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Tissue: The Living Fabric
Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition
Elaine N. Marieb
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4
Tissues
 Groups of cells similar in structure and function
 The four types of tissues
 Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscle
 Nerve
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Epithelial Tissue
 covers exposed surfaces (including skin), lines
internal passageways and chambers (respiratory,
reproductive, urinary), and forms glands.
 Epithelia – layers of cells that cover internal or
external surfaces
 Glands – structures that produce fluid secretions –
either attached or derived from epithelia
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Epithelial Tissue
 Five important characteristics:
 cellularity – composed almost entirely of cells bound
closely together by cell junctions.
 polarity – there are structural and functional differences
between the exposed and attached surfaces. The exposed
surface of cells is called apical, and the attached basal.
 attachment – the base of an epithelium is bound to a thin
basal lamina (basement membrane).
 Avascularity – epithelia lack blood vessels. They must
obtain their nutrients by diffusion or absorption from the
exposed or attached surface.
 Regeneration – Very high level of regeneration since these
cells are constantly lost or damaged.
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Four essential functions of epithelia
 physical protection from the external environment
and from dehydration
 control permeability of items into and out of the
body
 sensation to stimuli
 specialized secretion through gland cells to provide
protection (ex. Mucus) or act as chemical
messengers. Glandular epithelium is when most or
all of the epithelial cells produce sections.
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Epithelia
 The cell is divided into two functional groups:
 apical surface – where the cell is exposed to internal or
external surface
 basolateral surface – includes both the base and the sides of
the cell
 Many epithelial cells have microvilli on their exposed
surfaces. These are abundant where absorption and
secretion take place (digestive and urinary tract).
 Cilia are also found on some epithelium cells. They line the
respiratory tract to move mucus.
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Maintaining the integrity of epithelia
 To be effective as a barrier, an epithelium must form a
complete cover or lining. Three factors help maintain the
physical integrity:
1. intercellular connections
 cells are firmly attached to one another and the basal lamina
 large areas of opposing cell membranes are interconnected
by transmembrane proteins called cell adhesion molecules
(CAMs) which bind to each other and to extracellular
materials.
 The membrane of adjacent cells may be bonded by
intercellular cement. This is a thin layer of proteoglycans
that contain hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)
 Cell junctions are specialized areas of the cell membrane
that attach a cell to another cell or to extracellular materials.
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Three types of cell junctions: Tight Junction
a. tight junction – lipid portions of the two cell
membranes are tightly bound together by
interlocking membrane proteins. This attachment
is so tight they prevent the passage of water and
solute between cells.
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Tight Junction
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Three types of cell junctions: Gap Junction
a. Gap junction – two cells are held together by
interlocking junctional proteins call connexons.
These proteins are channel proteins and allow
small molecules and ions pass from cell to cell.
They allow for rapid intercellular communication.
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Three types of cell junctions: Gap Junction
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Three types of cell junctions: Desmosome

Desmosome – durable interconnections that
allow for stretching, bending, twisting, or
compression. Two types:

Button desmosomes – function as cross-braces
to stabilize the shape of the cell

Hemidesmosomes – attaches a cell to
extracellular filaments in the basal lamina to
help stabilize the position of the cell and
anchor it to underlying tissues.
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Three types of cell junctions: Desmosome
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Factors that maintain physical integrity
2. Attachment to the basal lamina

Epithelia hold onto to each other and are first connected to
the rest of the body by attaching to the basal lamina. It is
made of two parts:

Lamina lucida – layer closer to the epithelium. It acts as
a barrier that restricts the movement of proteins and other
large molecules from the underlying connective tissue
into the epithelium.

Lamina densa – the deeper layer of the basal lamina. It
gives the basement membrane its strength, and acts as a
filter to determine what substances can diffuse between
adjacent tissues and the epithelium.
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Factors that maintain physical integrity
3. Epithelial maintenance and repair

The epithelium is replenished by the continual
division of stem cells (germinative cells) located
near the basal lamina.
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Classification of Epithelia
 Epithelia can be sorted into categories based on the
cell shape and the number of cell layers between the
base and exposed surface of the epithelium
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Classification of Epithelia – cell shape
 Squamous, cuboidal,
or columnar
Figure 4.1b
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Classification of Epithelia – cell layers
 Simple or
stratified
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Figure 4.1a
Squamous Epithelium
 -thin, flat, and somewhat irregular in shape
 -resemble the look of fried eggs
 -nucleus occupies the thickest portion of each cell
 Two types:
 Simple squamous
 Stratified squamous
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Epithelia: Simple Squamous
 Single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped
nuclei and sparse cytoplasm
 Functions
 Diffusion and filtration
 Provide a slick, friction-reducing lining in
lymphatic and cardiovascular systems
 Present in the kidney glomeruli, lining of heart,
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and alveoli
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Epithelia: Simple Squamous
Figure 4.2a
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Epithelia: Stratified Squamous
 Thick membrane composed of several layers of cells
 Function in protection of underlying areas subjected
to abrasion
 Forms the external part of the skin’s epidermis
(keratinized cells), and linings of the esophagus,
mouth, and vagina (nonkeratinized cells)
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Epithelia: Stratified Squamous
 Thick membrane composed of several layers of cells
 Function in protection of underlying areas subjected
to abrasion
 Forms the external part of the skin’s epidermis
(keratinized cells), and linings of the esophagus,
mouth, and vagina (nonkeratinized cells)
Figure 4.2e
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Cuboidal Epithelium
 Resemble hexagonal boxes or squares
 Spherical nuclei are near the center of each cell
 Distance between adjacent nuclei is rough equally to
the height of the epithelium
 Two types:
 Simple cuboidal
 Stratified cuboidal
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Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal
 Single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical
central nuclei
 Function in secretion and absorption
 Present in kidney tubules, ducts and secretory
portions of small glands, and ovary surface
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Epithelia: Simple Cuboidal
 Single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical
central nuclei
 Function in secretion and absorption
 Present in kidney tubules, ducts and secretory
portions of small glands, and ovary surface
Figure 4.2b
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Epithelia: Stratified Cuboidal
 Quite rare in the body
 Found in some sweat and mammary glands
 Typically two cell layers thick
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Epithelia: Transitional
 Several cell layers, basal cells are cuboidal, surface
cells are dome shaped
 Stretches to permit the distension of the urinary
bladder
 Lines the urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the
urethra
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Epithelia: Transitional
 Several cell layers, basal cells are cuboidal, surface
cells are dome shaped
 Stretches to permit the distension of the urinary
bladder
 Lines the urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the
urethra
Figure 4.2f
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Columnar Epithelia
 Appear rectangular under the microscope
 Elongated nuclei are crowded into a narrow band
close to the basal lamina
 The height of the epithelium is several times the
distance between adjacent nuclei
 Three types
 Simple columnar
 Stratified columnar
 Pseudostratified columnar
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Epithelia: Simple Columnar
 Single layer of tall cells with oval nuclei; many
contain cilia
 Goblet cells are often found in this layer
 Function in absorption and secretion
 Nonciliated type line digestive tract and gallbladder
 Ciliated type line small bronchi, uterine tubes, and
some regions of the uterus
 Cilia help move substances through internal
passageways
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Epithelia: Simple Columnar
Figure 4.2c
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Epithelia: Pseudostratified Columnar
 Single layer of cells with different heights; some do
not reach the free surface
 Nuclei are seen at different layers
 Function in secretion and propulsion of mucus
 Present in the male sperm-carrying ducts
(nonciliated) and trachea (ciliated)
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Epithelia: Pseudostratified Columnar
 Single layer of cells with different heights; some do
not reach the free surface
 Nuclei are seen at different layers
 Function in secretion and propulsion of mucus
 Present in the male sperm-carrying ducts
(nonciliated) and trachea (ciliated)
Figure 4.2d
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Epithelia: Stratified Columnar
 Limited distribution in the body
 Found in the pharynx, male urethra, and lining some
glandular ducts
 Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of
epithelia
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Epithelia: Glandular
 A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes
an aqueous fluid
 Classified by:
 Site of product release – endocrine or exocrine
 Relative number of cells forming the gland –
unicellular or multicellular
 Two types: Endocrine and Exocrine glands
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Endocrine Glands
 release secretions into the interstitial fluid
 secretions are hormones which enter the
bloodstream for distribution throughout the body
 Examples include thyroid gland, pituitary gland
 Called ductless because they do not use ducts.
Their secretions are released directly into
interstitial fluid
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Exocrine Glands
 More numerous than endocrine glands
 Release secretions into ducts that open onto an
epithelium
 Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary
glands
 The only important unicellular gland is the goblet
cell
 Multicellular exocrine glands are composed of a
duct and secretory unit
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Exocrine Glands – Modes of Secretion
 Merocrine – products are secreted by exocytosis
(e.g., pancreas, sweat, and salivary glands), most
common mode of secretion
 Apocrine – loss of cytoplasm as well as the
secretory product (eg. Milk production – apocrine
and merocrine)
 Holocrine – products are secreted by the rupture of
gland cells (e.g., sebaceous glands), destroys the cell
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Modes of Secretion
Figure 4.4
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Exocrine gland structure
 There are two types of gland structure:
 Unicellular glands
 Independent, scattered gland cells
 Only ones in body are goblet cells (secrete mucins)
 Multicellular glands
 Include glandular epithelia and aggregations of gland
cells that produce exocrine or endocrine secretions.
 Three ways to describe:
 Structure of the duct
 Shape of the secretory portion of the gland
 Relationship between ducts and the glandular area
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Structural Classification of Multicellular
Exocrine Glands
Figure 4.3a-d
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Structural Classification of Multicellular
Exocrine Glands
Figure 4.3e-g
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Connective Tissue
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Connective Tissue
 Found throughout the body; most abundant and
widely distributed in primary tissues
 Connects the epithelium to the rest of the body
 Never exposed to the external environment
 Major types of connective tissue are:
 Connective Tissue proper
 Fluid Connective Tissue
 Supporting Connective Tissue
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Three basic components of connective tissue
 Ground substance – unstructured material that fills
the space between cells
 Fibers – collagen, elastic, or reticular
 Cells – fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, and
hematopoietic stem cells
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Functions of Connective Tissue
 Binding and support
 Protection
 Insulation
 Transportation
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Characteristics of Connective Tissue
 Connective tissues have:
 Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin
 Varying degrees of vascularity
 Nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of ground
substance and fibers
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Connective Tissue: Embryonic
 Mesenchyme – embryonic connective tissue
 Gel-like ground substance with fibers and starshaped mesenchymal cells
 Gives rise to all other connective tissues
 Found in the embryo
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Connective Tissue: Embryonic
Figure 4.8a
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Connective Tissue Proper
 Contains extracellular fibers, viscous ground substance, and various cells
 Commonly referred to as the “packing materials” of the body because they
fill spaces between organs, cushion and stabilize, and support.
 Components of Connective Tissue proper
 1. Cells
 Fibroblasts
 Most abundant permanent resident and always present in it
 Secrete hyaluronan (polysaccharide derivative) and
proteins that make the ground substance viscous
 Macrophages
 Large amoeboid cells scattered throughout the matrix that
engulf pathogens or damaged cells
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Cells (cont) of Connective Tissue Proper
 -Adipocytes
 Adipose cells (fat cells)
 They contain a single, enormous liquid droplet. All
cells parts are squeezed to the side making it look
like a class ring.
 Mesenchymal Cell
 Stem cell present in may connective tissues
 Respond to local injury by dividing to produce
daughter cells that differentiate into other cells
 Melanocytes
 Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
 Play a large role in skin color
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Cells (cont) of Connective Tissue Proper
 Mast cells
 Filled with granules containing histamine and heparin which
stimulate local inflammation
 Lymphocytes
 They travel throughout the body, but their numbers increase where
tissue is damaged
 May develop into plasma cells which produce antibodies
 Microphages
 Phagocytic blood cells that move throughout the connective tissue
in small numbers.
 Attracted by chemicals released by macrophages and mast cells
 Examples are neutrophils and eosinophils
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Components of Connective Tissue Proper - Fibers

2. Connective Tissue Fibers 
Formed by fibroblasts

Three types of fibers

A. Collagen Fibers

Long, straight, and unbranched

Most common fibers in connective tissue proper

Consists of a bundle of fibrous protein subunits
wound together like rope

Flexible but strong
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Components of Connective Tissue Proper - Fibers
 B. Reticular fibers
 Thinner than collagen fibers
 Form a branching, interwoven framework (stroma) that
stablizes the functional cells (parenchyma)
 Tough, flexible, and resist forces from many directions
 C. Elastic Fibers
 Contain the protein elastin
 Branched and wavy
 Only one that will return to original length after stretching
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Comp of Conn Tissue Proper – Ground Substance
 C. Ground Substance
 Fills the spaces between cells and surrounds
connective tissue fibers
 Dense enough so bacteria have trouble moving
through it
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Connective Tissue Proper
 There are two types of CT Proper
 Loose
 Dense Regular
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
 Commonly referred to as “the packing materials” of
the body because they fill spaces between organs,
cushion and stabilize specialized cells in many
organs, and support epithelia.
 Different types include:
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
 Areolar connective tissue
 Gel-like matrix with all three connective tissue
fibers
 Fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some
white blood cells are found in Areolar CT
 Wraps and cushions organs
 Widely distributed throughout the body
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
Figure 4.8b
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
 Adipose connective tissue
 Matrix similar to areolar connective tissue with
closely packed adipocytes
 Reserves food stores, insulates against heat loss,
and supports and protects
 Found under skin, around kidneys, within abdomen,
and in breasts
 Local fat deposits serve nutrient needs of highly
active organs. When nutrients are scarce,
adipocytes deflate like collapsing balloons. They
are not destroyed when you lose weight.
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
Figure 4.8c
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
 Reticular connective tissue
 Loose ground substance with reticular fibers
 Reticular cells lie in a fiber network
 Forms a soft internal skeleton, or stroma, that
supports other cell types
 Found in lymph nodes, bone marrow, and the
spleen
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Connective Tissue Proper: Loose
Figure 4.8d
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Connective Tissue Proper: Dense
 Often called collagenous tissues because collagen
fibers are the dominant type of fiber in them.
 Contain variable amounts of elastic fibers.
 Two main types of Dense Connective Tissue
 Dense Regular
 Dense Irregular
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Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Regular
 Parallel collagen fibers with a few elastic fibers
 Major cell type is fibroblasts
 Good for movement in one direction
 Attaches muscles to bone or to other muscles, and
bone to bone
 Found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses
(fibrous membrane)
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Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Regular
Figure 4.8e
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Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Irregular
 Irregularly arranged collagen fibers with some
elastic fibers
 Major cell type is fibroblasts
 Withstands tension in many directions providing
structural strength
 Found in the dermis, submucosa of the digestive
tract, and fibrous organ and joint capsules
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Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Irregular
Figure 4.8f
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2. Fluid Connective Tissue
 2nd main classification of connective tissue
 Blood and lymph are examples
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Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
 the watery matrix is called plasma which contains
blood cells and fragments of cells called formed
elements.
 There are three types of formed elements:
a. red blood cells (erythocytes)
 account for about half the volume of blood
 responsible for the transport of oxygen
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Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
b. white blood cells (leukocytes)
 includes phagocytic microphages (neutrophils and
eosinophils), basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes
 important component of the immune response
c. platelets
 made of tiny membrane-enclosed packets of
cytoplasm
 function in the clotting response that seals breaks in
the endothelial lining
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Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood
Figure 4.8k
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Fluid Connective Tissue: Lymph
 Forms as interstitial fluid enters lymphatic vessels
 Gets circulated around the body and helps identify
injury or infection
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3. Supporting Connective Tissue
 Third main type of connective tissue
 Provides a strong framework that supports the rest
of the body
 Examples include bone and cartilage
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Supporting Connective Tissue- Cartilage
 The matrix is a firm gel that contain polysaccharide
derivates called chondroitin sulfates.
 Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) are the only cells in
the cartilage matrix. They are found in small
chambers called lacunae.
 Blood vessels do not grow into cartilage because of
a chemical produced by chondrocytes.
 Cartilage is set apart from surrounding tissues by a
fibrous perichondrium.
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Supporting Connective Tissue- Cartilage
 The perichondrium consists of two layers:
 Outer fibrous region - made dense irregular
connective tissue – provides mechanical support
and protection and attaches the cartilage to other
structures.
 Inner cellular level – important to the growth and
maintenance of cartilage
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Supporting Connective Tissue- Cartilage
Cartilage Growth occurs by two mechanisms:
1. interstitial growth
 Cartilage enlarges from within
 Chondrocytes in the cartilage matrix undergo
cell division, and the daughter cells produce
additional matrix.
 Begins in embryonic development and
continues through adolescence. Not found in
adults.
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Supporting Connective Tissue- Cartilage
2. appositional growth
 new layers of cartilage are added to the surface
 Fibroblasts in the cellular layer of the
perichondrium differentiate into chondrocytes
 Begins in embryonic development and continues
through adolescence. Only found in adults in
unusual circumstances such as cartilage damage
or excessive stimulation by growth hormone
from the pituitary gland.
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage
 There are three types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline cartilage
 Most common type found
 Supports, reinforces, cushions, and resists compression
 Surrounded by a dense perichondrium in most places
 Contains tightly packed collagen fibers which make it
somewhat flexible
 Found in connections between the ribs and sternum,
nasal cartilages, covers the end of long bones
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Hyaline Cartilage
Figure 4.8g
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Elastic Cartilage
2. Elastic Cartilage
 Contains many elastic fibers which make it resilient
and flexible
 Form the external flab of the outer ear, the
epiglottis, the auditory tube, and part of the larynx
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Elastic Cartilage
 Similar to hyaline cartilage but with more elastic
fibers
 Maintains shape and structure while allowing
flexibility
 Supports external ear (pinna) and the epiglottis
Figure 4.8h
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Fibrocartilage
3. Fibrocartilage
 Extremely durable and tough, resists compression
and absorbs shock
 Has little ground substance and its matrix is
dominated by densely interwoven collagen fibers
 Found between spinal vertebrae, between pubic
bones of the pelvis, and around tendons
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Fibrocartilage
 Matrix similar to hyaline cartilage but less firm with
thick collagen fibers
 Provides tensile strength and absorbs compression
shock
 Found in intervertebral discs, the pubic symphysis,
and in discs of the knee joint
Figure 4.8i
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone (Osseous Tissue)
 Contain calcium salts and collagen fibers which make bone
strong, somewhat flexible and highly resistant to shattering.
 Osteocytes (bone cells) are found in lacunae in the matrix.
The lacunae are organized around blood vessels that branch
through the matrix.
 Canaliculi are long, slender passageways in the matrix that
allow for communication between bone cells and blood
vessels.
 Most bone surfaces are sheathed by a periosteum which
contains a fibrous (outer) and cellular (inner) layer. Its
function is to attach the bone to a surrounding tissue,
tendons, and ligaments
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Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone (Osseous Tissue)
Figure 4.8j
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Muscle Tissue
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Types of Tissue - Muscle
 Muscle Tissue
 specialized for contraction
 There are three types: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
muscle
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Muscle Tissue: Skeletal
 Cells are long, cylindrical, striated, and multinucleate (more
than one nuclei)
 The cells are called muscle fibers because they are so long
and slender
 Muscle fibers are incapable of dividing, but new ones are
produced through the divisions of satellite cells (stem cells
that persist in adult muscle skeleton)
 Striations are caused by myosin and actin organized in
repeating groups
 Found in skeletal muscles (ones you can move) and are
called striated voluntary muscle
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Muscle Tissue: Skeletal
 Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells with obvious
striations
 Initiates and controls voluntary movement
 Found in skeletal muscles that attach to bones or
skin
Figure 4.11a
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Muscle Tissue: Cardiac
 Only found in the heart
 Smaller than a skeletal muscle cell
 One centrally positioned nucleus
 Contain striations
 Possess intercalated discs (place where cardiac cells
are interconnected)
 Called striated involuntary muscle because you do
not have voluntary control of the heart muscle
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Muscle Tissue: Cardiac
 Branching, striated, uninucleate cells interdigitating
at intercalated discs
 Propels blood into the circulation
 Found in the walls of the heart
Figure 4.11b
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Muscle Tissue: Smooth
 Located in the walls of blood vessels and around
hollow organs
 A smooth muscle cell is a small, spindle-shaped cell
with tapering ends and a single, oval nucleus
 Do not contain striations
 Called nonstriated involuntary muscle
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Muscle Tissue: Smooth
Figure 4.11c
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Nervous Tissue
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Types of Tissue - Nervous
 carries information throughout the body in the form
of electrical impulses
 specialized for the conduction of electrical impulses
from one region of the body to another
 Most is located in the brain and spinal cord
 Contains two basic types of cells: neurons (carry
nerve impulses) and neuroglia (support and repair
neural tissue and supply nutrients to neurons)
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Types of Tissue - Nervous Tissue
 Neurons consist of the following parts:

Cell body – contains nucleus and major
organelles

Dendrites – extend from the cell body and
possess branches. Pick up nerve impulses

Axon – conducts the nerve impulse to other
cells. Also called nerve fiber
PLAY
InterActive Physiology®: Nervous System I: Anatomy Review
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Nervous Tissue
Figure 4.10
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Membranes
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Membranes
 Membranes form a barrier or interface.
 Epithelia and connective tissues combine to form
membranes that cover and protect other structures
and tissues.
 The four types of membranes are mucous, serous,
cutaneous, and synovial.
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Membranes - Muscous
 A. Mucous membranes
 line cavities that communicate with the exterior
 contain areolar tissue called lamina propia.
 must be kept moist to reduce friction and to
facilitate absorption or secretion.
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Epithelial Membranes
 Mucous – lines
body cavities open
to the exterior
(e.g., digestive and
respiratory tracts)
 Serous – moist
membranes found
in closed ventral
body cavity
Figure 4.9b
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Membranes - Serous
 B. Serous membranes
 line the body’s sealed internal cavities
 form a fluid called a transudate which is used to
reduce friction.
 Three types of serous membranes are the pleura
(lines the pleural cavities and covers the lungs),
peritoneum (lines the peritoneal cavity and covers
the surfaces of the enclosed organs), and the
pericardium (lines the pericardial cavity and covers
the heart).
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Epithelial Membranes
Figure 4.9c
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Membranes - Cutaneous
 C. Cutaneous membranes
 known as skin. It covers the body surface.
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Epithelial Membranes
 Cutaneous – skin
Figure 4.9a
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Membranes - Synovial
D. Synovial membranes

forms an incomplete lining within the cavities of
synovial joints.

Produce fluid within the joint

Example is the knee
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The Connective Tissue Framework of the Body
 Internal organs and systems are tied together by a
network of connective tissue proper.
 Fasciae are connective tissue layers and wrappings
that support and surround organs.
 Fasciae can be divided into three layers: superficial
fascia, deep fascia, subserous fascia
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The Connective Tissue Framework of the Body
 Superficial fascia
 Also known as the subcutaneous layer or
hypodermis
 Layer of areolar tissue and fat
 Separates the skin from underlying tissues and
organs, provides insulation and padding, and lets
the skin and underlying structures move
independently.
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The Connective Tissue Framework of the Body
 Deep fascia
 Made of dense irregular connective tissue
 The fibers in each layer run in the same direction,
but the orientation of the fibers changes from layer
to layer.
 Resist forces applied from many directions
 Bound to tendons, capsules, ligaments
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The Connective Tissue Framework of the Body
 Subserous fascia
 Layer of areolar tissue and lies between the deep
fascia and the serous membranes that line the body
cavities.
 Movements of muscles or muscular organs do not
distort this lining
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