will spill over to other
oilmeal markets
 Unless the pelagic fisheries are poorly
managed it is unlikely increased demand for
fishmeal presents a threat to these stocks
• However, if aquaculture continues to expand
market structures may change
19