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1981 Berg Porphyry Copper - Molybdenum Deposit Geologic Setting, Mineralization, Zoning, andPyriteGeochemistry 13y Andrejs Panteleyev Provinceof f3ritish Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources Bulletin 66 Canadian Cataloguingin Publication Data Panteleyev, Andrejs, 1942Berg porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit. (Bulletin I Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, ISSN 0226-7497 ;66) Bibliography: p. ISBN 0-7718-8269-6 - 1. Copper ores British Columbia - Tahtsa Ranges. 2. Molyb. denum ores British Columbia - TahtsaRanges.3.Geology, Economic British Columbia TahtsaRanges. I. British Columbia. Ministry Of Energy, Miner and Petroleum Resources. II. Title. 111. Series: Bulletin (British Columbia. Ministry of Energy, Mines and PetroleumResources) ;66. - - TN444C32876 - 553.4'3'0971 1 c81-0923434 MINISTRY OF ENERGY,MINES AND PETROLEUM RESOURCES VICTORIA, BRITISH COLUMBIA CANADA JULY 1981 Berg Porphyry Copper - Molybdenum Deposit Geologic Setting, Mineralization, Zoning, andPyriteGeochemistry SUMMARY Berg copper-molybdenum deposit is in mountainous terrain of the Tahtsa Ranges in westcentral British Columbia.Of the major porphyry copper-molybdenum prospects discovered in the Canadian Cordillera (see SutherlandBrown, 1976) it is the one that possiblymostcloselyresembles the idealized porphyry coppermodel of Lowell and Guilbert (19701. Berg deposit is found in thermally metamorphosed and hydrothermally altered Jurassic Hazeltonvolcanicrocksand Tertiary quartz diorite adjacent to a weaklymineralized Eocene stock. The stock is about 640 metres in diameterandconsists of four quartz monzonitic phases. A major intrusive breccia body is associated with the stock. Weakly mineralized volcanic rocksand barren sedimentary strata of the Lower Cretaceous Skeena Group crop out east of the deposit. Theseare overlain to the north by rocks of the Upper Cretaceous Kasalka Group. Hydrothermal alteration and sulphide minerals are arranged in concentric, annular zones around the composite stock. From the interior outward pervasive alteration zonesare potassic, phyllic, biotitic, and propylitic.Argillic alteration i s rare. The biotitic zone surrounding the stock is a thermalaureole (biotite hornfels) that hasbeenenhanced by an overlapping hydrothermal biotite overprint. A multistagevein stockwork is superimposed onthe pervasively alteredrocks.Early veins, both with and without alteration envelopes, were deposited from saline fluids at temperatures in excess of 400 degreesCelsius. Later veins were deposited from cooler, less saline fluids and commonly have retrograde alteration envelopes or bleached margins. A gypsum-filled subhorizontal fracture cleavage cuts all alteration minerals and veins. The molybdenite zone (>0.05 per cent MoSz) closely follows the intrusive contact where quartz stockworks are wel developed. Chalcopyrite is most abundant outside the stock in the zone of biotitic alteration. Pyrite is concentrated 200 to 300 metres from the intrusive contact but is abundant throughout a broad halothat extends outward from the stock for at least 600 metres. Leaching and supergene mineralization cause pronounced vertical zoning in the deposit. In the leachedcappingcopperhasbeenremoved to a depth of 38 metres but molybis locally concentrated in limonite. In the supergenezone which denumremainsand overlies the entire deposit and is as much as 91 metres in thickness, copper is enriched by a factor of 1.25 over primary grade. Supergene mineralization is a contemporary ongoing process that was initiated after Pleistocene glaciation. Minor elements in pyrite are concentrated in disseminated pyrite from the zone of best copper mineralization. Pyrite from all veins, including early molybdenum-bearing veins, has less minor elementconcentration.This bimodal distribution canbedemonstrated by univariate and bivariate statistical analysesand implies a different origin for vein as opposed to disseminatedpyrites.Zoningpatterns of minor elements in disseminated pyrite are similar to alteration and sulphide zoning around the composite stock.Q-mode factor analysisduplicates individual elementzoningpatterns and,more significantly, accentuates the wellmineralized zone. 6 Legisementde cuivre-molybdkne deBerg se situe dans la chainedesTahtsa,dans le centre-ouest de la Colombie Britannique. De tous les grands gisements porphyriques de cuivre-molybdhe decouvertsdans la Cordillhe Canadienne (voir SutherlandBrown, 1976), c'est celui qui semble se rapprocher le plusdumodhleth6orique de Lowell e t Guilbert (1970). Le gisement se prksente dans des roches adjacentes5 un stock faiblement minkralisk d l g e qui ont subi un mktaEocbne. Ces roches sont des volcanitesHazelton,duJurassique, morphismede contact e t une altkration hydrothermale, et une diorite quartzique, du 640 metresdediamhtre, comprendquatre phasesde Tertiaire. Le stock,d'environ monzonite quartzique; une importante brbche intrusive Iui est associke.Desvolcanites du groupedeSkeena, du faiblement minkraliskes e t desstratesskdimentairesstkriles Crktack infkrieur, affleurent 3 I'est du gisement. Elles sont recouvertes, au nord, par des roches du groupede Kasalka, du Cdtack supkrieur. L'alt6ration hydrothermale e t les sulfures se prksentent en zones concentriques, annulaires, autour du stock.Ducentre vers la pe'riph&ie, les zones sont potassiques, phylliques, biotitiques, e t propylitiques. L'alt6ration argileuse est rare. A noter que la zone biotitique est une aurbole thermique (cornbenne 3 biotite) 3 laquelle s'adjoint une altkration hvdrothermale 2 biotite. Unstockwerk h stades multiples se superposeauxroches profondkment altkrkes.Les premieres veines, avec ou sans aurkoles d'altkration, rksultent de fluides salins dkposks 3 des tempkratures dkpassant 400' C. Les veines subskquentes, de causalitk moins saline et detempkraturesplusbasses, sontgknkralement accompagnkesd'aurkoles d'altkration regressive ou de bordures blanchies. Un clivage cassant, subhorizontal e t h remplissage de gypse, recoupe tous les minkraux d'altkration et les veines. Lazonede molybdknite (>0.05% MoS,) s'accrocheau contact intrusif 18 oh les stockwerks quartzifhres sont bien d6veloppks. La chalcopyrite est fort abondante dans la zone 7 biotitique, en dehors de stock. La pyrite se concentre 'a 200 ou 300 metres du stock mais elle continue B abonder dans un halo qui se manifeste sur une distance d'au moins 600 metres. La lixiviation e t la rninkralisation supergbne se traduisentparunezonalitkverticale marquke.Dans le capucon lixivi6, le cuivre a kt6 elimink jusqu'B une profondeur de 38 metres; le molybdhe, qui y est demeurk, a localement kt6 concentrk dans la limonite. Dans la zone supergbe, qui recouvrecomplbtement le gisernent e t atteint 91 metres d'kpaisseur, la teneur originelle en cuivre est multiplike par 1.25. L'enrichissement de la minkralisation, un processus qui a commenck aprbs la glaciation du Pl6istocbne. se continu encore. La pyrite qui renferme le plus d'klkments est celle essaimke dans la zone A minkralisation cuprifbre maximum. La pyrite associke aux veins, y compris les veines pr6coces a molybdbne, en renferme moins. Cette distribution bimodale, demontrable par analyses statistiquesunivariantes e t bivariantes, implique que les deuxpyrites ont des origines diffe'rentes. La zonation des 6lkmentsdans la pyrite disskminkeressemble B celle de I'altkration e t des sulfures autour du stock. L'analyse factorielle B mode Q reproduit les zonations individuelles des 6lkments et, surtout, fait ressortir la zone bien minkralis6e. 8 . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R ~ S U M E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Location and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History of Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glaciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 15 17 17 19 20 21 21 GEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RegionalGeology of TahtsaRanges ........................ Geology of BergMap-area .......................... HazeltonGroup (Middle Jurassic; Fig. 3. Unit 1) . . . . . . . Skeena Group (Lower Cretaceous; Fig. 3. Units 2 and 3) . . Kasalka Group (Upper Cretaceous; Fig . 3. Units 4 and 51 . . Quartz Diorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quartz Monzonite Porphyry ..................... Minor Intrusions ............................. Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geology of Berg Copper-MolybdenumDeposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bedded Rocks .............................. Intrusive Rocks ............................. Quartz Diorite (Fig. 7. Unit 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineralized Quartz Monzonite Stock and Dykes (Fig. 7. Units 3 to 5) ..................... Quartz Monzonite Porphyry Phase(QMP;Fig . 7. Unit3) ..................... SericitizedQuartz Plagioclase Porphyry Phase (QPP; Fig. 7. Unit 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plagioclase Biotite Quartz Porphyry (PBQP; Fig. 7. Unit 5) Quartz Monzonite-Granodiorite Dykes (Hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry. hbde QFP; Fig 7. Unit 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Chemical Composition ..................... 29 29' 29 30 31 .................. . Dykes ............................ Distribution andGeometry of Porphyries (Fig. 7) ... 32 33 36 37 37 39 42 44 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 50 50 9 .. Page 2 GEOLOGY (CONTINUED) Geology of Berg Copper-Molybdenum Deposit(Continued) Intrusive Rocks (Continuedl Age of Intrusions ........................ Breccias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Intrusive Breccia (Pebble Breccia Pipe) . . . . . . . . . . Other Breccias (Observed Only in Diamond-drill Core) Breccia 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Breccia 2 .......................... Breccia 3 .......................... Breccia 4 .......................... Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 3 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION ........................... Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definition of Alteration FaciesandZones .................... Potassic Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biotitic Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phyllic Alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PropyliticAlteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ArgillicAlteration ................................ Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hydrothermal Processes in the Formation of Berg Deposit . . . . . . . . . 59 59 61 62 62 64 64 65 65 67 4 MINERALIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................... Zoning Primary Mineralization and Lateral Secondary Mineralization and Vertical Zoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Extent ofLeachingandSupergene Mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MineralogyandProcesses of Formation ..................... Zone of Oxidation and Sulphide Leaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zone of Supergene Enrichment ....................... 89 89 5 10 90 97 99 103 103 107 MINOR ELEMENTS IN PYRITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Univariate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Frequency Distribution Plots(Histograms) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 F and t Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Cumulative Probability Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 127 BivariateAnalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Correlation and Simple Regression ..................... 131 Cobalt-Nickel Ratios .............................. Multivariate Analvsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Page 5 MINOR ELEMENTS IN PYRITE (CONTINUED) Minor Element Zoning in the Deposit ....................... Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Univariate Minor ElementZoning ..................... Zoning of Factors (Multivariate Analysis) ................ Summary of Minor Element Study ......................... APPENDICES ElementsDetected in Berg Pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. B. Analytical Results - Minor Elements in Pyrite ..................... C. DataParametersand ComputedChiSquareValues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VarimaxFactor Matrix. Disseminated Pyrite ...................... D. E. VarimaxFactor Matrix. Vein Pyrite ............................ TABLES 1. Mineralogical composition of intrusive rocks. Berg deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Chemical compositions and norms ............................. 3. Potassium-argon ages. Berg deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Partial analyses of iron ores and Berg ferricrete ..................... 5. Analytical precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Comparisonofspectrographicand atomic absorption analyses of pyrite concentrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Summary - meanandstandard deviation ........................ 8. Calculated t and F probability of vein pyrite versus disseminated pyrite . . . . 9. F and t tests - Ni in pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Summary of t and F tests for all elements ........................ 11. Correlation of paired variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 R Z and F ratios for all data of all pairs of variables having significant correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Characteristic Coand Ni concentrations in ppm .................... 14 SuccessiveQ-modevarimax factor components - disseminated pyrite 15. Q-mode varimax factor scores -disseminated pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. Successive Q-mode varimax factor components - vein pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . 17. Vertical variation of minor elements in pyrite 18 Spectrographic analysis of pyrite .............................. 19. Minor element content of chalcopyrite . . . . ..... ..................... .......................... 136 136 138 143 147 151 154 156 157 158 46 51 53 105 116 117 121 122 123 125 128 129 132 134 134 135 138 152 152 FIGURES 1 Berg property location map 16 2. Geology of TahtsaRanges .................................. 28 3 . Geology of Bergmap-area .......................... : In pocket 4 . Air photograph interpretation of fracture trends 38 . ................................. .... .................... 5. Geology - Berg deposit .................................... 40 11 FIGURES (CONTINUED) 6 . Geologiccrosssections (view looking northerly) .................... 41 7. and Geology drill hole location map ......................... In pocket 8. Subdivision of Hazelton Group volcanic succession a t Berg deposit . . . . . . . 42 9 . Modal composition of intrusive rocks.Berg deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 10. Generalized alteration zones.Berg deposit ........................ 60 1 1. Mineral assemblages in thermally metamorphosedandesite. quartz diorite. 69 and quartz monzonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 12. Primaryminerals - pyrite ................................... 92 13. Pyrite-chalcopyrite ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. Primary mineralization - Cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 94 15. Primary mineralization - Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . in relation to distance from mainintrusive 16. Primary CuandMoSzgrade 96 contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. Vertical zoning of CuandMoSzgrades in diamond-drill cores . . . . . . . . . . . 98 18. Trend surface elevation marking start of gypsum in fractures . . . . . . . . . . . 100 19. Trend surfaceisopachmap. strongly oxidized rocks (Cu leached) . . . . . . . . . 101 20. Trend surfaceisopachmap.supergeneCu mineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 21. Mineral stability a t 25' C and 1 ATM: A . Cu-Fe-S-0-Hmodifiedfrom Garrells (1960) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 B. Mo-Fe-S-0-Hafter BaraksoandBradshaw (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 C. Fe-S-0-Hin presence of Kt after Brown (1971) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 22 . Stability fields in Cu.H20.CO,.O,. S system (including chalcopyrite) at 25O CandlATM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 23. Mineral compositions showing possible phase relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 24. Primary andsupergenecopperminerals .......................... 112 25. Bergdeposit. idealizedgeologicsections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 26. Ni and Zn content of pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 27 . Pband Ag content of pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 28. Frequency distributions of As. Co and Ti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 29. Bimodal distribution containing vein and disseminated pyrite populations . . . 122 30 . Distribution of Ni in pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 31 . Cumulative probability; minor elements in disseminated pyrite . . . . . . . . . . 127 32. Linear least squares regression line (Y = a + bX) for Co:Ni(A) and Pb:Zn(B) . 130 33. Cobalt-nickel scatter diagram showing pyrite according to source . . . . . . . . . 131 132 34 . Co-Ni ratios of pyrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35. Zoning of minor elements in pyrite. Co and Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 36. Zoning of minor elements in pyrite. and Co Ni and Co/Ni . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 37. Composite of maximum minor elementvalues ..................... 142 36. Contoured plan of Q-mode factor values - factors 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 39. Contoured plan of Q-mode factor values -factors 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 146 40 . CornPosite of factors 1 to 4 ................................. . ~ 12 Pase PLATES Berg deposit. view to northeast .............................. Frontispiece I. Berg camp (lower left) and Mount Ney ..................... 34 II. Skeena sedimentary rocks overlain by Kasalka volcanic rocks . . . . . . 35 111. Mount Ney. elevation 2 469.8 metres (8. feet) 103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 IV. Berg deposit. view looking northerly ...................... 73 V. Berg deposit. Tahtsa Ranges. view to east-northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 VI . Bergcampviewed to the west (VIA) down 'RedCreek'and southwest (VIE) across Bergeland Creek ........................ 75 VI1. Bergcamp looking northeastalong quartz monzonite ridge: vivid jarositic clay-rich soil (VllA); fibrous jarositic limonite precipitation from springs (VIIB) .................................. 76 VIII Quartz monzonite porphyry (Fig 7.unit 3;QMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 IX Quartz monzonite porphyry ............................ 78 X. Detail in quartz monzonite porphyry of anhedralresorbed quartz phenocryst with vermicular plagioclase and K-feldspar inclusions. . . . 79 XI . Sericitizeci quartz plagioclase porphyry (Fig. 7. unit 4.QPP) . . . . . . . 80 XI1. Quartz plagioclase porphyry with quartz veining (unstainedspecimen) and silicified alteration envelopes on fractures (stained specimen) . . . 81 XIII . Plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (Fig. 7. unit 5; PBQP) . . . . . . . . 82 XIV . Hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry (Fig. 7.unit 6;hbde QFP) . . . . 83 xv . Ouartz diorite (Fig. 7. unit 2) with quartz and K-feldspar veining. . . . 84 XVI . Pervasive phyllic alteration and quartz veining in bleached hornfels (left specimen) and quartz plagioclase porphyry (right specimen) . . . . 85 XVII . Veining in biotite hornfels ............................. 86 XVIII Potassic alteration in biotite hornfels ...................... a7 XIX . Biotite hornfels with relict pale lapilli 88 . . . . ...................... 13 INTRODUCTION Berg deposit is a major copper-molybdenum prospectin the Canadian Cordillera that very closely resembles the idealized porphyry copper model of Lowell and Guilbert (1970). Copper and molybdenum sulphides are associated with a small Tertiary quartz monzonite porphyry stock that intrudes Mesozoic volcanic rocks. The stock has a number of intrusive phasesandassociatedbrecciabodies.Hypogene mineralization resulted in: (1) fracture-controlled anddisseminated pyrite and chalcopyrite; (2) quartz stockworks with pyrite, molybdenite, and chalcopyrite; and, less commonly, (3) quartz and quartzcarbonate veins containing pyrite, sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, and sulfosalt minerals. Sulphide zoning is evident within a broad annulusof hydrothermally altered rocks about a weakly mineralized intrusive core. Weathering has produced a leached capping that is underlain by a laterally extensive supergene copper zone. Hypogene copper and molybdenum sulphides below the supergenezoneare locally of oregrade.Geologicalreserves are in the order of 400 million tonnes containing 0.4 per cent copper and 0.05 per cent molybdenite (Panteleyev, Drummond, and Beaudoin, 1976). LOCATION AND ACCESS Berg deposit is in Omineca Mining Division in west-central British Columbia a t latitude 53 degrees 49 minutes north, longitude 127 degrees25.5 minutes west (Figs. 1 and 2). It lies in the TahtsaRanges approximately midway betweenTahtsa,Nanika,and Kidprice Lakes in the northwestern corner of Whitesailmap-area (NTS 93E/14W). Except for some habitation at Kemano to the southwest and Ootsa Lake to the east, the closest centres of commerceareHouston, 93 kilometres (57 miles) to thenortheast,and Withers, 118 kilometres (73 miles) to the north. The property is about 585 kilometres (365 miles) north of Vancouver. The area of economic interest is on moderate to steep, south and generallyrugged, mountainousterrain. west-facing slopes in The claimgroup containing Berg deposit lies 15 VANCOUVER VICTORIA SCALE-MILES 0 1w 2w 40 20 40 30 0 SCALE-MILES SCALE-KILOMETRES 40 20 0 20 SCALE-KILOMETRES 40 betweenelevations of 1 375 and 2 275 metres(4,500and7,450 north ofthe east fork of Bergeland Creek. feet). mainly to the Access for mostpersonnel during early exploration was byhelicopter from bases at Smithers and Houston, but later a 42-kilometre (26-mile) bulldozer road was built to the camp from Twinkle Lake onthe TahtsaLake forest accessroad.Theaccessroad traverses the northern flank of Sibola Peak and then follows Kidprice Creek to its headto camp at an waterswhere it crosses a 1 740-metre(5,700-foot) passanddescends elevation of 1 555 metres (5,100 feet). During the early stages of exploration most drill equipment and supplies were brought to the property on sleds with a bulldozer but work on the access road has upgraded it to the it is usuallypossible during point where,since1970, with someannualmaintenance summer months to reach the property with a four-wheel-drive vehicle and occasionally with a two-wheel-drive vehicle.Access for about six winter months is restricted to vehiclescapable of travel in snow, but winter travelrequiresprudencebecause of avalanchehazards. Spring thaw and resultingbreakuprender the property inaccessible by road for up to one month. Alternate access routes from the north andwestmaybe feasible if mining development continues. WEATHER The weather, typical of mountainous terrain along the east flank of the Coast Mountains, is unsettled with rapid changes. Short,generallycool summersare punctuated with numerous showers. Midsummer temperatures in excess of 20 degrees Celsius are common but hail or sleet storms of short duration can occur on any day. The region is in the rain shadow of the Coast Mountains and thus has relatively light precipitation of about 100 centimetres per year. However, rainfall can accumulate very rapidly during short, violent storms. In winter, snow is generally less than 1 metre deep on the valley floors and open sidehills but deeper snow accumulations, drifts. and avalanche areason northern and eastern slopesgiverise to small permanent snowfields that sustain numerous small glaciers. Possibly the mostadverseweather conditions for work in the areaarecaused by high winds that occasionally reach gale and hurricane force. Company records also show that dense fog sometimes enveloped the area for days a t a time and reduced visibility t o a few tens of metres. HISTORY OF EXPLORATION Prospecting in the Whitesail map-area started soon after the settlers arrived in the early 1900's and resulted in the discovery of a number of lead-zinc-silver,silver, gold-tungsten, copper, and molybdenum deposits. In 1913, 'Kid' Price found placer gold and i t s source 17 veins on Sibola Peak and precipitated a small rush to the area in 1914. From 1915 to the late 1920's, a number of lead-zincsilver andcopperdepositswerelocated, the most notablebeingtheEmeraldGlacierdeposits on Mount Sweeney approximately 13.7 kilometres (8.5 miles) southeast of Berg property. In 1929 lead-zinc-copper-silverveins peripheral to the Berg copper-molybdenum depositwere first staked. Prospecting activity declined during the 1930's but was renewed during 1943 to 1947 by discoveries of gold-tungsten mineralization on Lindquist Peak (Duffel, 1959). General activity in the areaincreased after 1947when the Aluminum Company of Canada, Limited-Aluminium du Canada, Limitee (Alcan) started. engineeringstudies for its Kitimat project and the Geological Survey of Canada initiated a program of systematic regionalmapping.TheFrancois-TahtsaLake access road built by Alcan and the raised water level in a number of lakes provided improved access to many regions and prompted a period of renewed exploration and property development in the late 1940's and early 1950's. In 1948 the Lead Empire Syndicate relocated claimsfirst staked in 1929 on the lead-zinc-copper-silver veins along what is now the northern boundary of the'Berg deposit. The first significant mineral production in the district was attained from the Emerald Glacier mine during 1951 to 1953. Mining resumed in 1966 and 1967; total production ending in 1967 was 9,196 tons of ore with gross metal content of 49 ounces gold, 83,494 ounces silver, 19,872 pounds copper, 1,689,456 pounds lead, 1,996,407 pounds zinc, and 3,713 pounds cadmium. The main brunt of exploration activity and an appreciation for the tremendous mineral potential of the areabegan in the early1960'swhen exploration philosophy became oriented toward largetonnagedepositsamenable to open-pit mining. Highly mobile, helicopter-supported exploration teams with geochemicalandgeophysical facilities and assisted by a newly published geological map(Duffel, 1959, Geological Survey of Canada, Map 1064A). found a largenumber of significant depositsandoccurrencesofcoppermolybdenum and molybdenum. These include: Berg, Huckleberry, Whiting Creek,Ox Lake,Red Bird, ColesCreek, Lucky Ship, Troitsa, Bergette,Nanika,andothers (see Carter, 1974, 1976). Berg copper-molybdenum prospect was located as the 28 BERG mineral claims in 1961. The property name 'Berg' is derived from nearby geographic features Bergeland Creek and Mount Bergeland. Evidence of Berg deposit hasbeen known for a long time because a large, brightly coloured capping, most of which is above tree line, marks the mineralized zone. In thecentre of Berg property exploration pits predating the 1961 staking were first in found on a quartz-molybdenite vein. The lead-zinc-silver vein deposits located 1929 and again in 1948 are peripheral to the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization along the northeast marginof the vivid colour anomaly. TheBerg claim group was located to cover the prominent cappingdeveloped on and around a small stock that is the locus of a strong geochemical anomaly. Stream sediment samples at the confluence of two forks of Bergeland Creek, about 2 miles downstream 18 from the deposit, are said to have contained as much as 47 000 parts per million copper and 60 parts per million molybdenum (H. Goddard, 1974, personal communication). In spite of such a stronggeochemicalexpression,prospectingresultswerediscouraging. Molybdenite is widespread, but generallysparse, in the intrusive rocks: in outcroppings copper minerals are absent except as secondary oxides and carbonates along borders of some basalt dykes. In 1963 geologists with experience in the southwestern United States were the first to appreciatetheore potential of the extensivelyleachedrocks.Increased exploration expenditure in 1964 enabled bulldozer trenching and diamond drilling that demonstrated the profound effects of surface leaching and revealed the widespread presence of supera feature not common in the Canadian Cordillera. Subsequent work geneminerals, showed that rocks are leached in places to depths in excess of 30 metres, and these rocks are underlain by an extensive 'blanket'of supergene copper enrichment. Drilling during 1965 and 1966 delineated two main mineralized zones. A northeast zone contains primary (hypogene)andsomesupergene mineralization, and a southeastzone has widespread supergene mineralization. At the end of the 1966 field season the prop erty consisted of 108 mineral claims on which there had been a total of 3 770.7 metres (12,371 feet) of diamond drilling in 23 holes. During 1967 a 3461.6-metre (11,357foot) drill programtestedthesoutheastzone on a widely spaced grid andthreeholes explored areas peripheral to the main area of interest. From 1968 to 1970 the property was dormant but metallurgical testing was done on composite samples of drill core. In 1971 three additional holes were drilled in the northeast zone. At the end of the 1971 exploration program a total of49 diamond-drill holesof mainly NO andBOcorehad been completed with a total depth of 7 980.9 metres (26,184 feet). In 1972 exploration and development of the property were taken over by CanexPlacer Limited (PlacerDevelopment Limited) underagreement with KenncoExplorations, (Western) Limited. From 1972 to 1975 an additional 25 drill holes of NQ core totalling 7083.2 metres(23,239 feet) and 19 drill holes of BOcore totalling 1843.7 metres (6.049 feet) were completed. In total, 16 907.8 metres (55,472 feet) of drilling was completed in 93 diamond-drill holes. In 1976 work wasagainsuspendedand the property is dormant a t this time ofwriting. PHYSIOGRAPHY Berg deposit is in the TahtsaRanges, a 16 to 24-kilometre-wide ( I Oto 15-mile) belt of mountains within the Hazelton Mountains (Holland, 1964). The Hazelton Mountains lie along the eastern flank of the Kitimat Ranges of the Coast Mountains and form part of the Skeena Arch, a northeasterly trending area that was tectonically positive andwas a locus for intrusive activity throughout much of the Mesozoic. Duffel (1959) referred to the TahtsaRanges as 'transitional ranges'because they represent a transitional zone 19 between the rugged, predominantly granitic Coast Mountains to the west and the rolling hill region of sedimentary and volcanic rocks that underlie the Nechako Plateau to the east. Thisterrane would correspond to a 'highland'region as described by Holland (1964). The Tahua Ranges are further subdivided into east-west to northeasterly trending ranges called, from north to south, the Tahtsa, Sibola, Whitesail, and Chikamin Ranges.These areseparated by major valleys whose floors range in elevation from 795 to 945 metres (2,600 to 3,100 feet) and which are occupied by long lakes; from northto south these are Morice,Nanika,Tahtsa, Troitsa,Whitesail,andEutsuk Lakes. All drain eastward into waterways of the Skeena or Fraser Rivers drainage systems. Thehighestpeak in the TahtsaRanges is a previously unnamed 2 469.8-metre (8,103foot) peak east of Nanika Lake and about 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) north-northeast of the Bergcamp. As of January1979, the CanadianPermanent Committee on Geographic Names has recommended that the peak is to be known as Mount Ney after the eminent Cordilleran geologist and alpinist, Charles S. Ney. A number of other mountains andridges 2 135 metres(7,000 feet) and higher in elevation occur as serratepeaks formed by cirqueglaciation.Many of thehighestand mostruggedpeaksare underlain by granitic cores. Mountain flanks andvalleywalls generallyhavemoresubdued, glaciallyrounded profiles with smallbenches,dissected plateau-like areas, and hanging valleys a t various elevations. GLACIATION TheTahtsaRangeshaveundergoneextensive glaciation. According to Tipper (1971). multiple glaciation is probable over much of central British Columbia. In the Bergarea there is evidence for three types of glaciation: a continental or mountain ice sheet, valley glaciation, and alpine cirque glaciation. During themain(Wisconsin)glaciationandpossibly a secondiceadvance that was localized in north-central British Columbia(Fraser glaciation). ice from the Coast Mountains flowed northeasterly andeasterlyalong the existing majorvalleys into the all but the Nechako Plateau. As ice depths increased, glaciers overrode valley walls and highest peaks were glaciated. In Berg area there is ample evidence from erratic boulders on small, dissected plateaus and beveled ridge creststo show that ice reached elevations of at least 1 675 metres (5,500 feet). During deglaciation [circa 15 OOO BP and later, as shown by Prest (1970)l valley glaciation, or surges during wasting and over-all recession of the ice sheet, further modified valley walls. Evidence of valley glaciation is preserved as terraces and ridges at various elevations along sidehillsbounding the larger valleys. 20 Cirqueglaciation hasbeen the dominant influence in sculpturing present topography above 1 525 metres(5,000 feet). Small active cirque glaciers and snowfields are found on eastern and northern slopes at elevations above 1 830 metres (6,000 feet). At present, so that most cirques, alpine valleys, and gullies cirque glaciers are wasting and receding are mantled by recently deposited debris from terminal and recessional moraines and by fluvioglacial deposits. Between the period of 1967 and 1974 there was a noticeable meltback of glacier ice and a decrease in the size of snowfields in Berg maparea. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report is a summary of a dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of British Columbia, in 1976. Fieldwork wasdone while the writer wasemployed by Kennco Explorations, (Western) Limited during 1967, 1969, and 1971. A visit to the deposit in. 1974 anddiscussions with geologists of PlacerDevelopment Limited kept the writer up-to-date with recent developments. BIBLIOGRAPHY Allen, D. G. (1971): The Origin of Sheet Fractures in the Galore Creek Copper Deposits, British Columbia, Can, Jour. EarthSci., Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 704-711. I. R., andMoore,D. 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(1971): Vapour-dominated Hydro66, PP. thermal SystemsCompared with Hot-water Systems,Econ.Geol..Vol. 75-97. Whitney, J. A. (1975a): VapourGeneration in a Quartz Monzonite Magma: ASynthetic Model with Application to Porphyry Copper Deposits, Econ. Geol., Vol. 70, pp. 346-358. .. . (1975b): The Effects of P, T, and xHzO on PhaseAssemblages in Four Synthetic Rock Compositions,Jour. Geol., Vol. 83,No. 1. pp. 1-32. Wilson,J.D.S.and Sinclair, A.J. (1969): Q-modeFactorAnalysis Applied to Mineral Exploration Data, in Proc. of Symposium on Decision-making in Mineral Exploration, II, University of British Columbia, Extension Dept., pp. 244-257. Winkler, H.G.F. (1965): Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, Springer-VerlagNew York Inc., New York, N.Y., 220 pp. . 27 Figure 2. Geology of Tahtsa Ranges. 2 GEOLOGY REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF TAHTSA RANGES Berg deposit is about 12 kilometres (8 miles) east of the Coast Plutonic Complex in a region of bedded volcanic and sedimentary rocks of Jurassic and Cretaceous age. Bedded rockshavebeen intruded by a number of Jurassic,Cretaceous,and Tertiary stocks (Carter1974,1976).Mapping by Duffel (1959,WhitesailLakeMap-area,Map No. 1064A) provides a geological framework for the area but is currently being extensively revised as a result of recent and ongoing work. Duffel's 'Hazelton Group' includes rocks of pre-Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age. Recent work in the Whitesail Lake and othermap-areas to the north, mainly by geologists of the Geological Survey of Canada (Tipper, 1972; Richards, 1974a; Tipper and Richards, 1976) has permitted subdivision of Hazelton rocks into Early and Middle Jurassic units andhasshown that Cretaceousrocksaremorewidespread than previously recognized. The Cretaceous rocks, now called Skeena Group, are part of an extensive draping ofinterbeddedmarineandnonmarinesedimentaryandvolcanicrocksover Hazelton rocks. According to Tipper and Richards (1976) Early Cretaceous to ?earliest Late Cretaceous (Hauterivian to Albian or ? Cenomanian)Skeenarocksare now known to extend from south of TahtsaLake to Hazelton where they includetheBrian Boru andRedRose Formations of Sutherland Brown (1960). In TahtsaLake vicinity rocks of the Skeena Group are unconformably overlainbyvolcanicrocks which Maclntyre (1976) believes to be strictly Late Cretaceous andfor which he proposesthe name 'Kasalka Group.' Considerable refinement of intrusive history in theregion hasbeendone (1974). A revised geological map of the area is shown on Figure 2. by Carter GEOLOGY OF BERG MAP-AREA This report describes a 5C-square-kilometre area that surrounds Berg deposit. The mapis shown as Figure 3 (in pocket) and is hereafter referred to as Berg maparea. 29 In Berg map-area bedded rocks can be readily subdivided into three lithologically distinct assemblages:upperand lowervolcanic units andan intervening sedimentary unit. On WhitesailLakemap all these rocks areshown as Hazelton Group andaredescribed as '(mainly) Middle Jurassic' volcanic andsedimentaryrocks.The possibility that some Cretaceousrocksare included in this sequence is suggested in theaccompanying text (Duffel, 1959). Duringregionalreconnaissance in 1966 C. S. Neyobservedanangulardiscordance betweenvolcanicandsedimentary units a t the head of Kidprice Creek south of Berg deposit. Thus, correlation of a similar lithologic successionnearBerg deposit with the Hazelton Group became suspect and subsequent mapping revealedthe presence of a t least two angular unconformities in Berg map-area. The presence of Cretaceous Skeena rocks in Berg map-area was substantiated in 1972 and stratigraphic relationships clarified when ammonites from rocks of the sedimentary (middle) assemblage (locality shown on Fig. 3) were identified by H. W. Tipper as Cleoniceras, a zone fossil of the Middle Albian stage (latest Early Cretaceous). Detailed mapping in Berg map-area revealed a gentle angular unconformity between volcanic units near the top of the lower volcanic assemblage (Fig. 3, units 1 and 2). The underlying Hazelton rosks are moderately eastward-dippingred and green fragmental volcanicrocks.They crop out along t h e western half of Bergmap-area (Fig. 3, unit 1). To the east the overlying rocks are more gently eastward-dipping grey and green amyg daloidal flows which form the basal part of the Skeena Group (Fig. 3, unit 2). These volcanic rocks are conformably overlain by the Albian sedimentary rocks which form an eastward-thickeningprism or clastic wedge (Fig. 3, unit 3). Theyoungestvolcanic assemblage (Fig. 3, units 4 and 5) unconformably overlies Albian sedimentaryrocks (unit 3) in the east and volcanic rocks (unit 2) in the west where the clastic wedgehas pinched out. Intrusive rocks have been grouped into three map units as shown on Figure 3: a diorite/ quartz diorite stock and related intrusions in the centre of the maparea that are satellitic bodies of the Coast Intrusions; a small multiphase mineralized stockof quartz monzonite porphyry that is part of the Eocene 'Nanika Intrusions' of Carter (1974); and numerous minor dykes and sills of various affinities and ages. HAZEL TON GROUP (Middle Jurassic; Fig. 3. Unit 11 Hazelton rocks comprisea predominantly andesitic pyroclastic assemblage in which about 1 675 metres (5500 feet) of strata are exposed in the mineralized area, Bergeland Creek valley,andridges to the west.The rocks aregreen,grey,red,and maroon lithic tuff, tuff breccia, and lesser units of volcanic flows, flow breccia, and tuffaceous or epiclastic sedimentary rocks. Base of t h e map unit is not exposed but oldest strata are thick beds of flow breccia, massiveflows,and tuff that pass into a sequence of thinly beddedshale,chert,and 30 tuffaceous siltstone and sandstone. These well-bedded sedimentary rocks are seen mainly in thelower reaches of the north fork ofBergelandCreek. They are overlain by the principal ridge forming pyroclastic members in Bergarea.Thesearedisorganized to weaklygradedbeds of coarse to finegrained tuffs (lapilli to fine ashsized) with some units of massive, rarely porphyritic flows, thin units of breccia, and reworked tuffaceous sedimentarymembers. About 3 kilometres west of Berg depositthe succession contains siliceous volcanic rocks. Many of these appear to be compacted or welded dacitic lithiecrystal tuff and lapilli tuff. Youngestbedsare, in part,subaerial but are mainly shallowmarine (intertidal or littoral). A number contain well-developedaccretionary lapilli, mud pellets, and a t least one locality with oscillation ripple marks.Manyof the porous, fragmental rocks have a limy or ferruginous red-coloured, silt-sized matrix. Near the top of the sequence a few cobble beds with predominantly andesitic clasts and a reworked volcanic sandstone matrix werenoted.Nonewasseen to contain anyclasts of intrusive rocks;exotic rocks are mainly chert and a few pieces of crystalline limestone. 1974b). In BergmapRegional metamorphic grade is sub-greenschistfacies(Richards, area no prehnite nor pumpellyite and only one hydrothermal zeolite locality were noted. Epidote and chlorite aremostcommon;calcite,quartz, tremolite, montmorillonite, albite, K-feldspar, and muscovite are widespread. Small amounts of garnet, tourmaline, amphibole,scolecite,magnetite, hematite, pyrite, and rutile arepresent in xenoliths within quartz diorite. The latter mineralsare of apparent hydrothermal origin and formed in broad propylitic zones'or small skarn zones associated with intrusive rocks. SKEENA GROUP (Lower Cretaceous; Fig. 3, Units 2 and 3) The basal Cretaceous volcanic unit (unit 2) is found along a north-south-trendingbelt up to 2.5 kilometres wide through the centre of Berg maparea. Best outcrop exposures are on steep slopes east of the main granitic intrusions and west of Kidprice Creek. A maximum of about 600 metres (2.000 feet) of strata is present. Therocks are typically amygdaloidaland rarely vesicularormassive flows and flow breccias of andesitic or basaltic composition. They are grey to purple and dark green in colour and are composed predominantly of small laths and microlites of plagioclase in a chloritic groundmass. Slight orientation of feldspars imparts a trachytic texture in some of the porphyritic rocks. Amygdules contain abundant chlorite, commonly as radiating fibrous spherulites,or as concentric layers with calcite,quartz,epidote,and montmorillonite. Calcite with crystalline andchalcedonic quartz is common in vesicles and cavities. is not well exposed. The contact of the basalvolcanicbeds with Hazeltonrocks Throughout much of Berg map-area the contact is intruded by quartz diorite or is covered. Immediately north of the main quartz diorite body, the contact is exposed in a cliff face but is inaccessible. It appears that in this area the contact i s stronglyepidotized and rocks are hydrothermally altered. 31 Sedimentary rocks (unit 3). crop out in most of the eastern half of Berg maparea where they form a clastic wedge that overlies feldspathic amygdaloidal flow rocks of the Cretaceous basal volcanic unit (unit2). A t the southeast corner of Berg map-areaa maximum of about 500 metres of sedimentary strata is exposed. The clastic unit thins northward and to the west; the pinchout canbe traced along the northern boundary of the area mapped and just east of Mount Ney (see cross-sections, Fig. 3). Thesedimentaryrocksare mainly fine-grained sandstone. They form massivegrey to buff outcrops with individual members up to 50 metres in thickness. Monotony in the succession is broken by a few pebble conglomerate beds and thin units of graded, thinly bedded siltstone and shale having crossbedding, rip-up clasts, and slump structures. The sandstone is composed of subrounded quartz, plagioclase, and K-feldspar grains and small rock fragments in a fine-grained micaceous matrix. Abundance of detrital mica is a useful criterion for distinguishing Cretaceous sedimentaryrocks from older rocks in Smithers and Hazelton mapareas (H. W. Tipper, 1972, personal communication). Some sandstone beds contain spherical concretions up to 35 centimetres in diameter. One cherty argillite unit yielded a few specimens of the ammonite Cleoniceras which established a mid-Albian age for the strata. The top ofthe map unit is marked by 40 metres of flaggy siltstone and dark brown shale beds. KASALKA GROUP (Upper Cretaceous; Fig. 3, Units4and 5) Kasalka volcanic rocks unconformably overlie Skeenarocksandcap two ridges in the north and northeastern part of Berg map-area. Kasalka rocks have been studied extensively in Tahtsa Lake areaby Maclntyre (1976) who proposed the name'Kasalka Group' and subdivided the assemblage into a basal conglomerate and three formations: the Mount Baptiste, Swing Peak, and Bergette. On the basis of their discordant relationship with Skeena rocks, a number of Late Cretaceous radiometric dates from volcanic and related intrusive rocks,anddespiteone whole rock date of 105 Ma from the Mount Baptiste Formation, Maclntyre (1976) considers Kasalka rocks to be strictly Late Cretaceous in age. In Berg maparea and according to Maclntyre (1976) throughout the Tahtsa Lake region, the basal member of the Kasalka Group is a red to maroon conglomerate that contains ferruginous sandstonelenses.Theconglomerate is commonly 5 to 10 metres thick and composed of mainly pebblesandcobbles of Hazelton andSkeenavolcanicrocks in a ferruginous sand matrix. In the eastern part of Bergmap-area theconglomerate is up to 12 metres thick and overlies flaggy siltstone and dark brown shale beds of the Skeena Group (Fig. 3, unit 3). In the west where the Skeena sedimentary wedge has pinched out t h e conglomerate rests on epidotized amygdaloidal Skeena flows (Fig. 3, unit 2). In the mostwesterly part of Bergmap-area the basalconglomerate is a dark-grey to brown cobble conglomerate that forms two small flat-lying ridge cappings on eastward-dipping Hazelton volcanic rocks ( s e e Fig. 3, cross-section 6-6'). 32 Overlying the red conglomerate are rocks correlated with the Swing Peak Formation of Maclntyre (1976). The sequence consists of a basal strongly jointed hornblende feldspar porphyry memberand overlying fragmental unit (Fig. 3, unit 4). Maximumthickness porphyry memberwasmappedby this in this map unit is 190 metres.Thefeldspar writer as a sill but hasbeen interpreted by Maclntyre to bean andesite-latite flow unit (his 'Member A'). In the eastern part of Berg map-area the feldspar porphyry unit is up to 43 metres thick. A similar (probably the same)feldspar porphyry sill (?) 1.5 kilometres to the north is 4 metres thick (see Fig. 3, cross-section D-D') and 2.3 kilometres to the south it is 48 metres thick (see Fig. 3, cross-section C-C'). In the northeasterly area the feldspar porphyry unit is overlain by about 10 metres of red to purple conglomerate(lahar ?) that is similar to the basalKasalkaconglomerate.Theupper conglomerate is overlain by up to a 90-metre-thick disorganized prismof north and eartwardthinning, dark grey-green, calcite-rich basalt or andesitic breccia. This is overlain in turn, by a 75-metre layered succession of purple, grey, and violet vitric flows (see Plate 11). To the west in the central part of Berg maparea the feldspar porphyry unit is absent and red conglomerate is overlain by an alternating sequence of red to maroon lahar units interbedded with grey to purple and reddish brown volcanic sandstone, lithic tuff, breccia, and numerous porphyritic sills, commonly less than 1 metre in thickness. TheyoungestKasalkarocksareshown on Figure 3 as map units 5aand5b.Rocks of map unit 5aarecream to palegrey rhyolite brecciaand flows that areequivalent to Maclntyre's Bergette Formation. In the northeast part of Berg maparea rocks of unit 5a are up to 100 metres in thickness and conformably overlie rocks of map unit 4. Locally rhyolite ofmap unit 5a is in fault contact with olderrocks(seeFig.3,crosssection A-A'). In contrast, 3 kilometres to the west on the peak of Mount Ney and on the ridge leading northeast of the peak, the youngest Kasalka rocks (Fig. 3, unit 5b) are a lithologically diverseassemblage of fragmentalandmassive flow rocks that unconformably overlie rocksof map unit 4 (see Plate Ill). Rocks of map unit 5b range widely in composition and appearance, from intermediate to felsic,dark to pale, andfragmental to massive.On theridgenortheast of Mount Ney dense, glassy, purple to dark grey dykes are abundant and fragmental rocks appear to be agglomerate. It is the presence within this succession of pale rhyolite members similar to rocks of map unit 5a that permits map unit 5b to be considered as a lateral equivalent to map unit 5a. However, if the gentle angular unconformity near the peak of Mount Ney (see Plate Ill) is of regional rather than local extent, map unit 5b may not be part of the Bergette Formation (unit 5a) and is part of a yet unnamed assemblage. QUARTZ DIORITE Quartz diorite forms the largest intrusive body mapped, a northward-trending stock a t least 600 metres wide in the centre of Bergmaparea.The body hassteepwalls and forms the core of the Tahtsa Ranges. The intrusion has been traced by the writer a t least 6.5 kilometres to the south of Berg camp where it widens to about 2 750 metres along the southern edge of Bergmapsheet.Thestockwasmapped by Duffel (1959) as 33 Plate I. 34 Bergcamp (lower left1and Mount Ney, view in late Junelooking north. East. ward dipping Hazelton IH) rocks are overlain on Mount Ney by Skeena (Sk) and Kasalka (Ks) rocks. Plate II. SkeenasedimentaryrocksoverlainbyKasalkavolcanicrocks,2.5kilometres ofMount Ney. Approximately 400 metres of strata are exposed. Plate 111. Mount Ney, elevation 2469.8 metres (8,103 feet), view looking northerly. Red lahar, unit 4, and breccia, unit 5, of Kasalka Group overlie Skeena volcanic rocks, unit 2, Figure 3. Approximately 500 metres of strata are shown. east 35 'gabbro' which 'closely resembles many of the diorites associated with the main mass of the coast intrusion.' More detailed mapping has shown the intrusion to be texturally and compositionally zoned,ranging from fine-grained,equigranular to locally porphyritic, biotite hornblende quartz diorite or diorite. A minor hornblende-rich contact phase is found wherebrecciated microporphyritic andesitehasbeenmetasomatizedalong the intrusive contact. About 1.6 kilometres south-southeast of camp, the core of the quartz diorite intrusion is composed of a porphyritic, pink, sericite-rich granodiorite and quartz monzonite. The quartz monzonite phase is a coarsergrained porphyritic rock andhas a gradational Contact zone about 30 metres wide with the quartz diorite. The porphyritic phase is seen as a 180-metre-wide zone of rusty, hydrothermally altered rock surrounded by less altered, jointed quartz diorite typical of the main intrusive mass. Small intrusions of biotite hornblende diorite and hornblende dioritelquartz diorite re. lated to the main intrusion are found to the north and peripherally around the stock. that penetrateHazeltonand Thesesmaller intrusions occur as smallstocksanddykes Skeenastrata as jagged intrusive plugs without anyappreciable disruptive effectson bedding. The largest of the peripheral bodies intrudes west of t h e Berg camp and is found along an east-northeasttrend that is perpendicular to the main quartz diorite stock. Thermal metamorphic effects due to intrusion of the main diorite massare evident as zones of purplish brown biotite hornfels formed across widths of UP to 120 metres (commonly 30 metres or less) from the contact. Small areas and local patches of coarsely recrystallizedamphibole and biotite-bearing metasomatizedrocks have a 'dioritized' look. Along the north and northeastcontact, patches of garnet-epidote skarnhave formed locally in calcitebearing amygdaloidal flows of Skeena volcanic units. QUARTZ MONZONITE PORPHYRY Themost economically significant intrusive body in the map-area is a smallcomposite stock of quartz monzonite porphyry about 460 metres in diameter that intrudes pyroclastic rocks near the northwest margin of the quartz diorite intrusion (see Figs. 3, 5, 6, and 7). All phases of quartz monzonite are hydrothermally altered and mineralized. The main mass of the quartz monzonite stock is roughly equidimensional a t surface with fairly regularcontacts.Exceptions arealong thesouthandsouthwest contact and a t depth wheredykesand sill-like bodies project into or alongvolcanicstrata.Themain intrusive mass is a composite of a t least three phasesofcoarse-grained biotite quartz feldspar porphyry that are intruded by a t least one distinctly crosscutting phase of porphyry,namelyhornblende quartz feldspar porphyry. This porphyry forms a northeasterly trending dyke that bisects the main quartz monzonite mass and intrudes hornfels and quartz diorite to the northeast. The main phases of quartz monzonite have not been observed to intrude quartz diorite andareseparated from it by a screen of hornfelsed 36 volcanic rock, on average about 90 metres wide. Quartz diorite close to quartz monzonite is Strongly altered and mineralized. An intrusive breccia body that is similar to quartz monzonite in composition and alteration intensity underlies a large area about 450 metres southeast of the quartz monzonite stock. PotaSSiu~-argOndatingby Carter (1974) of biotite from thequartz monzonite stock, altered quartz diorite, and whole rock specimens from themineralizedhornfels sur. rounding the stock indicates Eocene ages with a mean value of about 50 million years, MINORINTRUSIONS A number of minor intrusions are shown on Figure 3 (unit C). Columnar-jointedfeldspar porphyry sills (flows ?) near the base of the Kasalka successions consistof plagioclase and chloritized hornblendephenocrysts in a fine-grained matrix of plagioclase,K-feldspar, rarepyroxene,andfine-grained alteration products clay-chlorite-epidote. In Berg map area the threemainexposures of the feldspar porphyry unit areshown onFigure 3, cross-sectionsA, C, and D. The feldspar porphyries are part of the Kasalka Group and are intrusive, possibly extrusive, equivalentsof volcanic rocks. Pale grey to cream-coloured, weakly layered, massive to microporphyritic rhyolite dykes (part of unit C) form small irregularintrusions, mainly southwest of Bergcampand northeast of Mount Ney.Thesedykesare compositionally similar to rhyolite of the Bergette Formation (unit 5a) of the Kasalka assemblage. The most abundant porphyry dykes in the region are biotite quartz feldspar porphyries. These form predominantly northwesterly trending dykes, commonly 2 to 15 metres wide that have been found in all but the youngest (map unit 5)Kasalka rocks. The porphyry dykes intrude quartz diorite andare,therefore, Tertiary in age and part of the quartz monzonite intrusive suite. Basalt dykes of Miocene (and younger ?) age, shown on Figure 3 as unit D, intrude all major rock units throughout the maparea. They are commonly less than 3 metres wide althoughdykes up to 25 metres in width are known. Basaltdykesare abundant and occur randomly except in the mineralized zone where a greater number than the regional average has been intersected in drillholes. STRUCTURE Bedded rocks in the map-area form an easterly dipping succession, commonly with 10 to 30-degree dips. Gentle folding is evident in Hazelton rocks where large-scale undulations and flexures about north to north-northeasterly fold axes can be seen. Cretaceous rocks are flatter.lying except where they are tilted by faulting and in local areaswhere contorted strataandslumped blocks areassociated with small-scaled6collements.Such 31 Figure 4. Air photograph interpretation of fracture trends dkollement structures areseenover Nev (Plate 111). a 70-metre succession on the west flank of Mount Fracture patterns, as shownonFigure 4, indicate predominance of east-northeastand north to northeasterly trends. This is in contrast to dominantly northwesterly trends described in the TahtsaLakeregion by Maclntyre (1976). He suggests that north to northeasterly trends are subsidiary trends within fault blocks bounded by northwesterly faults. Where fault displacements or offsets can be measured in Berg maparea the most significant movements are, a t most, some tens of metres in magnitude and appear to have taken place along northwesterly breaks. Age of faulting is uncertain but Miocene ? basalt dykes that commonly invade the mostintensely fractured zones rarely showanysignificant offsets. This implies that post-Miocene movements may have been minor relative to those during Cretaceous or Early Tertiary time. Structural controls on the emplacement of intrusive bodies are suggested by north-south elongation of themain quartz diorite stock and alignment of small diorite intrusions along the northern extension of the stock. Subsidiary, possibly younger, northeasterly trending structuresor zones o i weaknessappear to have controlled emplacement of mineralized quartz monzonite intrusions and dykes. The youngest structural breaksare northwesterly zones that are intruded by unmineralized quartz feldspar porphyry dykes 38 and basalt dykes. The basalt dykes are emplaced in northwesterly fault zones that cut and displace older northeast-trending quartz monzonite intrusions. GEOLOGY OF BERGCOPPER-MOLYBDENUMDEPOSIT Geology of the mineralizedzone at Berg deposit was studied extensively andfirst describ., ed in detail by George 0. M. Stewart (1967). Stewart, aided by some bulldozer trenching andsome diamond drilling, mapped highly weatheredsurfaceexposures. His interpretation ofgeneralgeology, major map units, and locations of intrusivecontacts is still essentially valid. Stewart described five main map units: hornfelsed and hydrothermally a dioritelquartz diorite stock alteredHazeltonGroupvolcanicandsedimentaryrocks; thought to be a satellite of the Coast Plutonic Complex; a composite quartz monzonite porphyry stockaboutwhichcopper-molybdenum mineralization is localized; a crosscutting 'quartz latite' post-ore dyke phase; and an intrusive breccia pipe. Recent diamond drilling inpreviously untestedareas, principally in the core and near marginsof the quartz monzonite stock, indicates that a number of porphyry phasescanbe distinguished and internal intrusive relations aremore complex than first thought. Recentrevisions of Stewart's mapping are shown on Figures 5 and 6, and also Figure 7 (in pocket). Surfaceexposuresare limonite-stained,deeplyweathered, crumbly outcrops that are strongly oxidized and leached. Slopes are generally devoid of vegetation and are mantled by slidedebrisandtalus.Thecentre of the mineralized area is underlain by a quartz monzonite porphyry stock containing generally less than 2 per cent sulphide minerals. This stock is a roughly equidimensional plug about 640 metres in diameterandhas a splayed northwesterly trending lobe in the southwest. It is transected by a northeasterly trending porphyry dyke that forms a spine-like ridge. Porphyritic intrusive rocks weather pale to yellow brown and form an elongate northeasterly trending mound in the centre of a broad, west-facing embaymentthat is carved into the prominent north-trending ridge of quartz diorite and Hazelton volcanic rocks. A broad horseshoe-shaped low-weathering area that opens into Bergeland Creektributary on the southwest surroundsthe ridge of somewhat more resistant porphyry stock. This is the zone of strongly fractured, mineralized, and altered volcanic rocks. Rapid erosion of hydrothermally altered and highly fractured rocksabetted by percolation of acidic groundwater that removes gypsumfrom fractures has probably been more important than glacialscouring in development of low-lying areas aboutthestock.Themost highly eroded zones have relief of about 215 metres relativeto the porphyry ridge crest and are occupied by 'Red' Creek on the southeast and 'Pump' Creek on the northwest (Fig. 7). Rocks containing economically significant sulphide minerals extend outward for at least 600 metres beyond the quartz monzonite contact and adjoining deeply eroded volcanic rocks.Rocks with sulphideminerals are marked by dark brown limonite-stained outcrops. To the north of the quartz monzonite stock these are volcanic and sedimentary rocks, and to the northeast and east, quartz diorite. Topography reflectschanges in rock 39 Figure 5. 40 Geology - Berg deposit. Figure 6. Geologic cross sections (view looking northerly) type andalteration.Slopes are relativelygentle near the stock,steepen t o about 30 degrees on flanking hillsides, and a t the outer edge of the limonite-stained zone steepen abruptly to about 45 degrees. Weakly altered and sparsely mineralized volcanic rocks on the north and quartz diorite onthe east form ridge crests that tower over the mineralized zone. Maximum relief is approximately 550 metres on the ridge t o the north and 730 metres on the ridge to the east of the quartz monzonite stock. 41 BEDDED ROCKS Host rocks for intrusions and mineral deposits are Middle Jurassic Hazelton Group volcanic rocks (Figs. 3 and 7. unit 1) that are predominantly subaerial erupted volcanic rocks andlesser interbeddedsedimentaryrocks. Theseare mainly coarse to mediumgained (lapilli) tuffs of andesitic composition as well as subordinate flows, breccias, epiclastic volcanic rocks (reworked volcanic source sandstonesor 'greywackes'), and minor amounts of marine shale and siltstone. Outside the area of mineralization volcanic rocks are dark grey,grey-green,purple,andred in colour with obvious fragmental textures and welldefined bedding. Closer to intrusions the volcanic rocks are recrystallized to dark greybrown and black rocks in which original fragments are seen as relict clasts or are totally obliterated in homogeneous-looking hornfels. TUFFS, TUFFACEOUS SEDIMENTS. FLOWS FLOWS, FLOW BRECCIAS BRECCIA TUFFS FLOWS FLOW BRECCIAS SEDIMiNTS TUFFS,BRECCIAS,FLOWS SUALE,SILTSTONE,CHERl TUFFACEOUS SEDIMENTS Figure 8 . 42 Subdivision of Hazelton Group volcanic succession at Bergdeposit. The volcanic succession strikes approximately north-south and is tilted eastward a t about 30 degrees. There is no apparent repetition by faulting or other structural complications. Thus,aneast-west section measuredalongBergelandCreekand the ridge immediately north of Berg deposit represents a reasonably true geologiccross-section with younger rocks or 'tops' to the east. A generalized succession subdividedinto six units representing about 1 530 metres of strata is shown on Figure 8. Oldest rocks are on the west and are shown on Figure 8 as unit A. Thebase of the succession is not exposed and the upper contact with rocks of the Skeena Group is intruded by quartz diorite or is inaccessible. Rocks of map unit A form a 300-metre-thick sequence of greyandgrey-green. finegrained to weakly porphyritic andesites, flow breccias,and intercalatedfine-grained sedimentary layers. The tuffs, tuff breccias, and flows areseen along the north bank of upper Bergeland Creek and overlie about 300 metres of thinly beddedshale, siltstone, chert, and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks exposed further downstream. Unit B consists of a 400-metre-thick pile of tuffs, minor breccias,and a few flow units including three paired units of purple lapilli tuff overlain by greyandmauveash tuff. Purple members are made up of pale grey and cream lapilli-sized porphyritic fragments constituting from 10 to 30 per cent of the rock in a dense vitric groundmass. Overlying grey and mauve rocksare lithic tuffs in which there is sorting of fragments. Most bedsaregradedand there is much alternation between beds containing either fine ash or coarse ash together with lapilli fragments.The three paired units aresuccessively thinner; the older being over 60 metres in thickness, the middle 45 metres, and the upper only 18 metres thick. Individual members within thesemap units are 2 centimetres to 2 metres in thickness. Above the pairedpurple-grey units are mainly darkpurple, mauve,andgrey, loosely packed, lithic lapilli and ash tuffs that contain a few crystalline limestone fragments. The top of unit B is taken to be a 12-metre-thick succession of massivefine.grained flow volcanic rocks. lithic tuffs. The Map unit C consists of about 200 metres of red,purple,andgrey succession is made up of thinlybedded lapilli tuffs with fragments up to 5 centimetres in size, 0.5 to 1.5-centimetre fragments being most common in an ash matrix. These tuffs areveryporous with loosely packedfragments in a relatively homogeneous nonsorted ash matrix. Somebeds contain fragments of cindery and pelleted accretionary lapilli in a ferruginous matrix andwere probably deposited in a subaerial accumulation.Other bedsconsist of reworked tephra with a limy mud matrix and formed in an apparently shallow subaqueous environment. Unit 0 consists of about 90 metres of paleand medium greyvolcanicbreccia with fragments up to 5 centimetres in size. This unit is overlain unconformably by a thin capping of Cretaceous boulder conglomerate of unit 4 on the ridge northwest of the camp. Unit E is a CJO-metre successionof 'greenstone' flows and flow breccias which is overlain by unit F, a heterogeneous assemblage of tuffs, finegrained tuffaceous sedimentary rocks including limy siltstones, volcanic sandstones, and volcanic flowstotalling a t least 150 metres in stratigraphic thickness. Strata of units B, C. and upper part of A have been intruded, altered, and mineralized. The resulting rocks have been described as 'hornfels.' However, there has been consider- 43 ablemetasomatismand,thus, the term 'hornfels' is used in an informal sense. At Berg deposit, Sutherland Brown (1967) distinguishedbetween biotitic hornfels in a thermal aureole and hydrothermally metasomatized rocks he termed skarn, containing recrystallized quartz, biotite, and K-feldspar. He further subdivided hydrothermally altered rocks into a third group of mottled 'greisen-like' (quartz~sericite)rocks.However, origin of biotite cannot alwaysbeascribed on the basis of appearance to either purely contact metamorphism or metasomatism and the term 'hornfels' will be retained in this report for purely descriptive purposes.Thus, biotite hornfels refers to all the massive, dark, finegrained metamorphosed rocks surrounding Berg intrusions. While some epidote and rare garnet occur in altered calcareous beds along the quartz diorite contact or in pendants in quartz diorite, no skarn assemblages are present within Berg deposit. INTRUSIVE ROCKS Two distinctive intrusive bodiesare seen a t Berg deposit. They differ in composition, texture, shape,and effect on intruded rocks.Theolder rock is a fine-grained quartz diorite that has no inherent mineralization andhas recrystallized intruded rocks into a dense, compact hornfels. The quartz diorite is part of a large intrusive body at least 600 metres wide that extends for a t least 8 kilometres to the south of Berg deposit. The inin plan, but continuous without trusive contact is steeplydipping,somewhatserrated known offshoots or projections. Two small satellitic bodies of porphyritic hornblende quartz diorite intrude 1.5 and 3 kilometres t o the north of the main intrusion and another quartz diorite plug intrudes 1 kilometre west of Berg camp. Theyounger intrusion is a composite stock of quartz monzonite porphyry that is no more than 640 metres in diameter. Every intrusive phase is mineralized to Somedegree and adjoining volcanic rocks and quartz diorite are altered and mineralized extensively. The core of the quartz monzonite stock is plug like and is flanked to the south and southwest by dykes, sills, and irregular apophyses. Quartz monzonite does not intrude quartz diorite, but has altered and mineralized it. Both rock types are cut by one large and a number of smaller porphyry dykes relatedto quartz monzonite. Theabsolute age difference andgenetic relationshipsbetweenthe two main intrusive typesare not certain. Porphyritic quartz monzonite is found in a zone a few hundred is metres wide within quartz diorite 3.5 kilometres south of Bergdeposit.Thezone within the centre and widest part of the quartz diorite intrusion andappears to have gradational contacts with quartz diorite. Thus, porphyritic quartz monzonite maybe a more highly differentiated phase of a parent quartz diorite magma.The mineralized quartz monzonite porphyry and quartz diorite in Berg map-areamight be cogenetic. Description of intrusiverocks in Bergmap-area at a regionalscale has beendone by Duffel (1959). and a t the property'by Kennco Explorations, (Western) Limited geologists (Stewart, 1967). Sutherland Brown (1967). and more recently, Canex PlacerLimited geologists. Nomenclature used in this study is a modification of the descriptive classification 44 used by CanexPlacer Limited geologists(1974,personal communication). It is based largely on diamonddrilling in the core of the quartz monzonite stock since 1972. Quartz diorite wasmappedby Duffel as gabbro. Along the contact the rock in places contains less than 10 per cent quartz, has some pyroxene, and is melanocratic due to an abundance of hornblendes.However,averageplagioclase composition is that of calcic andesine(An,,), quartz content slightly exceeds 10 per cent, and biotite accompanies hornblende everywhere as a mafic constituent. The rock is betterclassified as quartz diorite and has been so described by investigators subsequentto Duffel. The mineralized stock of quartz monzonite porphyry consists of a t least two distinct types of porphyry. The two are distinguished on the basis of texture, mineralogy, fracture intensity, degree of alteration, and most readily by differences in their weathering characteristics in outcrop. The younger porphyry dyke is less altered and forms a resistant ridge crosscutting the mainmass of porphyry. From field observationsKenncoExplorations,(Western) Limited geologists (Stewart, 1967) calledthe main mass 'quartz monzonite porphyry' and thecrosscutting dyke 'quartz latite porphyry.' Sutherland Brown (1967), on the basis of field mappingand microscopicexaminations, classed rocks as 'quartz monzonite porphyry' and 'quartzbearing monzonite porphyry.' Both Stewart and SutherlandBrown recognized the presence of more than one phase of quartz monzonite in the main stock and inferred that intergradational relationshipsexist between the phases. Recent drilling by Canex Placer Limited has revealed that the mineralized stock (Fig. 7) is composed of two phases of quartz monzonite, called in this report quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP,Fig.7, unit 3). and sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (QPP,Fig. 7, unit 4), as well as a third phase of quartz monzonite or quartz-bearing monzonite calledplagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (PBQP,Fig. 7, unit 5). Thephasesaremost apparenton the basis of texture.Differences in type,amount,and proportion of minerals are slight and are recognized only by careful point counts and examination of rocks in thin section. The porphyry dyke (QFP, Fig. 7, unit 6 ) that crosscuts the quartz monzonite stock is distinct on the basis of mineralogy and texture. Descriptions of rock types as determined from pointcounts on phenocrystsin large stained slabs and matrix in thin section aregivenbelow,summarized in Table 1,and illustrated by a ternary plot on Figure 9. QUARTZ DIORITE (Fig. 7, Unit 2) Quartz diorite is a palegrey, fine to medium-grained,and locally porphyritic rock in which plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite are the most obvious components. Specimens range in composition from diorite to granodiorite but quartz diorite is most common. Laths of plagioclase about 1 millimetre in size are randomly oriented in a matrix of hornblende, fine-grained biotite, and very fine anhedral grains of quartz and orthoclase. Some 45 subhedral crystals of hornblende are up to 5 millimetres and more in size. A few specimens from near the intrusive contact contain rare pyroxene, have less than 10 per cent quartz, andhaveweak orientation of plagioclaselathsand hornblende crystals.Plagioclase is oscillatory normal-zoned calcic andesine to labradorite (An4,-s8). Chlorite has formed after hornblende and, less commonly, biotite. Other alteration minerals include sericite, epidote, and calcite. Magnetite, sphene,and apatite areaccessoryminerals. In the zone of mineralization near quartz monzonite porphyry, chalcopyrite, pyrite, some molybdenite, and quartz veining are evident. Replacement of original mafic minerals by fine-grained felted biotite and magnetite by pyriteis common. MINERALIZED QUARTZ MONZONITE STOCK AND DYKES (Fig. 7, Units 3 to 5) Quartz Monzonite Porphyry Phase(QMP;Fig. 7 , Unit 3): Quartz monzonite porphyry is a grey to pink, coarse-grained, two-feldspar quartz porphyry. It contains about 45 per cent phenocrysts of mainly oligoclase-andesine (An,,), quartz, biotite, and some orthoclase in a fine-grained quartz feldspar matrix. Plagioclase phenocrysts are chalky white to cream,grey, buff, andgrey-greensubhedral, blocky laths 2 to 8 millimetres, averaging about 5 millimetres, in size. Quartz and myrmekitic quartz-oligoclaseforms large, deeply embayed, anhedral grains averaging 4 to 6 millimetres, in a few cases up to 1 centimetre, in size. Perthitic orthoclase is seen as scattered poikilitic phenocrysts about 5 millimetres in size and as sparse, squat megacrysts up to 2 centimetres in length. A few grains have rims of plagioclase around orthoclase. Biotite as tabular books 6 millimetres in length 46 and 4 millimetres in cross-section is the sole remaining magmatic mafic constituent. A small amount of hornblende that was originally present is now totally replaced by biotite, sericite, and chlorite. The matrix is an allotriomorphic-granular mosaic of 0.W-millimetre grains of plagioclase, slightly in excess of equalamounts of similarly sized quartz and orthoclase. In thin section quartz phenocrysts are distinctive with a myrmekitic appearance. Grains are strongly corroded with deep embayments and contain inclusions of small oligoclase ? grains. Grainboundaries appear to beresorbed resulting in reaction rims of microcrystalline quartz. Largegrainsare sutured composite crystals that appear to becumulates of a number of smaller grains, or may simply be fractured megacrysts. Plagioclase phenocrystsare strongly sericitized and locally argillic.Crystals are strongly zoned in an oscillatory-normal manner but twinning is largelyobscured by alteration and plagioclase determinations are difficult. On the basis of a few determinations plagioclase appears to beoligoclase-andesine (approximately An3o). Hornblendewhich was orig inally present in smallamounts is commonly totally replaced by fine-grained felted biotite. Fine-grainedsecondary biotite is alsoscattered throughout the matrix. In addition to sericite, biotite, chlorite, calcite,andopaqueminerals,some kaolinite and montmorillonite are alteration products.Sphene,apatite,and zircon are accessory minerals. Quartz veins and gypsum-filledfractures are common. A dyke phase of similar quartz monzonite porphyry commonly displays chilled contacts andcanbe seen to intrude quartz monzonite porphyry and possibly plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry in a number of drill holes. The dyke rock contains about 40 to 45 per cent coarse-grained phenocrysts of plagioclase (An30-33) withbiotite, some quartz, and orthoclase, in a fine-grained matrix of mainly quartz and orthoclase. Quartz megacrysts up to 1 centimetre in size are the largest grains seen. Matrix is a distinctive pinkish grey to orange-tinted greyor brown colour and is considerably less altered than in other porphyry phases. Biotite andplagioclasephenocrystsarealso little altered andfresh looking. Secondary biotite and other alteration mineralsare of minor abundance but fine-grained disseminatedmagnetite is moreabundant than in otherporphyries. In addition to chilled contacts and weak alteration, strong magnetic response and paucity of ore minerals set this rock type apart from other quartz monzonite porphyries. 7 , Unit 4): This quartz monSericitized Quartz Plagioclase Porphyry Phase(QPP;Fig. zonite is a medium-grained porphyry, the finestgrained of all thetypes of porphyry recognized at Berg deposit.The rock is strongly sericitized,leucocratic buff to grey, rarely grading to medium brown in colour. It contains about 35 per cent phenocrysts, mainly plagioclase (An30-32)and some quartz. Orthoclase phenocrysts are notably rare or absent as are large grains of biotite. Grain size of plagioclase and quartz phenocrysts varies from 1 millimetre to a maximum of 5 millimetres, 2 to 3 millimetres being the that are average. Fine-grained plagioclasephenocrystsare equantsubhedralcrystals evenly distributed to produce a rock with homogeneousappearance.Coarserphenotherebygiving a seriate texture to some of the crysts vary in size andarerounded, porphyry. Quartz grains average 2 millimetres in size and are strongly corroded. 47 Figure 9. Modal composition of intrusive racks, Berg deposit In thin section the matrix can be seen to be composed of 0.01 to 0.03-millimetre grains of plagioclase, orthoclase, and quartz. Plagioclase is slightly more abundant than orthoclaseandappears to be the same composition as phenocrysts ( A n , ~ , - ~ ~ l .Quartz content is variable, probably due to different degrees of secondary silicification. Where abundant,quartz in the matrix is an accumulation of rounded,possiblyovergrown, grains. Quartz veinsarecommon. Sericite is abundant andpervasive; it replaces both plagioclase and orthoclase. Together with kaolinite, lesser chlorite, and montmorillonite, sericite comprises up to 10 per cent and more of the rock. It has formed mainly after feldspars but is also found with pyrite, chlorite, and calcite replacingprimary biotite (and hornblende ?). Almost all biotite now seen in the rock is present in the matrix as scattered, shredded, fine-grained secondary biotite. Where abundant, fine-grained biotite imparts a brownish cast to the matrix of the rock. Strong sericitization, mediumsized phenocrysts, absence of orthoclase phenocrysts, and lack of large biotite grains readily set this porphyry apart from other phases of quartz monzonite. 7, Unit 5): This rock type has less Plagioclase Biotite Quartz Porphyry (PBQP;Fig. quartz and more plagioclase than the two quartz monzonite phases (units 3 and 4) and straddles the boundary of quartz monzonite and quartz-bearingmonzonite compositional fields (Fig. 9). Hand specimensare relatively homogeneous in appearance with grey to 48 pinkish grey or brown matrix in which evenly distributed fine andmedium-grained phenocrysts form about 40 per cent of the rock. Plagioclase phenocrysts form about 40 per cent of the rock. Plagioclase phenocrysts are pale greyin colour and are of twosizes. Larger ones 4 to 7 millimetres, averaging 5 millimetres in size, comprise about 80 per cent of the feldsparphenocrysts;smalleronesare 1 to 2 millimetres in size. Quartz pheno3 millimetres andsmaller in size. Orthoclase is seen as rare crystsareanhedralgrains phenocrysts that are the same size or smaller than surrounding plagioclase grains. In a few crystals orthoclase forms rims or mantles on plagioclase. Biotite is unaltered looking, fresheuhedralplatelets or short, stubby booksabout 2 millimetres in cross-section. These contrastmarkedly with elongate,coarse books of biotite in quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP) and highly sericitized biotite in quartz plagioclase porphyry (QPP). In thin section the matrix is a 0.02-millimetre-sized mosaic of mainly plagioclase with lesser orthoclase and quartz. Plagioclase phenocrysts andmatrix grains are sericitized but twinned crystals, mainly albite and combined Carlsbad-albite types,are common and only moderately affected by alteration. Crystalsarezoned in an oscillatory normal manner, commonly with four to six cycles. Measured plagioclase composition ranges from calcic oligoclase to andesine (An28-34). Over-ail, mafic minerals in this rock type are about twice as abundant as in quartz monzonite porphyry (QMP) and sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (QPP). The amount of secondary biotite is less than in other porphyries but this reduction is compensated by the presence of increased amounts of fine-grained hornblende. Biotite t o hornblende ratio varies from 2:l to 5:l. All fine-grained original biotite and hornblende grains in the matrix are chloritized to some degree. Hornblende is replaced extensively by biotite or chlorite, sericite, calcite, and opaque minerals. Quartz MonzoniteGranodiorite Dykes(Hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry, hbde QFP; Fig. 7 , Unit 6 ) : This variety of dyke-forming quartz feldspar porphyry is a Pale to medium grey coarse porphyry that superficially is similar to quartz monzonite phases of the mineralizedstock that it intrudes (units 3 to 5). Largephenocrysts of cream to pinkish buff plagioclase, as well as quartz, biotite, and very sparse o,rthoclase, make UP about 35 per cent of the rock. Near intrusive contacts the rock is chilled and has small phenocrysts commonly 2 millimetres or smaller of plagioclase, quartz, mafic minerals, andsomeorthoclase in medium grey microcrystalline matrix. In themain mass of porphyry, equantroundedphenocrysts of plagioclaseare 5 to 7 millimetres in size. Strongly corroded and resorbed quartz grains average 6 millimetres in size, but are up to 1.2 centimetres across in some large cumulate grains. Orthoclase crystals are interspersed sporadically throughout t h e rock as squat, euhedral megacrysts up to1.8 centimetres in length.Mostorthoclasephenocrysts are altered andextensivelyreplaced by epidote. Mafic minerals are present as large elongate books of biotite up t o 7 millimetres in length andsmalllaths of hornblende. Largegrains of spheneare common as well as matted patches andclots of epidote up to 6 millimetres in size. The most obvious difference between this rock type and other phases of porphyry is in the matrix where quartz is relatively sparse, ranging from 6 to 12 per cent in specimens 49 examined. The matrix is mostly plagioclase, poikilitic almost intersertal orthoclase,and fine-grainedhornblende, biotite, opaquegrains,and alteration minerals. Hornblende is abundant, well in excess of biotite, and total mafic content of the rock is about 20 per cent. Plagioclase phenocrysts are only slightly altered. They are combined crystals that display complex twins and simple normal zoning with rarelymore than three or four cycles. Anorthite content ranges from Ans4 to anobserved maximum of Anaz. Secondary biotite is present but inminor amounts compared to quartz monzonite porphyries. Hornblende is seen as sma!l to medium-sized relict crystals partially or totally replacedby chlorite, epidote,calcite,orfine-grained biotite. Over-all,secondary biotite, sericite, quartz veins, and gypsum are weakly developed and epidote,chlorite, and calcite are main alteration minerals. BASIC DYKES Dykes,shown as unit D on Figure 3, are all similar medium to darkgrey fine-grained basalt. They form thin steeply dipping sheetsgenerally up to 3 metres in thickness. A number contain up to 5 per cent small phenocrystsof plagioclase but more commonly are massive with small amygdules of calcite. In thinsection basic dyke rocks are fine-grained felted to trachytoid intergrowths of plagioclase and hornblende with abundant accessory, opaque minerals, and alteration products, mainly chlorite and calcite. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Chemical compositions, reported by Carter (1974). of representative samples of quartz 7, unit 3) andplagioclase biotite quartz porphyry monzonite porphyry (QMP,Fig. (PBQP, Fig. 7, unit 5),determined by wet chemical silicate analyses, are given in Table 2. Analytical resultsandcalculatednorms for plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry correspond veryclosely to Daly'sand Nockold's average quartz monzonite or adamellite whereas quartz monzonite is more akin to granite.This is probably due to increased amount of KzOthrough orthoclase metasomatism andSiO, due to quartz veining. DISTRIBUTION AND GEOMETRY OF PORPHYRIES(Fig. 7) The roughly equidimensional core of the mineralized stock is made up of two phases: quartz monzonite porphyry (unit 3) andplagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (unit 5). Sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (unit 4) forms irregular bodies adjacent to the core in the southwest. All three phases are transected by a northeasterly trending hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry dyke (unit 6 ) which is the only porphyry phase that intrudesquartz diorite (unit 2). Thethreemain phases of quartz monzonite porphyry (units 3 to 5) are separatedfrom quartz diorite by a screen of hornfelsed volcanic rocks. Quartz monzonite porphyry (unit 3) is found as a subcircular mass forming the southern andsoutheastern portion of themineralizedstock.The porphyry is thought to be a 50 TABLE 2. CHEMICALCOMPOSITIONSANDNORMS -- --3 4 5 - __ 1 Oxides Recalculated to 100%- ....................... ....................... Si02 Ti02 A1203 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fe20, FeO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MnO MgO ...................... ....................... ....................... CaO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NazO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... Kg0 2 70.73 67.76 0.53 0.55 16.36 16.39 1.21 1.78 0.80 0.92 0.02, 0.07 1.09 1.62 1.07 2.59 2.89 3.39 5.30 4.93 i7.41 0.51 15.76 1.93 1.96 0.06 1.43 3.54 3.45 3.76 59.67 0.56 14.74 1.23 2.29 0.06 1.oo 2.47 3.37 4.61 72.60 0.37 13.96 0.87 1.68 0.06 0.52 1.34 3.10 5.50 0.30 1.32 1.92 0.02 0.12 0.38 0.18 2.18 4.53 0.19 1.15 0.20 0.54 0.53 30.5 31.2 25.9 3.2 3.0 1.4 0.3 4.5 24.7 29.1 30.4 7.7 4.8 2.0 0.1 1.2 Oxides as Determined- ....................... ....................... sog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P 2 0s H2 0 co2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................... cuo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sa0 .... ." .... .." .... .... 0.18 .._ .... .." ". Molecular MorrnQuartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orthoclase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Albite Anorthite Pyroxene Magnetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ilmenite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unassigned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... .................... .................... 1 - 2345- - __ 21.7 22.5 31.3 16.6 5.1 2.0 0.7 0.1 24.8 27.2 28.3 11.1 4.7 1.9 1.1 0.9 -- 29.2 32.2 26.2 5.6 3.0 1.4 0.8 1.6' - Berg quartz monzonite porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 3). NC-57-10IDDH 191, S. Metcalfe, Analyst, E.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines& Pet. Res, 1968. 8erg plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry IFig. 7. unit 51. NC-67-11 IDDH 1). S. Metcalfe, Analyst, E.C. Ministry of Energy, Mines & Pet. Res., 1968. Average quartz monzonite, 20 analyses, Daly, 1933. Average adamellite, 121 analyses, Nockolds, 1954. Average calc-alkalie granite, 72 analyses, Nockolds. 1954. small,vertical, plug-like body that is possiblythemostvoluminous phasepresent. Vertical drill holes (diamond-drill holes 19, 27, and 34) collared a few metres from the contact pass in and out of porphyry. The contact is sharp but appears to undulate and protrude outward in places,and locally splays to form arborescent dyke and sill-like projections. Rocks near the contact are highly altered by intense sericitization and quartz veining, and hornfels a t the contact is brecciated in places. Plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (unit 5 ) is slightly less abundant than quartz monzonite porphyry and forms a shell up to 180 metres wide across the northern half of the stock.Onthe basis of limited diamond drilling, intrusivecontacts with hornfels appear to be vertical and simple with few (possibly no) related dykes and breccias. Horn- 51 " fels adjacent to plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry is black, biotite-rich rock with some quartz veining. Relationship to sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry in the southwest is uncertain and possibly complex. Sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (unit 4) intrudes as an irregular mass or group of coalescing bodies peripheral to the main stock on the southwest. The largest portion of this rock type appears to form a northwesterly trending dyke, or possibly a laccolith, in the vicinity of drill hole 13 (Fig. 7). The intrusion mayhave a small pipe-like core in the vicinity or northeast of drill holes 7. 30,and 31. It is flanked by splaying elaborate dykes and sills, two of which are intersected by drill holes 15 and 17. Two other areas in whichsericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry maybepresentare a t the north margin of the stock by drill hole 1 and in the main mass of quartz monzonite porphyry (unit 3) near drill hole 69. In the vicinity of drill hole 1, 'hybridized'rocksresembling quartz plagioclase porphyry were noted as brecciaclasts in hornfels near the contact with plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry. Near diamond-drill hole 69 a poorly defined and little understood metasomatized breccia zone may contain zones or fragments of quartz plagioclase porphyry. A hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry dyke (unit 6) crosscuts the three other porphyry phasesand is located, a t least in part, along the quartz monzonite porphyry-plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry contact: Exact shape of the intrusion is uncertain. In the centre of the mineralized stock, hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry forms a steepwalled dyke or northeasterly elongated plug up to 70 metres wide with a lobe to the south. Distal parts of the intrusion are tabular, dyke-like sheets with chilled margins. The dyke splays into three branches at its southwest extremity. In the northeast, it is offset by faults and maybranch into a number of subparalleldykes, two of which areseen a t surface in quartz diorite (unit 2). Internal contact relationships between phasesare not known mainly because surface exposuresare poor and diamond drilling is limited. No distinct contacts have been recog nized in drillcore between the three main quartz monzonite phases. This may be because differences are subtle, rock typesare intergradational, or alteration andmetasomatism mask original textural and compositional differences. On the other hand, contacts simply may not beintersected by drilling to date.There is someevidence from outcrop data that contacts of plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (unit 5) with quartz monzonite porphyry (unit 3) are sharp. In other places drill-hole data suggest that contacts may be metasomatized breccia zones, especially where contacts trend northwesterly. The hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry dyke (unit 6)can be distinguished from other phases in outcrop but no sharp contacts are known in drillcores. The only rock type seen that has chilled margins in drillcores is a quartz monzonite porphyry dyke that is included in unit 3. 52 AGE OF INTRUSIONS Relative ages of intrusive phases cannot be determined unequivocably as only one rock type hasbeendemonstrated to crosscutothers. Hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry (unit 6)intrudes quartzdiorite (unit 2) and all three mainquartz monzonite phases (units 3 to 5). At least one quartz monzonite dyke intrudes quartz monzonite porphyry of the main stock; both rock types are included in unit3, Figure 7. because of their similar composition and texture. Dykes of what appear to beplagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (unit 5) intrude sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (unit 4) but this classification of the dykes is not a certainty. These few observed relationships and the presence of sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry breccia fragments in quartz monzonite porphyry, as well as considerable geological intuition, suggest the following sequence from oldest to youngest:* (a)Quartz diorite (Fig. 7, unit 2). (b) Quartz monzonite porphyry including similar dykes with chilled margins that may be considerably younger (QMP, unit 3). (c) Sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (serQPP, unit 4). (d) Plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (PBQP, unit 5). (e) Hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry (hbde QFP, unit 6). Absolute ages of rocks at Berg deposit havebeen determined by Carter (1974) using potassium-argon dating of biotite and whole rock specimens. Results ranging from 52.0 to 46.8 million years with a mean of 49.0*2.4 million yearsare listed in Table 3. No resolution of intrusive events or stages is possible from these data as all ages determined *Drilling (A. D. Drummond, 1975, personal communicationl has revealed that fragments of quartz monzoniteporphyry (unit 31are found in sericitizedquartzplagioclaseporphyry (unit 41. The breccia fragments of sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (unit 4) referred to above are intruded into quartz monzonite porphyry (unit 3) in a 'MIcmic neck.' Also plagioclase biotite quartz porto be quartzmonzoniteporphyry (unit 3) andsericitized phyry (unit 5) containsfragmentssaid quartz Plagioclase porphyry (unit 4). 53 are within limits of analytical error of the mean age. Age of quartz diorite is not reliable as biotite sampledwas chloritized and yielded only 2.64 per centpotassium.Quartz diorite may be considerably older as biotite might have been reset or crystallized during intrusion of quartz monzonite bodies. BRECCIAS In this report the term 'breccia' is used to describe fragmented rocks in which fragments can be demonstrated to be displaced relative to their original position. Intensely fractured rockssurrounding the stock a t Berg deposit havebeendescribed as 'crackle zones' or 'cracklebreccias' but are not included in this discussionbecauserocksare shattered in situ and fragments display insignificant displacement. Only one large body of breccias in bedrock, an intrusive brecciapipe, is known to crop out. A number of other breccia bodies have been intersected in drill holes but their geometry is not known and origin is speculative. Newly formed, thin surficial deposits of ferruginous concretionary breccias (ferricrete) mantle small areas but these actively forming deposits are discussed elsewhere. INTRUSIVE BRECCIA(PEBBLEBRECCIAPIPE) The centre of the intrusive breccia pipe is about 750 metres to the southeast of Berg camp.Thebrecciamass is elliptical in plan, approximately 580 metres along its longer east-southeast axis and about 175 metres wide. It intrudes quartz diorite and pyritic volcanicrocks a t the outer edge of the zone of mineralization. Outcrops of brecciaare deeply weathered, pale cream to yellow, and contrast sharply with surrounding darker brown outcrops and debris. Breccia,intersected for 150 metres in diamond-drill hole 21, is relatively uniform in appearance with a cream to light grey colour. It is composed of approximately equal amounts of strongly milled fragments, finely comminuted groundmass,andpervasive alteration minerals.Fragmentsaresubangular to subroundedgrains commonly 1 to 4 millimetres in size of quartz, feldspar, and a few rock fragments. Some rock fragments (pebbles) are larger than 1 centimetre, 3.2 centimetres being the largest seen. Rock fragments are quartz monzonite porphyry, one or more porphyritic species not recognized elsewhere, andesite, and siltstone. Matrix is a cream to buff, finely comminuted mass of quartz and alkali feldspars with interspersed alteration minerals. Both matrix and fragments are extensively altered by carbonate, clays (mainly montmorillonite), sericite, and chlorite. Pyrite, much of which is present as small euhedral grains in the matrix, constitutes about 3 per cent of The rock. Sulphide andaccessory minerals including apatite, zircon, topaz, rutile, and possibly sphene constitute 4 to 6 per cent of the rock, mainly in the matrix. The breccia pipe is thought to be explosive in origin and formed by venting of volatiles related to magma intrusion or by phreaticexplosion of groundwater.Abundance of 54 porphyry fragmentsandpresence of a few myrmekitic quartz grains indicate that the to the mineralizedstock. C. S . Ney (1969, personal breccia is relatedgenetically communication) and Sutherland Brown (1967) havesuggested that the breccia pipe is a late structure related to emplacement of young intrusive phase(s) possibly 'quartz latite porphyry' (now called hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry). However, the breccia may be older. Brecciation postdates at least one period of mineralization as quartz veinlets with molybdenite were seen in one milled breccia fragment. OTHERBRECCIAS(OBSERVED ONLY INDIAMOND-DRILL CORE) Breccia 1: A shatter breccia is seen in the bottom 7 metres of diamond-drill hole 35 but the extent of this breccia is not established. This breccia is composed of weakly abraded but over-all angular fragments up to 5 centimetres in size of altered volcanic rocks in a pulverized matrix that forms not more than 10 per cent of the rock. Alteration minerals are similar to those in the intrusive breccia pipe although quartz flooding is more abundant. Alteration is not as intense as in the pebble breccia as many of the larger fragments have weakly altered cores surrounded by more altered rims. Fine to medium-sized grains of pyrite constitute about 8 per cent of the rock examined. Chalcopyrite and molybdenite are rare but irregular grains of sphalerite, tetrahedrite, and traces of galena were noted in the matrix. Brecciation post-dates deposition of molybdenite in fractures and quartz veinlets. The breccia may be an incipient diatreme or a weakly vented channelway of hydrothermal fluid streaming. Breccia 2: Breccias in whichfragmented country rocksareengulfed in a magmatic matrix are developed along the main contact of quartz monzonite porphyry phase,adjacent to related dykes,andpossibly with parts of the sericitic quartz plagioclase porphyry intrusion(s). Their origin is not from collapse or removal of magma support but rather by hydraulic ramming during magmapulsations that cause brecciation and invasion of brecciated country rocksbymagma.This apparently takesplacemost commonly a t Berg deposit wheredykessplay outward from the main intrusive body. Breccia zones form envelopes a few metres thick surrounding porphyry dykes. Generally, volume of intrusive rock in breccia decreases progressively outward from massive intrusive dyke cores as proportion, size,and angularity of country rock fragmentsincrease. Examples of this type of brecciawere noted in diamond-drill holes 14, 25, and 35. Similar breccia, but lacking a massive intrusive core,wasseen in a 60-metre drill intercept in diamond-drill hole 71. In this breccia weakly assimilated fist-sized fragments of mineralized biotite hornfels are contained in an approximately equal amount of sparsely mineralized quartz monzonite porphyry matrix. Molybdenite mineralization took place during a t least two periods, one before and the other after brecciation. Early generation quartz molybdenite veinletsareseen in transported breccia fragments whereas younger quartz molybdenite veinletscrosscut both hornfels fragmentsand quartz monzonite matrix. Breccia2 Breccias within the stock are poorly documented; their origin and composition are uncertain. Apparently brecciasare mostcommon in quartz monzonite 55 porphyry (unit 3) and sericitic quartz plagioclase porphyry (unit 4 ) whereas plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (unit 5) and dyke rocks are not known to be brecciated except near faults. Onebrecciahasbeen intersected in diamond-drill hole 69 where a strongly altered 'hybridized' zone a t least 30 metres thick contains a number of types of porphyry fragments in thehangingwall of altered sericitic quartz plagioclase porphyry. Canex Placer Limited geologists (P. G . Beaudoin, 1974, personal communication) have suggested that a 'neck' of sericitic quartz plagioclase porphyry maybepresent monzonite porphyry phase in this vicinity. Breccia 4: Tectonic brecciasarepresent; within the quartz most are related to northwesterly and north- easterly trending faults. These breccias, as seen in a number of diamond.drill cores,are crushed or silicified zones.some with abundant gouge. Fault-related brecciasarecommonly centimetres to a few metres in width and form steeply dipping tabular bodies. A number of such breccia zones arebounded or intruded by basalt dykes. STRUCTURE Outcrops a t Berg deposit are so highly altered, leached, and disintegrated that few in situ structural featurescanbemeasured. Detailedobservationsandmeasurementscan be made only from drill core and much of this is highly fractured and crushed. For these reasons structural data are minimal and additional information from large-diameter drill core or underground openings is desirable. Intrusive rocks forming smallstocks,plugs,dykes,and sills havebeendescribed in a previoussection.The intrusions were forcefully emplaced into geneticallyunrelated hostrocks with no evidence of any structural controls.There was little apparentdisruption of the moderately eastward dipping homoclinal succession of volcanic and locally derived sedimentary rocks. Beds were truncated without any discernible developmentof foliation or folding. Room for intrusive rocks wasmade by shouldering aside country rocks, brecciation, somemagmaticstoping,and assimilationalong with intensefracturing, metasomatism,andextensive recrystallization near thestock.On the basis of structure and style of emplacement of porphyries, Sutherland Brown (1969) classified Berg deposit as a 'simple porphyry deposit';more recently (1974, 1976) he has described it as typical of a class of porphyry deposits called 'phallicporphyry deposits.' Fracturing of rocks is widespread in the area of the Berg deposit and is most intense adjacent to the main intrusive contact. This corresponds to the zone of best copper-molyb denum mineralization in which numerous generations of fractures have reduced the rock to a 'crackle breccia' of 1 to 3-centimetre fragments (Ney, 1972). Early generation fractures include reticulate quartz stockworks, fracturesfilled withsulphide grains or veinlets, and fractures both with and without alteration envelopes. Younger fractures filled with gypsum crosscut early fractures, sulphide grains, gangue, and alteration mineral grains as a subhorizontal fracture cleavage. 56 The subhorizontal cleavage is a closely spaced set of parallel hairline fractures that has been called sheeting, poker chip cleavage, and sheet fractures (Allen, 1971). Sixty to 100 fractures per metre are most common at Berg deposit, although rocks with as many as 300 or more fractures per metre are known. In detail, fractures splay and interconnect resulting in a reticulate pattern although subhorizontal fractures are dominant. Cleavage fractures have no visible alteration effect on the rocks they crosscut and are filled with thelow-temperaturemineral gypsum.Thus, fracture cleavage appears to be much younger than other fractures. The sequence of events resulting in fracturing would be as follows: (1) intrusions of porphyries accompanied by invasion of hydrothermal fluids; (2) early fracturing and quartz veining to form crackled zones; (3) widespread hydrothermal alteration, additional quartz veining, brecciation, and some fracturing of intrusive rocks; and (4) development of subhorizontal fracture cleavage and gypsumfracture filling (possibly a t a much later date). The presence of subhorizontal fracture cleavage with gypsum fracture filling is known in a number of deposits in the Canadian Cordillera (Barr, 1966; Godwin, 1975; Jambor and McMillan, 1976) as well as elsewhere in North and South America (Howell and Molloy, 1960; Lowell and Guilbert, 1970). A number of theories have been proposed to explain origin of sheet fracture cleavage in porphyry deposits but no single explanation seems satisfactory nor can be applied to Berg deposit. The problem is threefold: firstly, to explain the subhorizontal fracture cleavage;secondly, to explain presence of gypsum in these late fractures; and thirdly, to explain the high frequency of fracture. Allen (1971) has developed a model for the Galore Creek copper deposits in which sheet fractures are formed along with concomitant deposition of gypsum as a consequence of near surface hydration of anhydrite. In situ hydration of anhydrite is accompanied by up to 63-per-cent increase in volume that results in fracturing parallel to the topographic surface, perpendicular to stress relief. Fractures are further opened by mechanical force of crystallization as gypsum is redeposited from saturated meteoric solutions. The model is attractive for the deposits studied by Allen as rocks a t depth contain up to 20 per cent pervasive anhydrite and near surface where sheet fractures are most abundant the anhydrite is totally hydrated to gypsum. The model is not convincing for Berg deposit where anhydrite is found in only small amounts together with quattz and calcite as a vein constituent. The anhydrite-bearing veinsoccur from surface to depth mainly as latestage veinsnear the periphery of the porphyry stock.Independent of depth, anhydrite in these veins shows only erratic, patchy hydration to form bassanite (hemihydrate) and yet the veins are consistently cut by gypsum-bearing sheet fractures. Other investigators discuss alternate origins of fracture cleavage that place little or no emphasis on hydration of anhydrite as a causativeprocess.Suggestedmechanismsof cleavage development include explosive brecciation, chemical brecciation, and hydraulic fracturing. Godwin (1973) hassuggested that explosive brecciation might be accompanied by development of subhorizontal fracture cleavage caused by reflection of shock waves from the 57 air-rock interface. However, a t Berg deposit no young breccia body has been recognized in thecore of themineralized area to which the late cleavagecanbe spatially and genetically related. Rocks surrounding the large intrusive pebble breccia lack sheet cleavage. Alsothemechanismdoes not explain why well-mineralized and alteredvolcanic rocks close to the intrusive stock are strongly cleaved and veined by gypsum whereas the adjoining intrusive rocksare only weakly fractured and veined. Chemical brecciation as discussed by Sawkins (19691 and Sillitoe andSawkins (1971) hasbeenused to relate vertical sheeting and associated flat-lying cleavage to breccia pipes. Similar to explosive brecciation, the mechanism is possibly adequate to explain certain fractures proximal to breccia bodies but is inadequate to explain the very widespread and late development of subhorizontal fracture cleavage a t Berg deposit. The third, possibly most promising, theory advanced to explain fracture cleavage is that of hydraulic fracture. It suggests that subhorizontal fracture cleavage may be formed by near surface fracturing perpendicular to the direction of stress relief in the presence of a fluid (Phillips, 1972, 1973; Shearman, et a/., 1972). Differential stress could be imposed on intruded rocks by increasing pore pressurein response to a thermal gradient caused by emplacement of intrusive rocks or magma. Phillips (1972) describes this as a process involving nonpenetrative fluids. A t the same time fluid pressure in intruded rocks could be increased by penetrative fluids such as magmatic fluids or magmatically heated groundwater. Hydraulic fracturing would take place in stressed rocks surrounding the intrusive stock when a largeincrease in fluid volume took place due to rapid expulsion of fluid from the crystallizing magma or adiabatic expansiontook place as tensile strength of rock wasexceededand fractures opened. Thismagma-related processhasbeen termed a 'hydromagmafract' process by Burnham (1975). 58 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION INTRODUCTION Alteration patterns a t Bergdeposit, as defined by changes in non-sulphide mineralogy observed in diamond-drill cores, are grossly similar to those in porphyry copper models described by Lowell and Guilbert (1970) andRose(1970a).Refinements by Guilbert and Lowell (1974). Carson and Jambor (1974). Gustafson and Hunt (1975). and Drummond and Godwin (1976) embellished older models and made them more appropriate.fy Berg and other Cordilleran deposits where volcanic rocks host majorpertions of the porphyry deposits.Thesedeposits exemplify the wallrock or combined wallrock4ntrusion porphyry copper-type depositsof Titley (1972). This study is concerned primarily with defining hypogene alteration typesand zoning patterns. At Berg deposit the distinction betweenrocks with solelyhypogeneorcombined hypogene-supergene alteration is indicated clearly in drill core by fractures filled with gypsum that mark the limit to whichpresentdaygroundwaters have circulated. Supergene alteration has taken place only nearsurfacewheregypsum is leached. In the zone with gypsum-healed fractures, groundwater flow following hydrothermal activity hasbeen minimized and all alteration canbeassumed to be hydrothermal and hypogene. Supergene alteration caused by weathering, oxidation, hydration, hydrolysis, recrystallization, and leaching by acidic solution is extensive and has resulted in a thick leached capping containing mainly quartz, limonite, sericite, chlorite, andclayminerals. Thin section and X-ray diffraction analyses of clay-sized minerals in the capping reveal marked increases in amounts of quartz, kaolinite, sericite (illite), chlorite, andamorphous hydrates comparedto rocks subjectedonly to hypogene alteration. A t Berg deposit hypogene alteration zones with dominant quartz-orthoclase and quartzsericite alteration aredeveloped centrally in the weakly mineralized quartz monzonite stock andare surrounded by alteration aureoles containing first, biotitic cupriferous 59 Qwrtz-K kkls-biotite-sericite Bjoti+e SCALE-METRES Figure 10 60 i 0Hornfels, volcanics Generalizedalteration zones, Bergdeposit. rocks,then, pyritic chlorite-calcite-epidotebearing rocks. Quartz-sericite-pyrite zones occur extensively along the intrusive contact of the quartz monzonite stockand clay bearing zones are developed locally in positions intermediate between the intrusive core and pyritic periphery. Quantities and associations of alteration minerals in 3.05-metre (10-foot) sections of drill core were recorded in descriptive and graphic drill logs. All diamond-drill core available to 1971 (7 980.9 metres in 49 drill holes) wascatalogued by the writer with particular regard for: quartz,orthoclase, biotite, sericite(muscovite),magnetite,calcite,epidote, anhydrite, andgypsum.Claymineralswere identified later in the laboratory by X-ray diffraction. Location of gypsumwas noted andnumber of cleavage fractures per foot of core wasrecorded. Limonite minerals,wherepresent,weredescribed in termsof colour, abundance,andcharacter. An estimate based on limonite colour wasmadeof the proportions of goethite, jarosite, and hematite. Significant differences in appearance of diamond-drill core and hand specimens were used to define various alteration types and alteration intensities. A standardized cataloguing procedureenabled alteration intensities to berankedand thereby quantified. Ranked values of alteration intensities were plotted and contoured on a geologic plan and were used to define hypogene zoning patterns (Fig. 10). DEFINITION OF ALTERATION FACIES AND ZONES Diagnostic alteration minerals and mineral associations can be used to define a number of alteration types or facies(Creasey, 1959,1966;Burnham,1962;MeyerandHemley, 1967). All commonly usedtypesarerecognized a t Berg deposit (Fig. 10) including potassic, phyllic, propylitic, and argillic facies. A variant of the potassic alteration facies, important alteration type biotitic alteration (biotite hornfels), is possiblythemost because it is morecloselyassociated with chalcopyrite concentrations than are other alteration types.Because of this important relationship. biotitic alteration is considered hereseparately rather than included in discussion of the potassic (Ksilicate) zone as done by some authors. Alteration effects are most obvious in volcanic rocks surrounding the quartz monzonite stock, close to the intrusive contact. Alteration of quartz monzonite varies in intensity in different zones and rock types within the stock. Most intensely altered rock types are quartz monzonite porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 3) and sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 4). Most subtle alteration is in plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 5) and hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 6). Intrusive contacts in the southern part of the stock and northwesterly trending fracture or breccia zones are the most highly altered zones within the stock. 61 POTASSIC ALTERATION Potassic (quartz-orthoclase) alteration canbe found within the mineralized stock where it appears to be restricted to the quartz monzonite porphyry phase (Fig. 7. unit 3). However,recent drilling(A. D. Drummond, 1975, personal communication) indicates that strong sericitization is more widespread (probably as an overprint) than originally thought and potassic alteration might not be as extensive in the stock as shown on Figure 10. Orthoclase, quartz. sericite, and biotite are main alteration minerals together with some anhydrite, sulphide minerals, chlorite, magnetite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite. Potassic alteration is seen as a pervasive pink colouration in the rock matrix caused by orthoclaseflooding. In thin section it is seen as a fine-grained mosaic of orthoclasequartz-plagioclase-sericite, or as patchy aplitic intergrowths of orthoclase and quartz. In specimens examined (all from drill holes 1 and 6 ) about 5 per cent orthoclase appears to have been added during potash metasomatism, generally replacing plagioclase or rarely as orthoclaserims on plagioclasephenocrysts. In themost strongly altered rocks, quartz 10 percent,andplagioclasephenocrysts proximal to quartz veinsare sericitized and, in rarecases,are altered to clayminerals (mainly kaolinite). Altered plagioclase has a characteristic pale green to buff colour. Where quartz veins are less than 10 per cent of the rock volume, plagioclase crystals are unaltered or slightly clouded in appearance. Mafic phenocrysts (originally biotite and hornblende) in stronglyaltered rocksarereplaced totally by fine-grained, felted biotite and less commonly by sericite, magnetite,sulphideminerals,and chlorite. In weaklyaltered zones of porphyry, only hornblende is replaced by secondary biotite and biotite phenocrysts are either partially replaced or remain as euhedral crystals. veinsexceed BIOTITIC ALTERATION Biotitic alteration, also referred to as'biotite hornfels, is most intensely developed in volcanicrocksadjacent to quartz monzonite (Fig. 10). Biotitic alteration coincides with zones of mostintensecopper mineralization. This intimate association of copper SUIphides with a zone of hydrothermal biotite development is characteristic of many porphyry depositsand, therefore, makes recognition and definition of biotitic alteration zones a useful product of alteration studies in ore search. Rocks withbiotitic alteration a t Berg deposit are predominantly andesiticvolcanic rocks which are easily recognized by their dark brown to black colour and velvety hornfelsic texture. Biotitic alteration is alsoseen in quartz diorite which has a spotted 'salt and pepper' appearance where it is biotitized near quartz monzonite. As much as 50 per cent of some volcanic rocks is made of fine-grained hydrothermal biotite but most commonly biotite content ranges from 10 to 35 percent.Other alteration minerals associated with biotite are: quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, sericite, chlorite, magnetite, epidote, and minor calcite, clay minerals, anhydrite, and rutile. Chlorite from the biotitic zone a t Berg appears to be a magnesium clinochlore, leuchtenbergite (Dah1 and Norton, 1967) whereas outlying propylitic rocks have been noted to contain iron-rich thuringite. 62 The biotite hornfels can be classified as part of either the potassic or propylitic alteration facies depending on which alteration minerals accompany biotite. Titley noted in 1972 that the distinction between potassic and propylitic alterations is not always obvious and depends onwhetherpotashmetasomatismcanbedemonstrated to have taken place. Ideally biotite-bearing rocks in which potash enhancement can be observed belong to the potassic alteration type. Where isochemical conditions prevailed (especially with respect to K,O) rockswere simply recrystallized and the product would be a biotite hornfels. Superimposed veining and related hydrothermal alteration in such hornfels could render the rock compatible with propylitic alteration assemblages.Such is the case a t Berg deposit where the zone of biotitic alteration occupies an intermediary position between a core of potassic (quartz-orthoclase) or phyllic alteration in quartz monzonite and the peripheral propylitic zone formed in volcanicrocksandquartz diorite. A similar situation is described a t the El Salvador deposit by Gustafson and Hunt (1975) who consider the potassic and propylitic alteration assemblages in altered andesite to be contemporaneous and zonally related. In the southern half and parts of the northern contact of the quartz monzonite stock a t Berg deposit, the biotitic rocks also contain quartz, plagioclase (albite), chlorite, epidote, 10 to 20 per cent biotite by volume is the magnetite, clays, and calcite. The observed amount of biotite that would be expected to form in a hornfels derived from a typical Hazeltonandesitic rock containing betweenabout 1 and1.5per cent KzO. Thus no potash enrichment is evident and the rocks are compatible with propylitic alteration type. The zoning sequence from the porphyry core outward is: potassic (quartz-orthoclasesericite), then phyllic, and finally propylitic in the biotite hornfels, a normalzoning reference. In contrast, along the northeast and east contact of the quartz monzonite stock in the screen of hornfelsedvolcanicrocksbetween quartz monzonite and quartz dioriteintrusions(andpossibly alsoalong the northwestern quartz monzonite contact), phyllic alteration is poorly developed or is absent. In thesezones biotitic rocks adjoin intrusive rocks with potassic alteration and contain up to 50 percent biotite. In addition, the rocks areveined by quartz-orthoclase-anhydrite, quartz-orthoclase, and orthoclase veins (see Plate XVII) as well as abundant quartz-molybdeniteveins. The abundance of biotite as well as orthoclase veining is proof of K 2 0 enhancement and; therefore, the rocks are compatible with the potassic alteration facies. In theseareas thezoning sequence is: potassic (vein and pervasive orthoclase) in quartz monzonite, potassic (orthoclase-veined biotitic alteration) in hornfels near the porphyry stock, and finally a transition to propylitic alteration in quartz diorite and hornfelsed volcanic rocks further from the quartz monzonite contact. At Berg deposit the presence of hornfels with potassic alteration might be restricted to that zone in which volcanic rocks havebeen first thermally metamorphosed by quartz diorite and then overlappedbyveinstockworksand hydrothermal biotite alteration closely related to quartz monzonite. Elsewherealong the quartz diorite contact where 63 hydrothermal fluids had travelledfurther from the source quartz monzonite, the hornfels formed by quartz diorite was retrogressively altered, mainly by degeneration of biotiteto chlorite, to a rock of propylitic aspect. PHYLLICALTERATION Phyllic (quartz-sericite-pyrite) alteration of rocks is easily recognized by a bleached and XVI). Bleaching is caused by thorough quartzchalky weatheredappearance(Plate SeriCite alteration of plagioclase and orthoclase, as well as breakdown of mafic minerals to dominantly Sericite and lesser amounts of biotite, quartz, chlorite, and pyrite. Magnetite is absent but pyrite and small amounts of hematite are present. In thinsection rocks with phyllic alteration appear as a fine-granular, mosaic intergrowth of quartz-sericite among relict, sericitized, and weakly kaolinized feldspar phenocrysts. Scattered, shredded grains Of secondary biotite and minor chlorite are mafic constituents. In sericitized quartz Plagioclase porphyry (Fig. 7, unit 4) fine-grained biotite is locally abundant (up to 6 per cent) and imparts a tan to medium-browncolour to the rock matrix. Topaz, first reported to be present a t Berg deposit by Dah1 and Norton (1967). is a minor alteration mineral in phyllicassemblages. Thezone of phyllic alteration is developedmost extensivelyalongthesouthern and southwestern intrusive contacts. It is discontinuous around the northeast contact close to quartz diorite and plagioclase biotite quartz porphyry, which is little altered (Fig. 10). The phyllic alteration zoneoverlaps the quartz monzonite contact on the south and southeast and extends outward for a few metres into highly fractured volcanic rocks. A small zone with phyllic alteration was also intersected a t depth in drill hole 1 along with the northern boundary of the stock. Phyllic alteration is developed peripherally to the core zone potassicalteration but the zone of phyllic alteration can be seen to encroach on the potassic zones. A highly irregular contact following interconnected zones of intense fracturing and brecciation locally isolates 'islands' of rocks with potassic alteration within the phyllic porphyry stock. PROPYLITIC ALTERATION Propylitic alteration coincides with strongly pyritized volcanic rocks and quartz diorite next to either phyllic alteration zones in quartz monzonite porphyry or biotite hornfels (Fig. 10). Presence of sulphide minerals, mainly pyrite, was the main criterion used to distinguish rockswith hydrothermal propylitic alteration from those subjected to regional (sub) greenschist metamorphism. Propylitic alteration is recognized by an over-all green colouration in rocks caused by pervasive chlorite, abundant epidote, and calcite. Locally propylitized rocks have a mottled appearance due to bleached borders of fractures and veins (Plates X V l l and XIX). Where fractures are abundant, crosscutting, and interconnected, propylitic rocks are pervasively bleached to a pale grey-green to drab olive colour. Possibly the best indicator of propy- 64 litic alteration andmostreliable criterionfor distinguishing propylitized rocks from chloriticbiotite hornfels,is presence of calcite.Invariably,abundantcalcitecoincides with rocks in which chlorite exceeds biotite in abundance,and epidote as well as mag netite is common. In addition to the chlorite, calcite,andmagnetiteabove, albitized plagioclase,sericite,epidote,and pyrite areabundantalong with lesser quantities of montmorillonite, kaolinite, dolomite, tremolitelactinolite, gypsum, rutile, leucoxene, and hematite.Detailedexamination of propylitized rocksrevealsthree commonmineral associations: (1) chlorite-epidote-calcite (widespread), (2) chlorite-epidote-tremolite (in basic volcanic rocks), and (3)chlorite-kaolinite-dolomite (localized in three small zones of argillic alteration). Bleached margins of quartz-pyrite veins consist of very fine-grained mixtures of calcitemontmorillonite (andraregypsum), as well as chlorite-albite andpossiblysericite. Bleached vein margins in the propylitic zone are distinguished from phyllic alteration by sparseness of sericite and presenceof calcite. Pervasive propylitic alteration is also found in hornblende quartz feldspar porphyry (Fig. 7. unit 6 ) . the youngest phase of the quartz monzonite stock. However, unlike volcanic rocks and quartz diorite in the propylitic zone peripheral to the composite stock, quartz feldspar porphyry is only weakly pyritized but contains abundant sphene (up to 1 per cent by volume) and scattered large grains of epidote. ARGlLLlC ALTERATION Argillic (clay) alteration is recognized at Berg by presence of abundant montmorillonite and kaolinite. Argiilic rocks are known to occur in three zones(Fig. 10). Thezones appear to be small and limited to a few tens of metres in width, but their extent is poorly documented due to limited subsurface information. Onezone is associated with the altered southwestern contact of sericitized quartz plagioclase porphyry (Fig. 7. unit 4). The argillic zones lie between phyllic and propylitic alteration zones in the position pretwo other zonesare in propylitized volcanic dicted bv porphyry coppermodels.The rocks north and southeast of the composite stock and along the quartz diorite contact. In all three zones containing clayminerals,calciteandepidote arepresent. Strong calcium leaching, one of the main requirements of the argiilic alteration facies according to Creasey (1966). is therefore not evident. The clay-bearing rocks at Berg deposit might beregarded simply as clay-bearing,aluminoussubfacies of propylitic alteration. These clay-rich zones might mark the main passageways for late COS-rich hydrothermal fluids that flowed mainly along thequartz diorite contact into the central aiteration area. VEINS Veins are abundant throughout the hydrothermally altered and mineralized zone. Most commonly they are 1 millimetre to 1 centimetre-wide quartz veins,many with pyrite 65 andlor molybdenite, that form quartz stockworks near the main contact of the quartz monzonite stock. Abundance of quartz veinsdecreases both inward and outward from the intrusive contact. In the outlyingbiotite hornfels and propylitic alteration zone' pyritic veins and veinlets predominate. alteration The alteration facies described in preceding pagesrepresentlargepervasive zones.Veins, on the other hand,are only partly synchronous with pervasive alteration processes. They are in many cases superimposed on pervasively altered rocks and reflect changes in hydrothermal fluids that passed through and were confined to fractures and other channelways. Hydrothermal fluids from which some vein minerals were deposited caused little alteration of enclosing rocks and veins cut host rocks without appreciable with fluids in fractures resulted in alteration effects. In other hostrocksreactions alteration envelopes in which minerals adjacent to veins were metasomatized or recrysand biotite. Still other tallized andmadeover to mainly quartz,K-feldspar,sericite, veinshavebleachedveinmargins in which relict primary textures aremaintained,and rock-forming mineralsare broken down to mainly quartz, chlorite, clayminerals,carbonate, sericite, and gypsum (Plate XVII). Thus, where significant metasomatism (most obviouslyorthoclase-quartz) has taken place, altered veinbordersare referred to as envelopes;whereretrograde breakdown of rock-forming constituents has taken place but original textmes remain, altered vein borders are referred to as alteration margins. In zones of extensive fracturing away from the stock, bleached margins on veins result in a mottled appearance or coalesce to form large bleached zones. In general, alteration envelopes are most abundant on veins within the stock and along its contacts where quartz stockworks arebestdeveloped.Veins with alteration envelopesdecrease in abundance away from the compositestock andareexceeded by veins with bleachedmargins. Bleached alteration margins are most noticeable in pyritichornfels and propylitic rocks. All three vein types (with alteration envelopes, without envelopes,and with bleached margins) can be found in the same rock. They have formed in sequence as a staged vein is complicated to decipherandcannot beresolved completely series.Thesequence without additional detailed study. The following sequence from oldest to youngest is suggested; it bears a remarkable similarity to the vein sequence described at El Salvador by Gustafson and Hunt (1975). stage 1 . A. 6. Quartz-pyritechalcopyrite-molybdenite veins with alteration enve(cornmonl. chlorite (less commonl, or lopes of quartz-sericite K-feldspar (rare). Quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite-molybdenite veins without envelopes. The aboveassociations are modified by presence of other minerals including chlorite, anhydrite (purple and clear),epidote. carbonate. clay mineralr,and magnetite. stage 2. 66 Quartz-molybdenite (or molybdenite alone) veins without en" lopes. stwe 3. Stage 4. Quartz-pyrite veins and pyritic veinlets with or without envelopes, many with bleached margins. Veins may also contain chalcopyrite, rare epidote, and magnetite. Quartz-carbonate(common)andquartz-anhydrite-carbonate veins, many with bleached margins. There veins can chalcopyrite.sphalerite,tetrahedrite, (rare1 contain Pyrite, galena, and epidote.Anhy- drite is partially to completely hydrated (hemihydrite to gypsum). Stage 5. Gypsum-filled fractures Crosscutting relationships permit at least five periods of stage 1 veining to be postulated (A. D. Drummond, 1975, personal communication). However, as a rule, stage 1 veins display complex relationships and suggest that stage 1 veins have filled a previously crackled zone rather than generated an oriented, sequential, crosscutting stockwork system. Stage 1 veins generally consist of massive quartz intergrowths although many have cockscomb structures andvugs with drusy lining. In someveinsvugsare filled with anhydrite; in others, cavities are open and quartz crystals are overgrown by fine-grainedchlorite. Stage 2 veins are massive and composed of compact, fine-grained quartz or are ribboned with granulated quartz grains interspersed by bands of fine-grained molybdenite. Stage 3 veins are ubiquitous andarepossibly the mostabundantveins in thestockworks.Except where they are clearly crosscutting, stage 3 quartz veins are indistinguishable from stage 1 or any other quartz-pyrite veins. Stage 4 veins up to 3 millimetres in width have been noted in diamond-drill core but arerareover-all. Inpyritic rockssurrounding the composite stock a number of quartz-carbonate-pyrite-sphalerite-galen~tetrahedriteveins a few tens of centimetres in width are known t o occur. Stage 5 gypsum-filledfractures form a subhorizontal fracture cleavage that crosscuts all primary alteration andore minerals and possiblyformed long after veins of stages 1 to 4. HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES IN THE FORMATION OF BERG DEPOSIT With the precedingdescription of alteration facies, zoning, and vein development in mind, origin of zoningcanbeconsidered. In essence alteration and zoning are a response to temperature,pressure,andchemicalgradientscaused by: (1) emplacement of the four batches of quartz monzonite magma, (2) cooling and crystallization of the stock, (3) generation and flow of hydrothermal fluids (both magmatic and heated groundwater) in and around the stock, (4)supply, transport, and redeposition of metals and other substances by hydrothermal fluids, and ( 5 ) changes in fluids or interaction between fluids and wallrocks. The hydrothermal regime acted as a dynamic fluid system which caused heat and mass transprt in and around the quartz monzonite stock. The resulting largescale zoning is a remnant imprint of pervasive regional pressure, temperature, and chemical gradients whereas the veining is an overprint of fracture-controlled fluid-rock diseauilibrium conditions. 67 The most striking alteration zone is the annular biotite hornfels that surrounds the quartz monzonite stock. The biotite hornfels extends a t least 185 metres from the intrusive contact. The larger quartz diorite intrusion to the north and east has similar biotite hornfels along its intrusive contact but the hornfels there is commonly 30 metres or less in width. Conductive thermal effects of igneous intrusions have been described by Lovering (1955). Jaeger (1959, 1964). and Whitney (1975a). Based on their models, temperature a t the contact of a stock the size of Berg intrusion containing quartz monzonite magma a t 800 degreesCelsius would be 400 to slightly in excess of 500 degreesCelsius.Tempe.ratures would decrease outward from the contact but the limit to which purely conductive heat transfer would cause biotite hornfels to allow great latitude in deterform is uncertain.Heat flow modelsareimpreciseand minations of conductive heat flow. For example, a t CopperCanyon,Nevada, a granodiorite stock wassuggested to impose temperatures by conduction of only 150 degrees Celsius(Steigerand Hart, 1967). whereas Winkler (1965,pages 61-63) suggested temperatures equal to 60 per cent of magma temperature (for example, a maximum of about 480 degrees Celsius in this case) could be maintained by conduction over a distance of up to 60 metres from the contact of a stock such as that a t Berg deposit. In any case, even if thermal conduction is as effective as suggested by Winkler, the extensive zone of biotite hornfelssurrounding Berg deposit could not have formed solely by thermal metamorphism due to conduction alone. It must havebeenexpanded by a more efficient heat transfer involving outward-flowing and convecting fluids in the manner discussed by Row (1970a) and Norton (1975). Thus the presence of a heated fluid in fractures and pores musthave abetted heat transfer and recrystallization of andesite to hornfels. The presence of this heated fluid can be regarded to mark the onset of hydrothermal alteration regardless of whether mass transfer occurred. The entire zone outside the stock in which recrystallized biotite is present is referred to as a biotite hornfels or a biotitic alteration zonebecause products of contact metamorphism (purely conductive heating) cannot be distinguished in the field from those of pervasive hydrothermal alteration (convective heat flow). Imposition of heat on the various rocks a t Berg deposit (quartz monzonite, andesite, quartz diorite) resulted in a number of alteration assemblages that reflect differences in bulk rock composition as illustrated (Fig. 11) by ACFand A'KF diagrams (Winkler, 1965). Under the same elevated temperature conditions andesite and quartz diorite will alter similarly to biotite-quartz-plagioclase-chlorite-epidote-calcite assemblages (biotite hornfels) whereas quartz monzonite will consist of a quartz-K-feldspar-plagioclasebiotite-muscovite-chloriteepidote-clay assemblage (K-feldspar stable,plagioclasedegenerative alteration). The importance of rock composition in determining alteration assemblages has been discussedby Guilbert and Lowell (1974). The foregoing discussion is used to explain observed zoning that canbe related to the simplest (idealized) geologic situation - increase in temperature within closed chemical systems. In addition to re-equilibriation of minerals due simply to elevated temperature, 68 Figure 11. Mineral assemblages in thermallymetamorphosedandesite, quartz diorite, andquartz monzonite. chemicalreactions involving mass transferoccurwhen passage of hydrothermal fluids takes place. One type of pervasive change in rocks is most evident in feldspars and results from hydrolysis reactions. In the core of the stock K-feldspar is unaltered; in the margin of the stock, throughout the quartz plagioclase porphyry and in highly fractured zones within the stock, K-feldspar is sericitized; and a t the extremity of the sheet-like quartz plagioclase intrusion in the southwest, K-feldspar is sericitized and argillic. Plagioclase in the core of the stock contains minor montmorillonite and in the periphery of the stock is kaolinized or locally sericitized. These changes can be interpreted on the basis of feldspar stabilities in a regime with outward decreasing temperature and increasing ratio of hydrogen ion activity with respect to potassium ion activity as illustrated in the now familiar hydrolysisequilibria studiesof Hemley (1959) and Hernley,etaL (1961, 1964, 1970). Veins and fracture-associated alteration suggest the fluids changed in composition during the alteration sequence.Thestagedsequence of veinsand fractures reveals that they initially (stages 1 and 2) had little effect onhostrocks and fluids were evidently in equilibrium with mineralspresent. Later veinsand fractures (stages 3 and 4) superimposedlocal conditions of disequilibrium on areas of pervasive alteration and older fracturecontrolled alteration, eachyoungerstagecausingretrogressive breakdown of rock-forming and older alteration minerals. Early veins (stages 1 and 2) arevuggy, ribboned, or massiveand commonly contain molybdenite. Vuggy and massive coarsely granular quartz veins that contain anhydrite commonly haveorthoclaseassociated with them whereas ribboned and finely granular quartz veins rarely haveorthoclaseenvelopes. Most stage 1 and 2 veinsare bereftof alteration envelopesorbleachedmarginsandcrosscut hostrocks without apparent 69 alteration effects. Therefore, early veins and fractures formed under conditions in which biotite andfeldsparswerestable, probably a t elevatedtemperatures during recrystallization to form hornfels. Where alteration envelopesarepresent about stage 1 veins, the envelopesare sericitic orhave silicified metasomaticselvages containing orthoclase and rare anhydrite. Most younger veins (stages 3 and 4) alter enclosing rocks and therefore have alteration envelopesorbleachedmargins.Such alteration canbe interpreted in terms of localized hydrolysis reactionsand feldspar-mafic mineral instability, in the samemanner as pervasive alteration zoning. At Berg deposit minerals adjacent to late fluid-filled fractures or veinswereunstableand recrystallized to form silicified sericitic alteration envelopes (Plate XIX), or degenerated to form bleached argillic (quartz-clay-chlorite-carbonategypsum) vein margins, or formed combined sericitic envelopes with argillic margins. The zonedsequence: orthoclase-sericite-clay has not beenrecognized in any altered vein margin.Thissuggests that quartz-orthoclasemetasomatism of stage 1 and 2 veinswas prograde and did not change in the samevein. into retrogressive sericite-clay alteration such as that in stage 3 and 4 veins. Evidently early (stages 1 and 2) and late (stages 3 and 4) vein-forming processeswere distinct and mutually exclusive. Additional support for presence of uniquesolutions during variousvein stages andchanges during the vein sequence is provided by vein mineralogy as was described in preceding paragraphs. The nature of fluids involved in alteration processescanbededuced from examination and heating of fluid inclusions. In this study 20 samples of variousveintypeswere examined in detail and 20 of the better fluid inclusions from four samples of molybon a microscopeheating stage.The heating denite-bearing stage 1 veinswereheated stagewas a Unitron-500 model mounted on a petrologic microscopeequipped with a long focal length objective. Temperature was controlled by varying electric current to the stage with a rheostat and recorded on a chart recorder linked to a thermocouple. The systemwas calibrated with specpure lead and three temperature-sensitive crayons. The temperature of homogenization was taken to be the mean temperaturebetween disappearance of the gas bubble during heating and reappearance during subsequent cooling. Maximum temperature that could be determined with this apparatuswas 406 degrees Celsius with precision of roughly +20 degrees Celsius. in Fluid inclusions are abundant in all quartz veins a t Berg deposit andcanbeseenalso anhydrite and pale-coloured zones in sphalerite. Fluid inclusions commonly are less than 2 microns and rarelyup to 20 microns in size. In quartz they are particularly abundantandoccur as two orthree-phasenegative crystal cavities,spheres,ovoids, or irregularly shaped bodies of primary and secondary origin as defined by Roedder (1962, 1963, 1967). In anhydrite, flufd inclusions are thin rod-like bodies that probably formed as secondary inclusions along cleavage intersections. They contain only liquid or rarely are two phase with minute vapour bubbles. In outer growth zones of sphalerite crystals, fluid inclusions were seen as negative crystal cavities. Two-phase inclusions are present in sphalerite but insome samples the vapour bubble containsa small amount of liquid C02. 70 Detailed examination of quartz reveals that two and three-phasefluid inclusions are abunsolid phase in three-phase inclusions is halite dant in quartz from stage 1 veins.The which formssmall cubic crystalsgenerallysmallerthan 2 per cent by volume. In addition, a few samples contain minute tabular crystals (gypsum ?) and equant opaque grains (sulphides or hematite ?). Thefewspecimens of stage 2 veinsexamined contain only two-phaseinclusions but three-phase inclusions might bepresent if additional samples were examined. Stage 3 and 4 veins appear to contain only two-phase inclusions although two species of liquid arepresent (brine and COz) in sphalerite from stage 4 veins. From thesedata it canbe concluded thatinitially vein-forming fluids were saturated or close to saturation by NaCl and that salinity decreased as younger veins were deposited. Volume of vapourobserved in inclusions from stage 1 and 2 veinsvaries from 1 to 70 per cent. Vapour volumes vary widely even in the samevein or vein specimen although most fluid inclusions contain 10 to 30 per cent vapour. Such variability and high vapour content areconsidered to beevidence for boiling if homogenizationtemperatures are consistentlysimilar (Roedder, 1967, 1971). A t Berg deposit the inclusionstestedbehaved similarly uponheating to 406 degreesCelsius but no filling temperatureswere possible to determine above this temperature.Thustheseobservations to 406 degrees Celsiusare compatible with evidence for boiling but do not prove it. If indeed boiling occurred a t Berg deposit it took place during early vein development and hydrothermal fluids were maintained a t hydrostatic pressure. Based on present-day topographic relief the minimum depth a t which mineralization occurred was about 700 metres; this corresponds to a maximum (lithostatic) pressure of about 200 bars. The 20 fluid inclusions examined during heating from four specimens of stage 1 veins include: 14 inclusions in quartz from three quartz-anhydrite-molybdenite-pyrite-chalcopyrite-bearing veins in well-mineralized biotite hornfels, and six fluid inclusions from terminated quartz crystals in a vuggy, coarsely crystalline quartz-molybdenite vein from quartz monzonite porphyry with strong phyllic (quartzsericite-pyrite) alteration. Size of fluid inclusions ranged from 5 to 15 microns, most being 10 to 12 microns in size and containing about 10 per cent vapour. Only one of the 20 fluid inclusions contained a readily visible halite crystal. Some of the other inclusionsare believed to contain minute salt crystals that could not be confirmed with the availableoptical apparatus. Upon heating to 406 degrees Celsius, 18 of the 20 fluid inclusions testeddid not homogenize and a reduction in vapour volume of only about 10 per cent was achieved. Therefore stage 1 veins appear t o have been deposited a t temperatures well in excess of 406 degreesCelsius.Onetwo-phasenegative crystal cavity includes anhydrite-bearing stage 1 vein homogenized at 392*15 degrees Celsius. This indicates that secondary inclusions are present in stage 1 veins or that a considerable decrease in temperature might have taken place during development of stage 1 veins. Another two-phase fluid inclusion, that is associated with a number of high temperature inclusions i n a stage 1 quartz-anhydritemolybdenite-pyrite-chalcopyrite vein, appears to be primary but homogenized a t 2 W 2 71 degrees Celsius. This was assumed to be a secondary inclusion or indicates that leakage or necking down has taken place in these veins. Gypsum-filled subhorizontalfractures of stage 5 do not haveanyapparent alteration effects on host rocks or minerals along fracture selvages. This is in marked contrast to stage 4 carbonate veins in which anhydrite is partially to totally hydrated to hemihydrate (bassanite) or gypsum and the veinshave clay-carbonate alteration margins. Gypsum in the fracture cleavage appears to have been deposited as open-space filling and there is no suggestion,even from deep drill holes (to 610-metre depth), that anhydrite was precipitated first and then hydrated to gypsum. Fracture cleavage filling by gypsum (the last stage of veining)therefore took place a t temperaturesbelow 57 degreesCelsius because a t higher temperature anhydrite is precipitated by itself or along with gypsum from aqueous solution (Holland, 1967). Thewidespreadpresence of gypsum in late-stagecleavage fractures in the mineralized zone and all but the youngest intrusive phase of the composite stock might be because solubility of gypsum (andcarbonate) in aqueous solution decreases with increasing temperature anddecreasingpressure (Holland, 1967). Thusgypsumwas probably deposited by heafingof circulating, possibly inward-flowing sulphate-bearing fluids, during late cooling of the stock. The association of these late-forming gypsum-filled fractures with the zone of mineralization and intrusion is possibly the best available evidence at Berg deposit that convective flow involving meteoricsulphate-bearing hydrothermal fluids has taken place as described in the model of White, eta/. (1971). 72 4 MINERALIZATION INTRODUCTION Widespread copper-molybdenum mineralization is associated with rocks intruded by quartz monzonite. Drill-indicated geologicalreservesare in theorder of 400 million tonnes containing 0.4 per cent copper and 0.05per cent molybdenite. Computed geological reserves taken to information limits (the projected 3,325-foot bench) andassuming stripping ratios in the order of 2 5 t o 3 : l waste to ore, range from about 90 million tonnes containing 0.51 per cent copper and 0.050 per cent molybdenite at a 0.40-percent copper cutoff, to approximately 485 million tonnes containing 0.30 per cent copper and 0.048 per cent molybdenite a t a 0.15-per-cent copper-equivalent cutoff (Beaudoin and Mortensen, 1973). Pyrite and chalcopyrite are the most abundantsulphidemineralsandoccur primarily in fractures, in quartz veins,and as disseminations. Molybdenite is contained mainly in quartz veins, Secondary copper sulphides are found in an enrichment blanket over most of thedeposit.'Chalcocite' (probably mainly digenite) and covellite are the most They occur as thin coatings on pyrite and chalimportant secondarycopperminerals. copyrite and are deposited in a large, well-defined zone of supergene enrichment. Near surfacesulphidemineralsareextensivelyleachedandsecondarycopperminerals are present in small amounts as copper oxides or carbonates and native copper. Primary ore mineralsare most abundant in an asymmetrical annular zone of biotitic hornfels surrounding the quartz monzonite stock. Best grades of copper and molybdenumare found in biotitic quartz diorite in the northeast sector of the deposit; weakest mineralization is found along the western margin of the intrusion. Copper-molybdenum mineralization decreases in intensity away from the main quartz monzonite contact. Outward from the contact, pyrite increases to form a pyritic halo around the zone of coppermolybdenum mineralization, then decreases abruptly. Within the quartz monzonite stock copperand molybdenum gradesdecreaseaway from the contact and rarely exceed 0.02 per cent molybdenite. Sphalerite with pyrite andsome 0.15 per cent copper and 89 tennantite and galena are found in veins within and peripheral to the pyritic halo as well as in small late-forming quartz and quartz carbonate veinlets in the main copper-molybdenum zone. Distribution of primary minerals is not readily seen in outcrop due to weathering and sulphide leaching. At surface rocks are bleached, crumbly masses commonly stained and cemented by limonite in an extensive capping. Sulphide minerals are strongly corroded or leached to a maximum depth of about 38 metres (125 feet). Secondarycopper mineralsaredeposited belowthe oxidized andleached rocks in a zone of supergene copper mineralization with a maximum thickness of about 90 metres (300 feet). The combined effects of oxidation, leaching, and supergene enrichment impart a pronounced vertical zoning to the deposit that overlaps, and to a large degree, masks primary zoning patterns. Vertical zoning is illustrated on Figure 17 which showscopper depletion and molybdenum concentration in the strongly oxidized zonenearsurface,copper enrichment beginning approximately at the present water table and primary mineralization a t depth below the 'gypsum line,' the elevation below which fractures are tightly cemented by gypsum and groundwater circulation has been minimal. PRIMARY MINERALIZATION ANDLATERALZONING Primary(hypogene)oreminerals are mainly pyrite, chalcopyrite, and molybdenite. In addition to the three main ore minerals, magnetite, sphalerite, tennantite, and galena are present as well as trace amounts of arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, scheelite, ilmenite, hematite, and rutile. Bornite hasbeen reported (Owens, 1968) in minute amounts as 2 to 10micron-sizedinclusions in pyrite but does not contribute significantly to orevalue. Precious metal content, as indicated by eleven 50-foot composite samples from five representative drill holes,averages4.6 ppm silver and less than 0.2 ppm gold (Beaudoin and Mortensen, 1973). Zoning patterns, as defined by variable amounts of the main ore minerals, are illustrated on Figures 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16. These patterns arebased on all information available to 1971 andsomeselecteddata from morerecent drilling. No verticalzoning canbe demonstrated in primary mineralization within 300 metres(1.000 feet) of surface but deeper drilling suggests that molybdenite grades increase slightly a t depths greater than 450 metres (1,500 feet) whereascoppergradesdecrease below 600 metres (2.000feet) from surface (P. G. Beaudoin, 1975, personal communication). Pyrite is present as fracture-controlled anddisseminatedgrainsaveraging about 1 millimetre in size as well as coarser euhedral grains and aggregates in a number of successive generations of pyrite and quartz-pyrite veins. Chalcopyrite is intimately associated with pyrite but is finer grained and commonly present as discrete 0.1 to 0.3-millimetre grains. A significant proportion is found as 10 to 50-micron inclusions in pyrite. Some blebs of chalcopyrite 10 microns and smaller in size are scattered throughout and totally enclosed in pyrite and less commonly magnetite. Such chalcopyrite might be difficult to liberate 90 I P rite vo ume Y SCALE-METRES Figure 12. Primary minerals - pyrite. 91 0 ,)\ e u1 SCALE-METRES L 0 0 2 Figure 13. 92 Pyrite-chalcopyriteratio. .~ ._ Breccia Qtz bearing monzodi. a Qtz monzonite Qfz diorite 0Hornfels,vdoonics I cu i " 0 SCALE- FEET Qtz bearingrnonzou m Q t z monzonite YI 0 SCALE-METRES 2 Figure 14. 0 a Qtz diorite 0 Hornfels,volcanics Primarymineralization - Cu. 93 94 by conventional milling of ore. Molybdenite is most commonly found as fine-grained flakes within severalgenerations of quartz-bearingveinlets. It alsooccurs as very fine grains or 'paint' in ribboned quartz veins, as crystals along quartz vein selvages, and less commonly in fractures with pyrite andlor chalcopyrite. Some coarse crystals of molybtransportedby gypsum within late-stage veins. denite are engulfedandmechanically Distribution of pyrite represented as mean volume percent calculated over long drill intercepts is shown on Figure 12. Pyrite in quartz monzonite averages 2 per cent or less by volume andincreasesprogressively outward everywhereexcept in thenortheast sector of the deposit where thezoningsymmetry is interrupted by a zone with little pyrite in biotitic quartz diorite. Pyrite increases to a maximum of about 6 per cent or more in the pyrite haloabout 150 metres (500feet) or more from themain quartz monzonite contact. The pyrite halo envelopes the zone of best copper-molybdenum mineralization with bestgradescorresponding to a pyrite content of about 2 to 3 per cent. Chalcopyrite is most concentrated in biotitic hornfels adjacent to the quartz monzonite stock and in biotitized quartz diorite i n the northeast zone. Chalcopyrite content decreasesprogressivelyaway from themainintrusive contact in an inversemanner to pyrite. Relationship of chalcopyrite to pyrite is illustrated as a pyrite-chalcopyrite ratio onFigure 13. Chalcopyrite exceeds pyrite in abundance only in quartz diorite of the well-mineralized northeast sector and in a low pyrite zone encountered in a single drill hole a t thesouthern contact of the quartz monzonite intrusion. Outward from the intrusive contact a pyritechalcopyrite ratio of 4:l signifies the inner marginof the pyrite halo and a rapid increase in amount of pyrite. Within the pyrite halo, pyrite-chalcopyrite ratio exceeds 1O:l and locally is greater than 50:l. Pyritechalcopyrite ratio remains fairly constant in any given zone even where total volume of sulphides varies. Chalcopyrite and molybdenite concentrations expressed as p e r cent copper and molybdenite areshown on Figures 14 and 15. Theannular pattern of mineralization and intimate relationship of copper-molybdenite mineralization with intensely fractured and hydrothermally alteredrocksalong the quartz monzonite contact are evident. The pattern and zoningtrends are remarkablyconsistent throughout themineralizedarea. Areas underlain by zones a t least 6.1 metres thick with >0.4 per cent copper within the larger zone of >0.2 per cent copper are shown on Figure 14. The X.4-per-cent copper grade is an arbitrary value used to indicate zones of better copper mineralization. A 6.1metre (20-foot) thickness is taken to be the minimum thickness of rock from which a bench of ore could be developed. In plan view small areas underlain by rocks with better coppergrades clusteraround the quartz monzonite stock or are localized in biotitic quartz diorite in the northeast sector. Grades of copper and molybdenite, when averaged over long drill intercepts and plotted in relation to distance from the main quartz monzonite contact (Fig. 16).document b e 95 r - .IO - INCREASINGDISTANCf FROM MAIN OPM CONTACT .. Figure 16. Primary Cu and MoSZ grade in relation to distance from main intrusive contact. haviour of chalcopyrite and molybdenite more explicitly. Both copper and molybdenum decrease in intensity in a regularmanneraway from the quartz monzonite contact but two separate regimes are evident - hornfels and quartz diorite. Quartz diorite is superior to hornfels as a host for copper and molybdenum sulphides, even though in many localities it is some distance from the quartz monzonite stock. The same grade is developed in quartz diorite twice as far from the quartz monzonite contact as hornfels. Conversely. at the saine distance from the quartz monzonite contact, grades of copper and molybdenite in quartz diorite are about double those in hornfels. Bestgrades of copper discovered to date are in quartz diorite, but some of the higher values shown on Figure 16 (marked by ?) might not berepresentative as they arebased on poorcorerecoveries (from 10 to 25 per cent). Trends of copper-molybdenum mineralization shown on Figure 16 are similar but some differences are indicated. Best mineralization has taken place in hornfels near the quartz is mostconcentrated in hornfels a slight distance from the monzonite stock.Copper 96 " main contact whereas molybdenum mineralization straddled the intrusive contact and molybdenite is maximizedalong it. Coppervalues exhibit two distinct levels of concentration with quartz monzonite having only about one-half the coppercontent of wellmineralized hornfels. A similar observation was noted in breccia bodies outside the main intrusive mass where copper was derived mainly from well-mineralized hornfelsfragments and copper grades werediluted as the amount of quartz monzonite matrix increased. These patterns (Fig. 16) indicate that molybdenite mineralization wassuperimposed on the main intrusive contact zone and grades diminish in a regular manner away from the contact.Themain control for molybdenite is fracture intensity and quartz veining. Coppergrades, ontheother hand, diminish abruptly within intrusiverocksand in addition to fracture intensity appear to be influenced more than molybdenite by rock composition. SECONDARY MINERALIZATIONANDVERTICAL ZONING Vertical zoning defined by progressivechanges in mineralogy and ore tenor with depth is a result of oxidation, sulphideleaching,andsupergeneprocesses. At surface, in subcrop, and at relatively shallow depths, abundance of sulphide minerals and ore value arereduceddue to oxidation andleaching by acidicsolutions. In this environment copper is mobile whereas molybdenum is immobile (Garrels, 1954; Sato, 1960; Titley, 1963; Hansuld, 1966). Thus,whensulphidemineralsbreak down copper is depleted but molybdenum remains and may be concentrated. Figure 17 illustratesverticalzonation as defined by oretenor.Copper is consistently depleted from rocks near surface except near basic dykes where copper oxides and hydratedcoppercarbonatesaredeposited (for example, diamond-drill hole 23). Molybdenum is morevariable in its behaviour. Molybdenite grades of oxidized outcrops .commonly compare with those of primary mineralization zones ai depth (for example, diamond-drill hole 741. In certain areas of strongly oxidized rocks, molybdenum is in the form of molybdates andcomplexes with ferric hydroxide as well as molybdenite in it was protected from leach solutions.Mineralogy of strongly quartz veinswhere oxidized rocks will be discussed in more detail in a succeeding section. Supergenecopper mineralization resulting in enrichment of primary gradeoretakes place below the zone of oxidation in the zone containing groundwater. Copper contained in downward-percolatingacidic leach solutions replaces chalcopyrite, and pyrite as solutions becomes neutralized a t depth and forms secondarycoppersulphides. Enrichment of primary copper grade averages about 25 per cent (that is, 1.25 to one enrichment factor) and is maximized near the top of the groundwater table immediately belowzones of oxidizing primary mineralization as in diamond-drill hole 23. Increase in intensity of enrichment with depth shown by diamond-drill hole 19 is only apparentandreflects 97 ZONE LEACHED ENRlCHED 0PRIMARY ROCK TYPES OVERBURDEE orz MONZ E3 QTZ D l 0 HORNFELS I BASIC DYKES 0 Loo SCALE- FEET. -METRES Figure 17. Vertical zoning of Cu and MoS2 grades in diamonddrill cores. increasing primary grade as the intrusive contact is approached. Away from the contact (at greater depth) primary gradediminishes as does the amount of supergenecopper enrichment. EXTENT OF LEACHINGAND SUPERGENE MINERALIZATION Maximumthickness of the strongly oxidized zone with sulphide leaching is about 38 metres (125feet); the supergene zone is up to 100 metres (325 feet) thick. Base of the strongly oxidized zone is clearly shown by marked increases in copper grade and amount of sulphideminerals,presence of secondarycoppersulphides,and minor amountsof copper oxides and native copper, as well as a decrease in the amount of limonite and a noticeable change in limonite colour from yellow-brown or orange to dark brown. Base of supergene copper mineralization is clearly marked in drill holes by the 'gypsum line' the limit of groundwater circulation below which fractures are tightly cemented by gypsum. Depth of strong oxidation with sulphide leaching and thickness of the supergene copper zoneare illustrated as isopachmaps on Figures 19 and 20. The elevation below which gypsum is present (the gypsum surface), that defines the start of primary mineralization a t depth, is shown on Figure 18. The isopachs and gypsum surface are trend surface maps computed using double Fourier series analyses of irregularly spaced data after a method described by James (1966). Data input from 54 locations was utilized using a wavelength of 670 or 700 metres (2,200or 2,300 feet) and 25 terms in series representing a second harmonic surface. The waveform generated approximatesthe present topographic profile a t Berg deposit (shown on Fig. 18) to which the depth of oxidation and supergene mineralization are related. A wavelength of about 670 metres (2.200feet) is compatible with the dimensions of the intrusive system, zone of hydrothermal alteration and mineralization, and topographic relief. The 'goodness of fit' of trend surfaces generated are about 63, 70, and 88 per cent, thus achieving an acceptable and geologically useful degree of smoothing of the observed data. Contours relative to sea level marking the start of gypsum in fractures define a 'gypsum plane.'Thissurface is shown on Figure 18, and unequivocablydefinesthe base of groundwater circulation below which oxidation andsupergene effects are minimal and confined to a few narrow zones of intense fracturing or faulting. Depth of gypsum solution is a function of groundwater flow patterns and acidity. Flow patterns in bedrock are influenced a t Berg deposit mainly by topography, major and subsidiary surficial drainage patterns within the cirque-like basin,and intensity of fracturing. Thezone of gypsum leaching defined by diamond drilling forms a northeasterly elongate depression that rises in eievation to the northeast roughly following present topography.The zone of deepestgypsumleaching is coaxial with mineralized intrusions parallel to 'Red'and 'Pump'Creeks but perpendicular to the northforkof BergelandCreek, the major drainage system. 99 d 0 0 TREND SURFACE ELEVATION MARKING START OF GYPSUM IN FRACTURfS Figure 18. Trend surface elevation marking start of gypsum in fractures, TRfND SURFACE ISOPACH M A P , STRONGLY O X I D I Z f D ROCKS ( C u LfACHfD) Figure 19. Trend surface isopach map, strongly oxidized rocks (Cu leached1 TREND SURFACE ISOPACH M A P , SUPLRGFNE C u MINERALIZATION Thickness in f e d Figure 20. Trend surface isopachmap,supergene Cu mineralization. A trend surface isopach map of oxidized rocks from which copper is leached isshown on Figure 19 andone of supergenecopper mineralizaton is shown onFigure 20. Similar trends are apparent with maximum thicknesses in the southeast and east sectors of the mineralized zone along the quartz monzonite contact and in hornfels adjoining quartz diorite. Strongest oxidation and most advanced leaching are seen in rocks in the vicinity of 'Red' Creek and its branches where the deeply incised creek efficiently conveys away surface runoff and shallow groundwaters from flanking slopes allowing intense oxidation. Deep oxidation takesplacewhere acidicsolutions from oxidizing pyrite-rich rocks penetratethemost highly fractured zones in hornfelsbetweenquartz monzonite and quartz diorite intrusions.Diurnal,periodic, andseasonal fluctuations in groundwater flow and chemistry facilitate deep, complete oxidation andsulphideleaching.The southeasterlyextension of the deeply oxidized zone might be localizedby increased permeability in northwest-southeast-trendingzones of brecciation and faulting. Supergene copper minerals are found in a zone that is more widespread than the zone of intense sulphide leaching. Maximum thickness of the supergenezone is developed along the eastern part of the mineralized zone between the major intrusions. A westward-pro jecting lobe indicated by thick supergenezones in two drill holes in the intrusive stock is coincident with quartz monzonite porphyry (Fig. 7. unit 3). Thickness of Figure 20 is exaggerated as values plotted are vertical drill hole intercepts onslopes that commonly approach 45 degrees. The pattern shown on Figure 20 is almost entirely a result of downslope migration of acidic copper-bearing leach solutions generated by oxidation of weakly cupriferous pyrite.rich rocks in the pyrite halo and interaction with a relatively stable watertable in the zone of intense fracturing. The thickest zone of secondarycopper sulphides in quartz monzonite is coincident with zoneshavingmostadvanced sericitequartz-pyrite alteration (mainly quartz monzonite porphyry and sericitized quartz plagio clase porphyry, Fig. 7, units 3 and 4). MINERALOGY AND PROCESSES OF FORMATION ZONE OF OXIDATIONAND SULPHIDE LEACHING Breakdown of sulphidemineralsnearsurfacehasresulted in a leachedcapping consisting of mainly quartz,sericite,clayminerals, limonite, and opalinesilica. Limonite is composed primarily of amorphous ferric hydroxide [hydrogoethite, Fe(OH), I , goethite (FeOOH), and minor hematite (Fe,O,) with locally developed jarosite [K(Fe, Al),(SO,),(OHl,l. Other mineralsobserved in smallamounts in the zone of oxidation are cuprite, tenorite, nativecopper,malachite,azurite,brochantite,chalcanthite, ferrimolybdite, possibly akaganeite (molybdenum-bearing beta limonite), and blackamorphousiron-manganeseoxides formed from lead-zinc-bearingcarbonate veins. Owens (1968) has reported delafossite. 103 Freshly deposited limonite is amorphous 'active' hydrogoethite which changes with time to a morestableamorphous variety - 'inactive' hydrogoethite or crystalline goethite (McAndrew, et al.. 1975). Most limonite observed in outcrop is a pervasive or surficial pulverulent variety. Granular, coagulated, and caked, botryoidal, or flat crusts are seen in pits and fractures a t depth. Some relief-type limonite and sintered crusts are present but cellular boxwork and sponges are rare or absent. According to the terminology of Locke (1926) andBlanchard (1968). most limonite studied would beclassified as fringing (continguous) or exotic (transported) types in which a specific source of iron cannot be identified. Indigenous limonites would beexpected in quartz diorite with high chalcopyrite-pyrite ratios but nonewasobserved.Instead,reddish brown, resinous 'pitch limonites' with highcopper(and molybdenum) content arepresent. Fluffy, fibrous, star-shaped,and flake-like limonite is found in and proximal to basic (reducing) dykes along with amorphous,black,copper-bearing oxides (tenorite ?, melaconite ?) and cuprite. Jarosite is present in variousamounts throughout much of the deposit. It is most prominent a t surfaceand shallow depths along the eastern margin of the quartz monzonite stock andalongthemineralized quartz diorite contact. Locally jarosite is the dominant limonite constituent. Zones with jarosite in excess of goethite are coincident with the most intehsely oxidized and leached rocks. Jarosite normally accompanied by ferrimolybdite imparts a bright yellow colour to the capping. At depth and in less intenselyleachedrocksaway from the jarositic zone, colour of limonite changes progressively from yellowbrown to orange, brown, anddark brown characteristic of goethite. Themostabundantaccumulation of limonite is ferricrete, a relatively homogeneous deposit of ferric hydroxide. Ferricrete is transportedamorphous hydrogoethite and goethite precipitated on surface or in overburden as soft, porous, friable limonite. FerriCretedeposits commonly contain plant and rock fragmentsand otherdetritus. Some ferricrete forms a matrix in soil and talus deposits resulting in cemented soil and breccialike deposits. At Berg, ferricrete is being deposited actively in creek gullies and along the base of slopeswhere groundwater discharges. Such deposits mantle much of the lower slopesalong the north fork of BergelandCreekoverhundreds of squaremetresand locally are up to 2 metres in thickness. Partial chemical analyses of limonites are listed in Table 4. Analyses show concentration of copper but values of molybdenum, manganese, and other metals are low. In bulk, Berg ferricrete closely resembles bog iron ores and goethitic 'soft ore' exploited a t Steep Rock (Jolliffe, 1955) andelsewhere. It is higher in iron content andhas less impurities than limonitic iron ores deposited as erosion and terrestrial-weathering productssuch as those being evaluated in Iraq (SkoEek, et aI.< 1971). However, despite similarities in composition, appearance,andpossibly origin with somecommercial iron deposits,Berg ferriCrete is too limited in quantity and too high in sulphur content to be of present economic interest. TABLE 4. 'PARTIAL ANALYSES OF IRON ORES AND BERG FERRICRETE (in per cent) ' . 1 2 Berg Ferricretl (massive: Bew unicreh Crusts (newly eposite - ........................ 55.24 19.8 S ............................... 1.24 4.6 P ............................. 0.043 0.08 Mn ............................ 0.001 0.08 0.25 A1203~.......................... 0.3 Cr ............................. 0.001 0.003 0,010 0.01. TiOZ.. ....................... CaO .......................... ,~0.05 0.12 MgO ........................... o.oi 0.05 Si02 .......................... 1 .o Moisture : ....................... ... Lon on ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.9 F e total , Note: 1 2 3 - 4 - = not Wadi' . %cap Rock Husainiya, 0.04 0.81 1'0.8 .009 1.59 ~ 6.3 0.32. 0.27 3.1 7.0 7.6 , ,, OAl 15.3, 5.5 .' reported Array. Steep Rock Iron Miner.courtesy O f A. W. Jolliffe, 1968. P. Ralph, Analyst, B.C. Ministry O f Energy,Mines and Pet. Res., 1974. Anticipatedaverage grade, H. M. Robert6 and M. W. Bartlev, Econ. Geol.. Vol. 38, 1943, pp. 1-24. Average of five samples, V. Skocek, et a/., €Con. Geol.. Voi. 66, 1971, pp. 986994. 105 Molybdenum is an important constituent of limonite at Berg deposit. Its presence in the capping in non-sulphide minerals is an important indicator of primary sulphide mineralization at depth. Locally molybdenum is concentrated in the zone of oxidation and grades exceed those of hypogene zones in underlying rocks as shown on Figure 17. These observations are in marked contrast to data presented by Pokalov and Orlov (1974) who state that molybdenum is consistently depleted from the zone of oxidation in molybdenum and copper-molybdenum deposits. Molybdenum enrichment accompanyingsulphideleachingandcopper depletion near surfacewas noted early during exploration a t Berg deposit. C. S. Ney, D. L. Norton, and G.O.M. Stewart found enrichment to be generally related to vitreous, brittle, violetbrown,lacquer-like limonite crustsreferred to as 'Berg-X.'Studies by Norton and Mariano (1967) found 5 to 15 per cent molybdenum in select crusts of 'Berg-X'and widespreadzones with limonite containing 1 t o 2 per cent molybdenum. Theseresults areconsistent with observationsmade by Carpenter (1968) who reports up to 7.5per cent molybdenum in limonite a t Questa; also J. C. Wilson (unpublished report, Kennecon Copper Corporation, 1965) who states that up to 7 per cent molybdenum is present in limonites in a number of porphyry deposits and Pokalov and Orlov (1974) who report an average of 1.26 per cent molybdenum in limonite from a number of Soviet deposits. If sufficient amounts of such limonites accumulate in oxidized rocks, molybdenum enrichment would take place. It apparently has taken place a t Questa where, according to Carpenter (19681, both chemical and mechanical concentration result in soils with 1 per cent residual molybdenum andgossans(presumably from sulphide-bearing veins) having greater than 27 per cent molybdenum content. Identity of molybdenum-bearing substances a t Berg deposit' is only partially resolved. Ferrimolybdite is common and together with molybdenum-bearing ferric hydroxide might constitute a considerable proportion of total molybdenum in the capping.Some molybdenum mayalsobepresent in iarosite, which according to Pokalovand Orlov (1974) may contain up to 1.75 per cent molybden,um, probably as minute inclusions of Moo3. In addition, a series of molybdenum-bearing ferric hydroxides related to ferrimolybdite hasbeendescribed by Carpenter (1968) andsuggested to bepresent at Berg by BaraksoandBradshaw (1971). ThesearevariouspHdependent,amorphous to very fine-grained,orange-brown ferric molybdate hydrate phaseshaving different Fe:Mo ratios. The brittle, wine-coloured 'Berg-X' is probably an altogether different and rarer limonite compound. Preliminary investigations by Norton and Mariano (1967) including electronmicroscopic, diffraction, and microprobe analysessuggest that 'Berg-X'may be, in part, 0.2 micron-sized crystallites of Mooz (tentatively called sibolaite) as well as a spinelmineral, probably FeZMoO,. No natural occurrencesofMOO,are known but Jager, et a/. (1959), Norton and Mariano (1967), as well as Pokalov and Orlov (1974), under laboratory conditions. Electron synthesized Mooz at low temperatures microprobe analysis of 'Berg-X' limonite crusts by this writer revealed periodic, intermittent molybdenum enrichment took place during deposition of banded limonite crusts. Zoning of molybdenum is evident within some individual limonite layers indicat- 106 ingprogressivelychangingrates of molybdenum incorporation during deposition Of limonite. Similar observations of periodic molybdenum enrichment in limonite at Questa have been made by Carpenter (1968). Behaviour of sulphidemineralsunder oxidizing conditions and resulting products are summarized and illustrated on Figure 21. In porphyry deposits, conditions in the zone of oxidation commonly vary from pH 3 to 6 and oxidation potential (Eh) of 0.4 to 0.8 volt (Sato, 1960). More acidic conditions with pH 1.6and lower are possib1e;oxidizing veins a t Questa have measured pH of 1 to 1.5 (Carpenter, 1968). At Berg deposit Barakso and Bradshaw (1971) report pH of 3.1 to 5.9 and Eh from 0.4 to 0.9 volt in waters from streams, springs, and drill-hole discharge. Waters as acid as pH 2.8 were measured during prolonged summer dry spells. Eh of 0.9 volt implies the presence of bacteria (probably thiobacilli and ferrobacilli) according to Baas Becking, eta/. (1960). Under highly oxidizing conditions such as a t Bergand other porphyry deposits, all SUIphide minerals dissolve (that is, areleached)exceptraresulphidegrainswhere they are protected from leach solutions by nonreactive quartz gangue. Under milder oxidizing and less acidic conditions such as weathering of zones with little pyrite content, molybdenite remains stable and only copper andlor iron sulphide minerals are leached. Oxidation of sulphides, abetted to somedegree by oxidizing bacteria, generates ferrous or ferric SUIphate and sulphuric acid solutions. Copper as cuprous ion is mobile under acidic conditions and is removed in aqueous solutions. Iron precipitates through hydrolysis as ferric hydroxide and forms limonite, a mixture of mainly hydrogoethite and goethite. Hemat i t e is a minor limonite constituent a t Berg deposit. Under highly acidic oxidizing conditions (pH less than 3) and dependant on activities of potassium, sulphur, and iron, jarosite is stable (Brown, 1971). At Bergdeposit,jarosite is widespreadand locally is the dominant limonite constituent. Its presencecoincides with zones of intensely leached rocks, probably where potassium is available by degradation of potassic alteration minerals.Thewidespread distribution andpersistence of jarosite in thecappingunder moderatelyacidic conditions is explained by Brown (1971) as beingdue to sluggish reaction rates. Molybdenum released from solution of molybdenite is immobile under acidic conditions and is taken up by ferrimolybdite, limonite, and insoluble iron and molybdenum oxides as discussed earlier. ZONE OF SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT Supergene enrichment by secondary copper minerals takes place a t or below the water table where downward-migrating acidic oxygenated leach solutions containing cuprous ion arereducedand neutralized. Secondarycoppermineralsselectivelyreplacepreexisting sulphide minerals. Under certain conditions in the transition zonebetween the oxidizing and primary sulphide zone they precipitate as native copper, copper oxides, or copper carbonates. Native copper andoxide minerals may also form if groundwater table fluctuations expose secondary copper sulphide minerals and oxidation takes place while the water tableis depressed. 107 I I 0 0 Eh 0 -0 -0 pH 1.9 I 2 2 4 Figure21. 6 pH 8 10 12 4 6 PH 8 Ib 12 Mineral stability at 25' C and 1 ATM. A. Cu-FeS-0-H modified from Garrels (1960): B. Mo-FeS-O-H after Barakso andBradshaw (1971): C. FeS-0-H in presence of K+ after Brown 11971). Field of weathering after Sat0 11960). I 2 4 I 6 8 10 12 PH Figure 22. Stability fields in C U - H ~ O - C O ~ - O system ~ S (including chalcopyrite) at 25' C and 1 AT". Reactions and products of the supergene process can be illustrated in a simplified manner in an Eh-pH diagram showing mineral stability fields of common minerals, as shown on Figure 22. Threeprocessescan be envisioned as indicated by paths A + B, B + A, and A + C. More acidic conditions than those suggested by Sat0 (1 960) and shown on Figure 22 probably occur in porphyry deposits. Thus points A and E may be shifted to the left in the diagram. A to E is the result of downward percolating leach solutions entering a relatively stablezone of groundwatersaturation.Pre-existingsulphideminerals, first chalcopyrite (or bornite), later pyrite, are rimmed and replaced by 'chalcocite.' Near the water table neutralized solutions in the presence of oxygen may form tenorite or cuprite and native copper i f reduction takes place. Path B to A is the result of in situ reactions 109 where sulphide minerals react with pore waters whose acidity and oxidation potential are increasing.This is the case where the water table is beingdepressed,and the zone of oxidation is encroachingon existing sulphide minerals, or groundwater flow patterns change resulting in additions of leach solutions. As acidity increases, iron and sulphur are leached from copper-iron sulphides in the presence of copperions.Secondarycopper sulphides are deposited starting with covellite, followed under ideal conditions by minerals with successivelyhighercopper content, ideally anilite, digenite, djurleite, chalcocite,andpossiblynativecopperandcopperoxides.Path A to C is followed where leach solutionsencounterreactivehostrocks that neutralize and buffer solutions. Solutions in presence of calcite will not exceed pH 8.3 and, if hydrolysis of silicate minerals takes place, pH will range from 6 to 10 (Sato, 1960). Most commonly neutralizing reactions take place in limestone, along borders of basic dykes or other rocks with significant neutralizing potential and at depth where hydrolysis equilibria reactions take place in the zone of water-saturated primary mineralization.Cuprite,brochantite, tenorite, and nativecoppermay form with 'fluffy' limonite as well as malachite and azurite where C02 concentration is high. At Berg deposit, processes described by all three solution paths shown on Figure 22 are taking place simultaneously in different parts of the deposit. Path B t o A takes place in the pyritic halo where propylitic pyrite-rich rocks are oxidizing. Initial conditions are described by area '6' as oxidation begins in mineralizedrocksexposed by erosion. As oxidation proceeds, solutions and products follow the path toward 'A: Path B to A also describes ongoing processes within the supergene zone as erosion proceeds resulting in a downward-migratinggroundwatertable andencroachment of oxidation (weathering) conditions upon the zone of primary mineralization. Path A to B is followed by concentrated acidic leach solutions generated by oxidation (point 'A') which migrate downslope until they interact with the relatively stable groundwater table in the lowlying, highly fractured area around the quartz monzonite stock. Interaction of leach solutions with groundwaters results in migration of solutions from A to B (less acidic, more reducing conditions). Path A to C is followed locally whereleach solutionsencountercalcitebearingdykesandare rapidly neutralized. This takesplace both aboveand below the water table and accounts for copper enrichment by oxide and carbonate minerals in the zone of sulphide leaching and prevalence of cuprite (together with some brochantite) in andesite dykes. Secondary copper sulphide minerals loosely described a t Berg deposit as 'chalcocite' are identified by X-ray diffraction by Owens (1968) and this writer as covellite and digenite. Owensalso reports traces of chalcocite and delafossite. Digenite and covellite are both found as partial replacement rims on chalcopyrite and pyrite. Complete replacement of small chalcopyrite grains up to 100microns in size wasseen by Owens*(1968) but generally replacement rims are less than 10 microns thick and commonly are not more than a tarnish. In specimensexamined by the writer covellite is moreabundant than digenite, whereasOwens (1968) reports digenite in excess of covellite. Mineral associations found (Fig. 23) are chalcopyrite-pyrite-covellite and chalcopyrite-covellite-digenitepyrite (a nonequilibrium assemblage).Theobservedsupergeneassemblages are com- 110 covellite ...................................... cv .................................................. CuS bloubleibender covellite.......... bbcv ...................... Cul.lS Cu1.4.i milite .......................................... on ....................................... Cul.7sS digenite ...................................... di .................... Cu1.765S- Cul.7pS durfeite ................................... dj ....................................... cU]+%s cLolcocite ................................... cc ....................................... c u 2 ~ chalcopyrite ............................. cp .................................... CuFeS? bornite ........................................ bn ..................................... CusFeS4 - Figure 23. Mineral cornpasitionsshowing possible phase relationships patible with phase relations suggested by studies in system Cu-Fe-Sand Cu-S (Roseboom, 1966; Runnells, 1969; Morimoto and Koto, 1970; and Barton, 1973) and are consistent with the belief that supergene enrichment is an active process in its initial stages a t Berg deposit.Result of supergenecopper mineral deposition with an indicated enrichment factor of 1.25 or 25 per cent is shown on Figure 17. In plan (Fig. 24) zones underlain by 6.1 metres or more of 0.4 per cent copper in the supergene zone overlap extensively zones of primary or 'protore' with 0.2 per cent copper and thereby considerably expand ore reserves. Generalized cross-sections showing the relationship of the supergene zone to topography, the leached capping, andprimary ore are shownon Figure25. Origin of the enrichment zone is debatable as to the time a t which supergene processes were first initiated. Some workers'believe that the enriched zone formed a t least partially (1973) report that approxprior to glaciation.For example,BeaudoinandMortensen imately 90 metresofweak chalcocite enrichment is evident a t high elevations on the eastern side of the pyrite halo. They conclude that this topographically high enrichment is pre-glacial in origin and remains as an early supergene zone that is percned above the present-daysupergene blanket.Furthermore, they report that recentdiamond drilling shows that lower limits of the chalcocite zone, at least locally, are independent of topography. 111 - 0 Breccia Qtz bearingrnonzodi. lop0 SCALE- m I- Figure 24. 112 \ nHornfels,volcanics Primary and supergene copper minerals. Zones underlain by >0.4% Cu. r 1 / SECTION 9800 E 6000' MW' 1525m 4000' SECTION A-A' S E E FIGURT 4 (LOOKINGNORTHWEST) Figure 25. Bergdeposit, idealizedgeologic Sections. 113 This writer believes the supergene blanket is being formed by contemporary ongoing proafter cesses that represent a single-stagepost-glacialphenomenon.Theprocessbegan Fraser (Wisconsin) glaciation or a t earliest during deglaciation. It is difficult to envision other simple or more probable alternatives to how the enrichment blanket, which is so intimately related to present topography, could havesurvivedrepeated glaciation if it was pre-Pleistocene or an interglacial feature. Hematite, a common mineral in multiplestagesupergenezones, is generally absent a t Berg deposit. Nonequilibrium assemblages and incipient replacement textures of secondary sulphide minerals suggest a short dura tion of supergeneprocesses. Furthermore, the presence of Cretaceous rockson ridges adjacent to the Berg deposit (see Fig. 3) makes it doubtful that the mineralized zone was exhumed by erosion prior to Pleistocene glaciation. Thus, as deduced from a map showing speculativeice-marginalpositions (V. K. Prest, 1970, pp.706, 707) supergene processes responsible for the observed chalcocite blanket were probably initiated not earlier than 10 000 to 12 000 BP. Ten thousand years following glaciation is ample time for the observed supergene effects to bedevelopedand the 38-metre-thick leachedzone to form in the highly fractured, strongly dissected terrane at Berg deposit. Lovering (1948) calculated that at San Manuel total oxidation of 3.5 to 5 per cent pyrite could takeplace to depthsof 150 to 180 metres (500 to 600 feet) in 40 000 to 47 000 years. Also, leach dumps in the southwestern United States (whose porosity is not much greater than that of weathered crackled zones in porphyry deposits) have complete oxidation of 5 per cent pyrite to a depth of 30 metres in a few tens of years (D. Norton, 1966, unpublished report, Kennecott Copper Corporation). Titley (1975) has described porphyry deposits in which extensive leached cappings and supergene enrichment blankets have formed in mineralized zones associated with intrusions as young as 1 110 000 years. 114 5 MINOR ELEMENTS IN PYRITE INTRODUCTION Minor element content of pyrite was investigated in order to: (a)Define concentration levels of minor elements in pyritefrom a porphyry copper-molybdenum deposit. (b) Test if zoning of minor elements in pyrite is evident. (c) Relate zoningpatterns and concentration ranges of minor elements in pyrite to mineralogical zoning (particularly the zone of primary copper sulphides). (d) Test if host rock compositions and different paragenetic types of pyrite influence the character orquantity of minor elements in pyrite. . Pyrite was selected because it is the most abundant sulphide mineral in porphyry copper deposits, is ubiquitous throughout mineralized areas,and is treated relatively easily to obtain a clean concentrate. Representative samples from the 45 available drill holes and 9 outcrops were taken to give maximum possible coverage of the mineralized area. In total, 135 analysesrepresenting 100 sample sites were obtained. Thesamples do not constitute a randomsample set because the diamond-drilling programtestedspecific areas with economic mineral potential rather than random areas. Bias is, thus, introduced into the statistical basis of the data by a preponderance of samples from the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization. There is proportionally less representationof pyrite from thebarrencore, pyritic halo,and weakly mineralized peripheral rocks.However, any weakness introduced into the statistical basis of this study by nonrandom sampling is possiblyovershadowed zone. by having a maximum of information from the mineralized Thesampleswereanalysed by emissionspectroscopy.Samplingproceduresand rationalization, analytical methods,and statistical proceduresusedaredescribed in detail in the original work (Panteleyev, 1976) and are summarized elsewhere by Gosh-Dastidar (1970), Dawson (1972), and Dawson andSinclair (1974). 115 Thesample set of 100 pyrites consistsof 78 specimens of disseminated or fracturecontrolled finely dispersed sulphides (hereafter collectively referred to as 'disseminated' pyrite) and 22 veinspecimens. Of the 78 disseminatedpyrites, 47 were taken from hornfels, 9 from quartz diorite, 18 from quartz monzonite, and 4 from peripheral volcanic rocks. Vein pyrite was mainly from quartz veins with various sulphide and gangue associations. In addition to pyrite, five chalcopyrite samplesandonesphaleritesample were analysed to determine the effects of contamination by these minerals in pyrite (see Appendices A and 5). I TABLE 5. ANALYTICAL PRECISION Error ( Y )as a function of concentration I%, (4 elements with sufficient data) Ag: Pb: Ni: Co: ' Y = -0.0885 + 0.323y Y = 10.014 +0.214z Y.= 0.723 + 0.123y Y = -43.2 + 0.372% , . PERCENTAGE RELATIVE ERROR (ALL DATA) Pet cent relative Element erro: No. of pairs (SO/X) 301.5 1 095.0 463.0 C" Pb Zn Ti Mo Mn 48.5 27 31 18 20 18 185.8 340.4 114.5 80.9 12.2 255.9 23.6 31.6 199.7 66.6 58.3 11.3 79.5 16.0 27.5 37.0 43.1 38.3 19.6 42.3 69.6 92.7 31.1 67.8 28.2 Sample variability is readily evident; some can be explained by analytical (including samp ling) error but precision and accuracy of the spectroscopic method used are sufficient for zoning t o be demonstrated. A summary of analytical precision and estimate of relative error as a function of concentration, as calculated by P. Matysek after the method of Thompsonand Howarth (1978) is given in Table 5. Accuracy of the spectroscopic method canbeassessed by comparingresults with those obtained independently by atomic absorption spectrometry (AA) as shown in Table 6. 116 I TABLE 6. COMPARISON OF SPECTROGRAPHIC ANDATOMIC ANALYSES* OF PYRITECONCENTRATES ABSORPTION (All Analyses in ppml cu - 15-187 . . . . ... ...... . . .. .......... ... AA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spec i Spec ii 500 490 470 29-226 . .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . spec AA 330 415 37-480 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..... ....... .. ................. Spec i Spec ii AA I *Atomic abSOrprionanalysesperformed (Western1 Limited, 1968. 198 102 122 by Mr. H. Gaddard. Kennco Exploration$, After examination of analytical precision and accuracy of the spectrographic method and consideration of analytical results, cobalt and nickel were found to be the most consistently useful elements present in pyrite. Lead and zinc were useful if no contamination of pyrite by other sulphide minerals was evident. Silver, bismuth, and manganese may be useful if sample variability is large as these elements suffer from low analytical precision. Arsenic is of limited usebecause of its high (300 ppm) detection limit. Copper, molybdenum, titanium, cadmium,and antimony suffer from contamination problems.Other elements were not detected in sufficient quantity to be meaningful (see Appendix A). UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION PLOTS(HISTOGRAMS) Histograms illustrating distributions of minor elements in Berg pyrite areshown on Figures 26, 27,and 28. A normal curve, using the observed mean and standard deviation, is fitted to the transformed data on Figure 26. The mathematical expression for such Gaussian (normal) distributions andtables of numericalconstants necessary for their calculation are taken from Dixon andMassey (1969). All data are summarized in Table 7 which gives the number of analyses, means (measure of central tendency), and standard deviations (measure of dispersion of the data). Both arithmetic and logarithmic values are given for comparison. 117 900 800 I " "7- roo 6W 500 400 300 200 100 0 Figure 26. 118 Ni and Zn content of pyrite. Normal curve fined to log,, data. Figure 27. Pb and Ag content of pyrite. 119 -25 -20 -15 As r N ji S 33 2.826 (670ppm) 0.2645 % -2 5 co N 100 -20 X 2.307003ppm) S 0.703 I 0.176 -1 5 x, HORNFELS -10 0 VEINS QTZ.MONZONITE QTZ. DIORITE Figure 28. Frequencydistributions of As, Co, and Ti. S. D. 2 528 21.9 354 200 194 104 82 17.3 , . 20.0 ' - 2 5 5 ., .~~ 10.5 .. It is evident in a fewhistograms (for instance,Fig. 28) that some minor elementdistributions might contain more than one population. Arsenic appears to be bimodal and cobalt could contain three populations. The two apparent populations of arsenic might be simply due to samplingerror for the sample set contains only 33 analyses.Three populations of cobalt appear to be present and appear to be due to pyrite from different host rocks. Populations of cobalt from vein pyrite and two types of disseminated pyrite lone from quartz monzonite, the other from hornfels and quartz diorite) appear to be different populations. Titanium distribution is not readily explained; the two apparent populations are composed of pyrite from veins and all host rock types. F AND t TESTS One attribute of Berg minor element data shown by frequency distributions is that vein pyrite generally has lower concentrations of elements than disseminated pyrite. Thus, an hypothesis can be tested using t and F tests that onecause 3f polymodal distributions is mixing of vein pyrite anddisseminated pyrite, bothdistinct populations.Figure 29 shows nickel distribution in which veinanddisseminated pyrite is differentiated and tested by t and F tests. Table 8 summarizes t and F tests of veinversusdisseminated pyrite for all elements determined. The results summarized in Table 8 are definitive. F and t probabilities of cobalt, nickel, copper,zinc, titanium, andpossiblylead,silver, molybdenum, and manganese are sufficiently low that it can be assumed populations of vein pyrite are distinct from those of disseminated pyrite. The only exceptions are arsenic and bismuth which are the only two of all elements determined that arebelieved to be incorporated in pyrite by anion substitution rather than cation substitution, inclusion in lattice defects,or location in interstitial sites. 121 Polymodal distributions resulting from mixing of pyrite from different rock types are evident for certain elements, for example, cobalt on Figure 28. A more subtle expression on Figure 29 where a number of (partially ?I of a polymodal distribution canbeseen coincident populations might bepresent. Figure 30 shows the distribution of nickel in disseminated pyrite (the disseminated pyrite portion of Fig. 29) with separate plots of pyrite from different sources. 3 Disseminated 1 I Ni loglO(ppm) Disseminated Vein 74 lj 22 2.06 X 1.14 0.36 S 0.66 - ) - % Vein: Disseminated t value 6.26 t probability 0.000 F probability 0.000 -X Veins I 0.31 Figure 29. 122 1,'s 2:Ob 2.63 Bimodal distribution containing win and disseminated pyrite populations (normal curves fitted to the datal. 1 Figure 30. Distribution of Ni in pyrite. Data grouped according to host rock. A, C, D are f i t t e d normal CUWE. An hypothesis canbetested that the polymodal distribution of nickel in disseminated Pyrite is due to a number of populations representing pyrite from different host rocks. t and F tests comparing distributions of pyrite from hornfels,quartzmonzonite,and diorite aresummarized in Table 9 and illustrated on Figure 30. Vein pyrites arealso compared to pyrite from other host rocks. 123 The t and F tests indicate with a highconfidence level (99 per cent or greater) that nickel in vein pyrite is a discrete population compared to nickel in disseminated pyrite from any of the three host rock types. The possibility of disseminated pyrite containing two or more populations of nickel is not nearly so certain. A 90-per-cent t and 99-percent F probability allows the conclusion that hornfels and diorite may contain distinct populations of nickel in pyrite, but pyrite from hornfels and quartz monzonite cannot be distinguished and may be part of the same population. A summary of t and F tests of all elements from pyrite indifferent rock types is given in Table 10. Conclusions drawnfrom t and F tests (Tables 8; 9, and IO) are: (a) (b) Vein pyrite is part of a population separate from disseminated pyrite on the basis of cobalt, nickel, copper,zinc, titanium, andpossiblylead, silver, molybdenum, andmanganese; butnot arsenicand bismuth. However, except on the basis of cobalt and nickel. vein pyrite cannot be distinguished with any certainty from disseminated pyrite if disseminated pyrite is further subdivided into smaller groups accordingto host rock type. Larger sample sets from each type of host rock could possibly overcome this uncertainty. Only a few elements in disseminated pyrite canbeshown to constitute separate populations on the basis of host rock composition.For example, for zinc there is a 98-per-cent or greater t and F probability that pyrite from hornfels is distinct from that in quartz monzonite. Similar high probabilities for nickel and zinc indicate that separate populations of pyrite are present in hornfels and quartz diorite. Also, cobalt in pyrite from quartz diorite is distinct from that in quartz monzonite. In a number of other tases, separate populations are inferred by low F probabilities b u t t probabilities are high, and vice versa. Thus, no generalization can be made on the basis o f t and F tests about populations of minor elements in disseminated pyrite from different host rocks. Polymodal distributions may, but need not be,caused by mixing samples from different hostrocks. Eachelementmustbe looked a t on an individual basis. CUMULATIVEPROBABILITY PLOTS Graphic description, interpretation, and resolution of polymodal data is possible, using cumulative probability plots. Form of cumulative probability curvescanbeused to determine if distributions are normal, lognormal, or polymodal. A second use is resolution of polymodal data into components (constituent populations) and definition of parameters of constituent populations. Use of probability plots is discussed in detail and clearly illustrated by Sinclair (1974, 1976). In this study cumulative probability plots areused as a supplement to other univariate procedures of data analysis. If all Berg minor element data are plotted on a cumulative 124 r ~~~~ TABLE 10; SUMMARY OF t A N 0 F TESTS FOR ALL ELEMENTS (Significance of host rock NPI lement No. of Samplest t Prob. HORNFELS : QUARTZ AS Bi co Ni . cu Pb Zn Ag Mo Ti Mn - Ql AS Bi co Ni cu Pb Zn Ag Mo Ti Mn . . 17: 2 46 : 18 47: 18 47 : 18 22: 9 46 : 16 45 : 16 45 : 16 34 : 15 33: 5 45 : 16 FProb. Ilement - - MONZONITE .41 .58 69 .03* .78 .31 .01" .35 .88 .28 .77 .O2* .08 .OO" .37 .33 .OO*" .02* .7s .21 .07 .45 ITE ITE : D l -~ ITZ MONZl 2: 18: 18: 18: 9: 16: 16: 16: 15: 5: 16: 5 8 9 9 2 8 7. 8: .14 .20 6' .OO*' .01** 62 ,637 ..70 .06 .53 1 8 .20 HORNFEL I No. of Samplest Ni cu Pb .2" Ag Mo Ti M" 1 ' ' .45 .91 .09 .27 69 .36 .81 .92 .96 ~ 6 : 17 22 : 46 22 ;47 22 : 47 19 : 22 20 : 45 20 : 45 20 : 45 20 : 34 20 : 33 20 : 45 .OO" .OO'* .oo** .00** .OO"* .OO" .00** .oo**, . , .05' .00*' .17 , . ,.22 ' '.07 .,'.67 , ,, v Elh . 2 2 : 18 22 : 18 22 : 18 'Pb 20 : 16 ;, 'Ag 20 : 16 20 : 16 MO F Pmb. Prob. VEINS: HOFINFELS AS Bi~ co t .07 .OO*" I , $ .OO**, :.72 ". .39 L- DIORITE I I .74 .86 .20 .85 .80 .05 tNumber of sampler varies because Only Bampies with detectable (i.e.,mearurablel concentrationscan be compared. minor element Level of Significance: * = 95 per cent; * * = 99 per cent. 125 probability plot (except arsenic for which there is insufficient data), the following results are apparent: (a)Bismuth,cobalt,nickel,copper,lead,andzinc distributions appear to be polymodal, each consisting of a t least two lognormal populations. (b) (c) Silverand molybdenum appear to havesingle, lognormally distributed populations. Titanium (not shown on Fig. 31) has a single, normally distributed population, or the distribution is a complex, polymodal mixture of lognormal populations. Interpretation of polymodal cumulative probability curvessuggests that bimodal populations of cobalt,nickel,copper,andleadconsist of onelarge group of samples with generallyhighervalues than the smaller population. This is readily interpreted to be a result of mixing disseminatedandvein pyrite. Zinc distribution is polymodal but is difficult to interpret. Two populations of about equal proportions appear to be present, but the two are partly coincident and mask each other. Bismuth andmanganesecanbe interpreted to consist of two populations: one with detectableamounts of metal; the other with amounts below the analytical detection limits. Normal distribution of titanium is anomalous. On the basis of i t s erratic behaviour it is suspected that titanium is present in includedmineral grains: Normal distribution of analytical resultsmight,therefore, be one criterion of contamination in minor element studies. Resolution of polymodal data into component populations using cumulative probability plots is not necessary in this study since type of pyrite, its source,geological significance, mean, and variance of each sample group, and the proportions of all component populations are known from sampling. However, the method canbe illustrated and conclusions from other univariate,procedures can be double checked. F and t tests as well as histograms show, with the exception of bismuth, that vein and disseminated pyrites are distinct and, with very few exceptions, disseminated pyrite appears to constitute single populations of minor elements regardlessof host rock. Disseminated pyrite (Fig. 31) appears to approximate single, lognormally distributed, measured populations of copper,lead,silver,andpossibly molybdenum, bismuth, and manganese. A second population of bismuth, manganese,and molybdenum canbepostulated if samples with less than detectable amounts of theseelementsareconsidered. Exceptions arecobalt, nickel, and zinc which appear polymodal in the cumulative probability plot, but this was indicated earlier on the basis o f t and F tests which suggested the following: cobalt in pyrite fromdiorite and quartz monzonite, nickel and zinc from hornfels and diorite, and zinc in pyrite from hornfels and quartz monzonite are distinct populations. Thus, probability plots are a powerful analytical method, in this case capable of resulting in similar conclusions as t and F tests in conjunction with frequency distribution data. A third, small population containing high nickel and low cobalt values is suggested in histograms but is clearly shown in probability plots. The population is made up of only 126 Figure 31, Cumulativeprobability.Minorelementsindisseminatedpyrite. five samples but they are all from the pyritic halo zone. Further sampling might reveal that pyrite-rich rocks peripheral to the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization are represented by nickel-rich pyrite that constitutes a separate population. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS CORRELATIONAND SIMPLE REGRESSION Bivariate analysis including correlation and simple regression was undertaken to examine relationships between paired variables. Correlation describes the interaction or 127 association of variables without causal effect. Correlation coefficients were computed for all pairs of variables (Table 11). The data were treated, first collectively, and then subdivided into groups according to source of pyrite to see if any trends or significant differences between various types of pyritewere apparent. TABLE 11. CORRELATION OF PAIRED VARIABLES -. All I #N=1W V .. Ar Bi 1.0000 M Ni C" Pb 0.2143 .0.1570 0.2251 2" 0.1543 A9 0.0717 0.2260 Q.5395 0.2790 MO Ti M" I I I I HO., sand Qu, - - 5 "Or. AI 1.WOO 8i 4.2342 Ni C" 0.1080 0.1953 0.2595 co Pb 2" A9 MO Ti M" II I 1T 2" __ _. Q.1129 0.0013 0.0118 -0.2950 .0.1479 0.2525 - - 4.0895 0.4955.' 0.0026 0.3254 0.5107'f 0.1196 0.1457 0.0538 ~ Diorite N Bi 1.OWO 0.1338 0.0435' 0.3998 0.4801 0.2294 0.4215 0.1794, 0.4854 0.0260 . MO Ti M" 1 58 . co 1hWO 0.5314' 0.4382 , 0,1740 0.2538 0.3849 Ni 1.WW .0.0668 0.1469 .0.1999 0.0827 0.2056 0.3192 -0.2577 0.1958 0.0680 0.2053 1.0000 0.1522 0.1749 0.1422 0.1892 0.5816' 0.0188 I 1.WOO 0.6762.' 4.5229' 0.2564 0.0740 0.3852 1.0000 0.4437' 0.1867 0.2330 0.3962 1aO?o 0.0520 0.0206 1.0000 0.W35" 0.4806 0.5696. 0.1358 0.3998' 0.2955 '0.2349 0.0104 0.3484 I I ' 1.0000 04510 0.2558 OA308 0.3091 -CO Ni a3645 0.1528 4.3599 0.2298 -0.1584 -0.8157 -0.0158 Z" 0.5356. 0.1745 1.OOW 0.3619 0.2066 0.2490 0.3681 0.3301 : .om 1 0.5971 0.1950 0.3077 1.0OM 0.056: 0.190 , I , 1.0000 1.0545 1.0000 I .0.1865 C" 0,4502 0.2936 I 1.0000 Q.4595 CO 0.5342" 0.1438 08574" 0.3558 0.3455 0.3065 1 .oooo 1.OWO 0.7992. 0.2566 0.3603 05310 -0.2042 0.4925 04328 0.5741 0.3179 0.4931 0.5021 0.3516 0.4083 0.2988 0.4397 4.0275 0.2621 03512 0.2993 4.0200 0.5351 40702 0.1282 0.1665 0.2742 -0.0314 0.0103 0.4048 A9 - _ . M" - 1.0000 0.2860 1.0000 0.5777 .0.6585 0.3731 1.0000 0.2334 1.0000 0.1434 0.3759 1.0000 -I - Yein. N = 29 Cu Pb Zn AP MO Ti Mo 0.2950 4.7512 0.1834 0.5528 0.3719 Q.7326 0.4897 Level O'Sisni'iSO"SB: 128 -0.0496 0.5052 0.5813 0.7858' 0.0880 -0.0978 0.0643 . 0.0761 = 95 pereanti .. - 9 9 percent. 1,0000 -0.3390 1.W00 0.1338 0.7222' 0.1437 0.5481 0.0647 0.2005 0.3383 0.4562 .0.3402 -0.3954 0.3567 1.0000 0.7470' 1.0000 1.0000 0.3015 -0,1174 -0.1655 0.1782 0.2185 0.2029 0.0111 0452 1.0000 , . . .' Variables F Ratio .................................... 272 .................................... 75.8 35.7 Co: Cu ................................... 21.3 N i : C u . . .................................. 19.4 C u : T i . . ................................... 34.3 Pb : Ag ................................... 27.9 A g : M o ................................... 31.8 ................................... 1. . Bi': Ag ;:. ::. .~ .. . . <;:..?..: ......1 ................. .~. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . 29.3 . .. . .-&y;Bi:>:~; . . . . . . . . . . :Ag:.Zn~x,,.: , .' :r -". . ........ 22.1 .................. : ........... ~. .:., , ......?. Co:Ni Pb : Zn , . ; .:I 4: ,, # LeYel Of Significance: ;,, * , 0.735V 0.457 * 0.4M ,, 0.287 0.338, 0.273 0.2?9(: 0.261,:;. 0.246,I , . 0.197 i - = 95 per cent; * * = 99 per cent Simple (linear) regressionexamines the interdependent relationships of paired variables andcanbeused to measure theamount or degree of variation in a variabledue to variation in the other variable. The proportion of total variation or measure of variation explained by theinterdependence of the variablescompared to the total variation is called RZ. Table 12 lists R2 and F ratios (variance ratios) for pairs of variables with significant correlation as listed in Table 11. From preceding discussion it is apparent that the greatest amount of association a t statistically significant levels is between cobalt and nickel, andalsoleadandzinc. A least squares regressionline can becalculated for the paired variables as shown on Figure 32. A regression plot of cobalt as a function of nickel is useful as a further means of discriminating betweentypes of pyrite, as shown on Figure 33. Pyrite from different sources falls into separate fields on the diagram. Vein pyrite anddisseminated pyrite are themost distinct types. Within the group of disseminated pyrite, samples from peripheral volcanicrocks, quartz diorite, quartz monzonite, and many samplesfrom hornfels occur in separatefields, although pyritefrom hornfels showswidedispersion. Overlap of some vein and disseminated pyrite is to be expected since the group of 'disseminated' pyrite in the sample set includes both disseminated and fracturecontrolled pyrite and the distinction between fracture-controlled andvein pyrite is entirely arbitrary. As a generalization, most of the disseminated pyrite in the field of mixed vein and disseminated pyrite on Figure 33 is from the pyritic halo, and the majority of pyrite i n the disseminated field is from the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization. Differences in amounts of cobalt and nickel inpyrite appear to be proportional to amounts of theseelements in the hostrocks or vein-forming hydrothermal solutions. In general, cobalt and nickel decrease with increasing acidity of igneousrocks(Price, 1972). Similarly, original temperaturesdecrease from relatively hightemperatures in basic volcanic rocks, lower ones in intermediate and acidic intrusions, and considerably 129 3.300- A Co:Ni 2.900- a4420 b =I.OOI 2.600 - e =a364 R 2 =0.735 2.250- t 1.900 . co log PPm 1.550 1.200 0.850- Ni log ppm Detection Limit 0 8 0 8 2 0 0 2 Xc! - 0 0 . Y 0 0 0 0 '9: - n .r P XL: 8 -n . h n 8 8 0 n - a = 0.679 b 0.524 e -0.342 2.400 2.100 0.630 Detection Limit c , , 8 2 Figure 32. 130 Pb log ppm 8 8 8 2 8 3 Linear leastsquaresregression 8 - '9 line (Y = a 9 N' 2 + bX) for Co:Ni(A) and PbZn(B). Ni PPm Figure 33. Cobalt-nickelscatter diagram showing pyrite according to source cooler ones in hydrothermal veins. Thus, differences in amount of cobalt and nickel seen on Figure 33 appear to correspondt o changes in host rock composition and might also be influenced by temperatures a t which pyrite crystallized. COBALT-NICKEL RATIOS Cobalt-nickel ratios (Fig. 34) in pyrite from veins and quartz monzonite are similar and are distinct from pyrite in hornfels, diorite, and possibly regional volcanic rocks, which are similar. The mean cobalt-nickel ratio for96 samples with detectable amountsof both elements is 3:s. Price (1972) noted that this ratio is statistically indistinguishable from the mean cobalt-nickel ratio of pyrite from the large Endako and Casino porphyry deposits but is dissimilar to pyrites from smaller porphyry deposits at Tchentlo Lake and Molymine, which have cobalt-nickel ratios of 31 and 27 respectively. Some nickel enrichment is evident in vein pyrite (Co/Ni = 2.40)compared to disseminated pyrite (CoINi = 4.28).Since most veinsarelate-stage crosscutting features, late magmatic-hydrothermal fluids from which pyrite crystallized were evidently enriched in nickel as is the case in many other hydrothermal and advanced magmatic environments (Price, 1972). This implies that nickel-rich pyrite from the periphery of the pyritic halo may have formed during late mineralization as well (see Fig. 36 and discussion of zoning, pages 136-1 48. Generally, use of cobalt-nickel ratios and quantities to characterize pyrite typesor sources within individual deposits is limited due to large variations in minor element 131 Co/Ni N =96 x =3.80 5 =3.00 I =0.75 VEINS X=2.40 s=2.10 9.0 0 6.0 3.0 QTZ. MONZONITE N=18 70 X=2.13 S -0.93 10 3.0 0 x ' 6.0 I HORNFELS.0IORITE. , , , , , , , , I 0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.512.0 I ! Figure 34. Co-Ni ratios of pyrite. concentrations. Where differences are consistent and sufficiently large, such as between vein and disseminated pyrite at Berg deposit, concentration rangesandmeans of cobalt and nickel are characteristic and pyrite from unknown sourcescanbeclassified into fundamental groups. Price (1972) has concluded that amounts of cobalt and nickel, and to a lesser extent cobalt-nickel ratios, are useful in distinguishing different types of pyrite from genetically distinct mineral deposits,namely:syngenetic (sedimentary), hydrothermal (including porphyry, vein, and skarn), and massive sulphide. Characteristic amounts of cobalt and nickel determined by Price are shownin Table 13. . , genetic ................................. ........... ;.;...: . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . <......., .:. ....... .1., ....................... . Co Ni . . CoINi , , ,. 132 ,,, , , , 41,.' 65 :@ I141 .. I I Mean concentrations of cobalt (203 ppm) and nickel (77 ppm) of Berg pyrite are comparable to hydrothermal pyrite. Meanvalues of cobalt (374 ppm) and nickel (I15 ppm) in disseminated pyrite canbe distinguished with certainty only from syngenetic pyrite. Furthermore, when only vein pyrite is considered (cobalt = 20 ppm, nickel = 14 ppm), mean concentrations are most comparable to syngenetic pyrite but arealso similar to hydrothermal (low temperature) lead-zinc deposits (Price, 1972). Therefore, any genetic classification of mineraldeposits utilizing bivariate analysisandbased on cobalt and nickel content of pyrite (and possibly anyother pair of elements) is, a t best, tenuous. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS Multivariate statistical analysisdefines relationshipsbetween a number of variablesor betweensamples for which threeormorevariablesaremeasured. Factor analysis is a technique by which measured variables are combined in N-dimensional space into linear combinations of new variables (factors) by a mathematically sophisticated extension of correlation analysis. Relationships between variables are defined by R-mode analysis and those between samples or sample sites by Q-mode analysis. In this study Q-mode factor analysis .is applied to the sevenmost frequently detected elements in the sample set bismuth,cobalt,nickel, lead,zinc,silver,andmanganese - as well as copper in vein pyrite. The technique hasbeendescribed by lmbrie andVan Andel (1964) and Klovan (1968). and applied to geochemicaldata by Nichol, et a/. (19691, Wilsonand Sinclair (1969). and Dawson and Sinclair (1974). Treatment of pyrite geochemical data by Q-mode factor analysis accomplishesthree main purposes: (a) Thenumber of variables is reducedsince the measured quantities are combined into multivariate 'factors.' (b) Associationsand interrelations amongvariablesare often realized that are not apparent on the basis of intuitive or subjectivedataexamination. (c) Thedatageneratedare quantified andcanbe plottedon a mapand contoured to reveal zoning patternsand areas of interest. Data for factor analysis ate divided into two fundamental groups, disseminated and vein pyrite, and the two groups are treated separately (Appendix C). Sixty-one sample sites of disseminated pyrite are plotted representing 74 analyses (Appendix D). Sixfactors account for 96.3 per cent of the variance but the four factors that explain 81 per cent of the variance are considered to be the most significant. These four factors define distinct zoning patterns and additional factors simply duplicate observed patterns and are redundant or are simply 'noise' that cannot be related to any geological cause or process. The successivevarimax factor componentscomputed are listed in Table 14 and the scores of the four factors plotted, in Table 15. 133 Components Factor i +Bi 21.o +(Co. Zn. A d -Ag, (Mn, Bi, Pb, Zn) +Ni, Co -Bi, Co, As. tZn. Pb, Ni, (Mn) -Zn,(Mn, Bi, Co) F4 F5 F6 Fl 13.8 13.2 6.3 14, I Co, (Mn, Pb; Ag; Ni) 25.0 tBi -Mn,Bi,Ni, F2 (Pb) . . . 21.1+fCo.Ag) ' F3 ' -Mn 17.3: +Bi, Zn, Pb, (Ag, Ni) F4-Bi. As, Co +Zn, Pb, (Mn) F5 -Ag, (Mn, Pb,.Bi) '1.3.8 +Co, Ni, (219 ' ..... I TABLE 15. a-MOM VARIMAX FACTOR SWRES DISSEMINATED PYRITE Variable ....................... ...................... ...................... ...................... .............1 ......... ...................... Variance per c e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bi co Ni Pb Zn Ag Mn Cumulative variance per cent *Denotes -0.909 -1.171 4.341' -0.441 -0.882 -0.276 -0.008 -1.077 0.949 1.230 -1.257 0.414 -0.203 4.089 0.476 1.754' .,.., , . important componentfactor. All four factors, in a general way, outline annular zones centred on the quartz monzonite stock and have value maxima roughly coincident with the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization. Zoning patterns are similar to those of individual elements but maybe more significant in defining zoning trends as factors integrate behaviour of a number of elements.However, the geologicalsignificance of factors is not alwaysobviousand 134 explanations or interpretations aresubjectiveandmaybespeculative. N o outstanding relationships between specific factors and ore or waste,such as that found a t Endako (pawson and Sinclair, 1974), are evident. Factor 1 is characterized by high(negative) scores of cobalt andsilver with moderate contributions from zinc and lead, and minor contributions from manganeseand nickel. The only element that does not contribute to the (negative) factor value is bismuth and, thus, the factor canbe interpreted as a measure of the amount of cation substitution in pyrite. Factor 2 is largely a measure of bismuth with moderate contributions from It complements factor 1 inasmuch as the most nickel, manganese,andleadscores. important factor componentsarethoseelements least significant in factor 1. Factor 2 also indicates the amount of minor element substitution in pyrite, but because bismuth is the main component in the factor value, the factor may be a measure of the amount of anion substitution. If indeed bismuth has a closergeochemical affinity in pyrite with anions rather than cations, factor 2 might indicate zones that suppliedsulphur during mineralization. TABLE 16. SUCCESSIVE D M O D E V A R I M A X VEIN PYRITE Components tzn,Pb Cu, Zn, Mn t(C0, Ni, Bi, As, Pb) -Zn, Co tPb, IC". Ni, Mn, Ag) I Var. 4%) .Bi, Mn. (Ag) tNi, Co, (Cu. Pb, Zn) .Mn, (Pb, Zn) t6i. Cu, Ag .Mn;Co;(Ni, Ag, CUI FACTOR 14.3 -(Cu) tPb, Zn, As, 6i. (Mn, Co) 4Bi. Pb, Mn) +Co. Ni, (Cu. Ag, Zn) 30.5 -Mn, (Co, Pbl X u , Bi, (Ag, Zn) 18.8 Cu, Mn, E n , Ag) +(Co, Pb, Ni) cum. -!cur tPb. Zn. As. Bi. (Mn, Co) 4Bi. Mn, Pb) Factor 3 is composed of twoantithetic pairs of elements whosecorrelation was described in a preceding section: cobalt-nickel as a negative factor component andlead-zinc as a 135 positive one. The factor is possibly the most interesting from a zoning point of view as high (positive) factor values with high lead-zincand low cobalt-nickel are found mainly in quartz monzonite and in hornfels or quartz diorite near the quartz monzonite contact. The high content of leadand zinc in pyrite from intrusive rocks was noted earlier in discussion of univariate minor elementdata.Thus,leadandzinc in factor 3 maybe postulated to represent a hydrothermal contribution by quartz monzonite, whereas cobalt-nickel might be a contribution of elements to pyrite from country rocks (volcanic rocks and quartz diorite). bismuth and Factor 4 contains high (positive) manganesescoresandmodest(negative) silver scores. High factor values are found in a series of isolated zones that encompass the quartz monzonite stock but are located a t somedistance from thecontact.Highest (negative) factor valuesoccur in biotite-bearing hornfels and quartz diorite. Factor 4 is possibly the best indicator of all four factors of the limits of the zone containing a t least 0.2 per cent copper. Factor analysis of vein pyrite (Table 16) includes values of copper (Appendix E). Two groups of elements account for most variance in vein pyrite - lead-zinc-silver (and bismuth) and cobalt-nickel. Two other factors, one composed largely of manganese, and the other of copper, account for much of the remainingvariation. Together,these four factors account for 89 per cent of total variance. Factors of vein pyrite are not the same as those of disseminated pyrite (Table 14). probably because the two types of pyrite are of different origins. Certainly combinations of elements from vein pyritein factorsprovidegeologically familiar andgeochemically acceptableassociations (for example, nickel and cobalt;bismuth, lead,zinc, silver), but otherwise very little is revealed about zoning of vein pyrite because of the erratic distribution of the small groupof samples. MINOR ELEMENT ZONING IN THE DEPOSIT INTRODUCTION Zoning, a systematic variation in space, of minor elements in pyrite is evident in plots of univariate and factor analysis data. Concentrations of impurity elements and high factor scores generally occur near the contact of the quartz monzonite stock, although the most intense concentration of all elements is in pyrite from quartz diorite in the well-mineralizednortheast zone.Coincidence of high factor valuesand individual element concentrations with the zone of copper-molybdenum mineralization is remarkably consistent.Concentrations decreaseaway from the intrusive contact, both within the stock and intruded rocks.Fivespecimens of weaklyalteredperipheralvolcanicrocks with only traces of pyrite do not fit the zoning pattern. These few samples suggest that 136 zoning of minor elements in pyrite is confined to themain zone of mineralized and hydrothermally altered rocks and pyrite from outside the pyritic halo can be recognized as being unrelatedto the porphyry system. Zoning patterns of most individual elements are centred on the quartz monzonite stock andare similar.Consistentpatterns of different elementsand factors in disseminated pyrite may indicate that a single, all-encompassing hydrothermal system prevailed during the main stages of mineralization. The variable most commonly considered to regulate incorporation of minor elements is temperature, and zoning is interpreted to be a response to temperature gradients. Undoubtedly there hasbeen interplay of numerous other variables during sulphide deposition. These include: availability of elements, both metals and complexing ions; concentrations of elements and their partitioning between fluid and solid phases(Rose, 1970b); rates of precipitation, mobility (of elements) governed by fluid migration patterns, permeability, and diffusion rates; confining pressure, partial pressures of components in hydrothermal fluids, particularly those containing sulphur;changes in mineralizing solutions caused by interaction with groundwater and wallrock reactions; and many others. Berg pyrite datawereexamined to see if there wasany relation between quantity of pyrite and amount of minor elements in pyrite. It was concluded that the zoning ob served reflects differences in absolute amounts of impurity elements and was not caused by dilution of a constant quantity of elements by different amounts of pyrite. Numerous studies have intimated that different paragenetic stages may have different contents of impurity elements. This fact has already been illustrated in this study by comparison of vein and disseminated pyrite. Therefore, zoning patterns considered here arebased on analyses of carefully selected disseminated pyrite of the same paragenetic type and from rocks of apparently similar origin. Except for a few samples from the supergenezone, mostsamplesanalysedare from primary mineralization below the zone of oxidation. Regional metamorphism is low grade and mineralization hasundergone a uniform postdepositional history. Credibility of zoning patterns is based on the premise that minor element concentrations are not erratic a t different depths but vary as a function of distance from the stock, and therefore, one or two samplesper drill hole are representative of a largearea. Vertical zoning of primary sulphidemineralsandhypogene rock alteration was not recognized over depths of a few hundred metres but may be present over greater depths. Presumably minor element distributions behave in a similar manner. The abundance of minor elements was found to be fairly consistent with depth, if specimens of similar rock and alteration types were compared. Table 17 illustrates variability of minor element concentrations a t different depths. The specimens from drill hole 71 are all from hornfels but wereselected to represent maximum variation in type and amount of rock alteration. In comparison, specimens from drill holes 16 (diorite) and 23 (biotite hornfels) arerepresentativespecimens from drill holes with uniform rock type and alteration throughout the length of the hole. As a group, pyrite from drill hole 71 137 N denotes ibs than detection limit: G denotes greater than detection limit. shows considerable variation but specimens from similar alteration zones are comparable. As most pyrite in this study was taken from biotite hornfels of a superficially similar type, the amount of ,vertical variation indicated by hole 71 is possibly the maximum that would be expected. It is concluded that similar zoning patternscan be reproduced a t different depths if zones are defined by large, yet statistically meaningful, contour intervals such as values greater and greater than the mean plus one standarddeviation than the mean of all analyses + SD). Samples from different depths might change the detailed configurations of zones if different alteration zones were intersected but general patterns are not usually affected. For example, if each analysis from hole 71 was plotted successively, only about one-third would causeanychange in the position of zone contours and most of the changes would be due to erratic behaviour of molybdenum, titanium, and manganese. Pz (>x) UNlVARlATEMINORELEMENTZONING Zoningpatterns of individual minor elementconcentrations in pyrite are similar (see Figs. 35 and 36). with concentration maxima seen as annularzones about the quartz monzonite stock near the intrusive contact. Zones are not symmetrical about the stock as concentration contours bulge into diorite to the east and northeast of the quartz monzonite intrusion, and continuity of contours is disrupted in the southwest by irregular masses of quartz monzonite. This is similar to the distribution of copper. 138 L Figure 35. Zoning of minorelements in pyrite, Co and Ni. J S O U R C E OF PYRITES o Hornfels Quartz Monzonite a Quartz Diorite ~ X 4 8 8 p p mo G + S D JO56ppm o / ~ I Figure 36. 1-4 0 4-8 @ 6-12 0 0 0 / S O U R C E OF PYRITES 0 i\ / I Zoning of minor elements in pyrite, Co and Ni and CoINi, 0 Hornfels 0 Quartz Monzonite Cobalt, nickel, lead, zinc, silver, molybdenum, and manganese are concentrated in pyrite near the quartz monzonite intrusive contact with concentration maxima most commonin the northeast zone of mineralization in hornfels and quartz diorite. Cobalt-nickel ratios have maximum values in hornfels about 150 metres from the contact. Four samples in the south suggest that nickel content increases outward from the zone of cobalt-nickel highs and pyrite south of this zone contains nickel in excess of cobalt over distances of about 100 metres. Bismuth distribution is much like that of other elements with high values found in a zone projecting out into the pyritic halo to the south. Bismuth (and possiblylead,zinc,and silver) maybe concentratedthere in pyrite related to north(>300 ppm) is found in all samples outsouth-trending structures.Detectablearsenic side the main copper-bearing zone but small zones consisting of a few samples with detectable arsenic are coincident with the highestgrades of copper within the area of copper mineralization. Additional samplingmayreveal that arsenic is most abundant in pyrite from the pyritic halo and weakly mineralized peripheral volcanic rocks and therefore useful as a pathfinder element. Titanium concentrations are erratic and highest values (those above the detection limit) are associated with intrusive rocks or their contacts. Values of titanium belowthe mean of the sample group are found within zones of copper mineralization. Concentration maxima of singleelementsorsmallgroupsofelements do not coincide exactly with bestcopperor molybdenum grades, but zones of best mineralization are 37). Ovchinnikov clearlydefined when all concentration highsaresuperimposed(Fig. (1967) states: 'An increase in the quantity of the 'host' mineral is accompaniedby a simultaneousincrease in the relative concentration of the impurity elements in it.' Although this may be true in massive pyritic deposits, in this study and perhaps porphyry deposits in general, highest concentrations of minor elements in pyrite are intermediate between the pyritic halo and the sparsely mineralized intrusive core. At Bergdeposit, concentration maxima of minor elements in pyrite are not coincident with maximum amounts of the host pyrite. Instead,highest minor elementconcentrations aremore closelyrelated to theamounts of copperand molybdenummineralspresent within a zone containing 2 to 4 per cent pyrite. A consistentzoningsequence is not evident.Thismay be, in part,because inhomogeneous stratified rocks are mineralized and rock compositions may have influenced composition of pyrite. Possibly minor element distributions in pyrite from homogeneous host rocks might display zoning sequences.There is somesuggestion of this in diorite of the northeast copper zone where maxima of manganese, silver, and cobalt are clearly peripheral to highest nickel, bismuth, lead,and zinc values. A most noteworthy aspect of zoning of minor elements in pyrite is that minor elements do not imitate sulphide mineralzoningpatterns in porphyry deposits.Whenlead,zinc,silver,andmanganese mineralsare found they most commonly occur in late-stageveinlets peripheral to the main zone of intrusion, alteration, and copper-molybdenum mineralization. However, as minor elements in pyrite, lead, zinc, silver, and manganese appear to be concentrated in pyrite from the ore zone, intrusive rocks, or rocksnear the intrusive contact, whereas maxima of arsenic, cobalt, and nickel form peripheral highs in the pyritic halo. 141 Figure 37. Composite of maximum minor elementvalues. (Greater than mean plus one standard deviation) Depletion of minor elements or low element concentrations do not appear to have any defined patterns with the exception of manganese.Manganese lows are found only in areas with low concentrations of other minor elements in pyrite or areas with only few detectableelements.Zones with low manganese content (less than the detection limit) border zones of high concentrations of other minor elements.Manganese lows maybe potentially useful, as in all cases observed, manganese lows border zones with best copper grades. 142 ZONING OF FACTORS (MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS) Contoured plots of factor valuesareshown on Figures 38 and 39. Factorshavevalues ranging from 1 to -1 andare interpreted as follows: large negative values arecaused by largeamounts of negativevariablesandsmallamounts of positive variables. Similarly. large positive values imply largeamounts of positive variablesandsmallamountsof negative variables in the factors. quartz monFactor I (negative)valuesdefine a broad, asymmetricalgirdleaboutthe zonite stock that coincides closely with the most highly altered and mineralized rocks. Highest (negative) factor values are associated with rocks containing about 3 to 4 per cent pyrite and occur in an area bounded by positive factor values that correspond to weakly mineralizedrocks of thebarrenintrusivecore and pyritic halo. Factor 2 has a similar zoning relationqhip as factor 1 . Highest (negative) factor values occur in areas of copper mineralization and are flanked by positive factor values. Factor maxima lie in areas with less pyrite (about'2 per cent) than those of factor 1 and define smaller zones more closely related to intrusive contacts, particularly quartz diorite. If factor 2 is, indeed,an indicator of anion substitution in pyrite, it maybemoreclosely allied to availability of sulphur in the mineralizing process, Thus, it would appear that the quartz diorite contact mayhavebeen a sourcearea for sulphur during pyrite formation. Factors 1 and 2, because of their similar zoning patterns and close relationship to the zone of coppermolybdenum mineralization, may be made up of factor components contributed by the hydrothermal system and mineralizing processes. Zones of factor 3 and 4 values do not correspond to any constant amount of pyrite and aremoretransgressive to pyrite contours. Factor 3 clearly exhibits mutually exclusive, antithetic zoning relationships between lead-zinc and cobalt-nickel, but zoning relationships to copper-molybdenum mineralization are not consistent. In the eastern part of the mineralized zone, positive factor values (high lead-zinc,low cobalt-nickel) define very closely the quartz monzonite contact in the adjoining zone of molybdenum-copper mineralization, whereas high negativevalues define the pyritic halo in hornfels and diorite. In southwest and west parts of the mineralized zone, high positive valuesagain define the quartz monzonite contact but highest negative values correspondwith coppermolybdenum mineralization in hornfels. Zones of factor 4 valuesare the least continuous of the four factors andareseen as isolated areas with negative factor values (bismuth, silver component) spread around the quartz monzonite stock. Most areas are in copper-bearing hornfels with only a very few sample sites within intrusive rocks. The zone of mineralization defined is thecopper zone, in most cases adjoining the shell of copper-molybdenum mineralization. The outer edge of areas with negative factor values defines approximately the furthest limit of 0.2 per cent copper mineralization and is coincident with the start of the pyritic halo. Factors 3 and 4, in view of their somewhat transgressive relation to zones of constant pyrite content, yet consistent association with specific rock h/pes,mayrepresent factors 143 \ W/ r n . . " . ", \T::::;;-,> A FACTOR VALUES >.75 .5 o Figure 38. - .75 -<.5 Contoured plan of Q-mode factor values - factors 1 and 2. I x. '.. I""', iI ' ') > KALE-METRES SCALE- FEE1 SCALE- FEET >.75 FACTOR VALUES .5 n > o Figure 39. a Ul - .75 -<.5 Contoured plan of Q-mode factor values - factors 3 and 4. whosecomponentsare (partly) derived from country rocks during mineralization - in this case, lead-zinc from quartz monzonite, cobalt-nickel from hornfels and quartz diorite, and bismuth-silver from hornfels. Zoning patterns of ?actorsaregenerally similar to those of individual minor elements with factor maximaconcentrated in anannulus about thequartz monzonite stock roughly coincident with the zone of copperand molybdenum sulphides(Fig. 40). \ Figure 40. 146 Composite of factors 1 to 4. / Compositehighest factor values (20.5) shown on Figure 40 clearly coincide with the zone of best coppermolybdenum mineralization. Factor zoning patterns, while similar to those of individual minor elementsorcomposites of minor elementconcentrations, appear to be useful in more precisely outlining the copper-molybdenumore zone. SUMMARY OF MINOR ELEMENT STUDY Minor elements in pyrite display lateral zoning around the composite stock in a manner similar to alteration and sulphide zoning. Elements found to be most useful are cobalt and nickel, moderately useful are lead, zinc, silver, bismuth, and manganese, and possibly useful are arsenic, copper, molybdenum, and titanium. Analytical datawereexaminedandcomparedeasily by'ploning histograms.These inferred that minor elementsare lognormally distributed andare polymodal. Another effective method of data presentation is using cumulative probability paper. Probability plots are effective in resolving and describing polymodal populations. One cause of polymodal data as indicated by histograms, t and F tests, and cumulative probability curves is mixing of veinanddisseminated pyrite. There is an indication that the identity and quantity of some minor elements is influenced by host rock but this has not been demonstrated to be a general principle. Associationsbetweenpairedvariablesweredemonstratedusing correlation andsimple regression analyses. Most significant correlation and interrelationships are between cobalt.nickel and lead-zinc. Cobalt-nickel ratios and regression plots show wide ranges in pyrite from Berg deposit. Use of such plots might enable different types of pyrite from the same deposit to begrouped but genetic classification of mineral deposits based on cobalt.nickel and probably other element ratios or quantities is tenuous. Associationsbetweensamplesbased onmultiple elementsweredemonstratedusing Q-mode factor analysis. Fourfactorsaccounted for 81 per cent of total sample variability andwereconsidered to be geologicallymeaningful. Two factors might be related to the amount of minor element substitution in pyrite, one measuringtotal cation substitution and the secondmeasuring anion substitution in the pyrite lattice. The remaining two factors are interpreted to represent areas with significant concentration of certain minor elements from host rocksor hydrothermal fluids. Contoured concentrations of individual and composite minor elements and factor values reveal zoning in which pyrite with highest minor element concentrations coincides with best coppermolybdenum mineralization and only modestamounts of pyrite. This refutes Ovchinnikov's (1967) statement that highest concentrations of minor elements in a host mineral will occur where that mineral is most abundant. Instead. it appears that minor elements are most abundant in zones of best mineralization, that is, zones where 147 othermetalsulphidesareabundantinaddition to pyrite. This observation is in accord with studiesbyKurz, et a/. (1975) andRyall (1977). Thus,ahighdegree of contamiuseful as aguide to oreandcanbe a nation of pyritebyimpurityelementsmightbe favourable indication of ore potential. APPENDICES APPENDIX A.ELEMENTS DETECTED IN BERG PYRITE APPENDIX B. ANALYTICAL RESULTS - MINOR ELEMENTS IN PYRITE APPENDIX C. DATA PARAMETERS AND COMPUTED CHI SQUARE VALUES APPENDIX D. VARIMAX FACTOR MATRIX, DISSEMINATEDPYRITE APPENDIXE. VARIMAX FACTOR MATRIX.VEINPYRITE APPENDICES APPENDIX A. ELEMENTSDETECTEDIN BERG PYRITE Line spectra of a large number of elements were checked in a group of 16 pyrite concentrates constituting an orientation sample set. The samples were examined initially only on a qualitative basis.The following elementsweredetected in oneormoreSamples. Undoubtedly, some are contaminants from admixed gangue and sulphide grains. The following were not detected.Thesemaybepresent below spectrographic detection limits: but if so, concentrations are Detection limits of thespectrographic method usedare approximately in the 0.1 to 1 OOOppmrange, but eachelementbehaves individually andhas a characteristic upper and lower limit of detection. Characteristic wavelengths and 'index points' o f elements for which standards were available are shown in Table 10. The 'index point' is simply a concentration convenient for describing calibration curves. Commonly maximum and minimum detection limits of elements shown are approximately 10 times and 0.10 of the 'index points.' Contamination of pyrite concentrates by gangue and sulphide inclusions is inevitable. Si to 1 per cent, AI to 0.5 per cent, and some Sr, Ea, Mg, Ca, and Zr were detected and are believed to be due to quartz, feldspar, chlorite, calcite or gypsum, and zircon inclusions. Ganguemineralsare not considered to beserious contaminants if they arepresent in minute quantities since most elements introduced are not contained in the pyrite lattice. 151 TABLE 18. SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS ELEMENTSFOR WHICHCONCENTRATIONS OF PYRITE WERE DETERMINED ~ lmlex Element Wavelength A Point PPm Sb As 2 598.0 2 860.5 2 780.2 Ba 4 554.0 4 130.6 3 130.4 3 067.7 2 497.7 370 3 200 1 800 4.2 330 Be Bi B Cd Ca Cr co cu Ga Ge : 11 : 12.5 92 49 3 261.2 ~ Element Wavelmth A 3 273.9 2 943.6 3 039.1 ~ Pb 2 833.0 65 2 7.79.8 720 ' Sr , Sn . ' Ti 18 21 12.5 24 ' ~ Index Point ppm Mg Mn Mo Ni Ag i loo 3 158.9 4 254.3 3 453.4 ~ Line: Pd 3 421.2 A Standard Reference V ' Zn , Zr 46 2 798.0 3 170.3 3 414.7 3382.8 4077.7 3 464.5 3 175.0 3 361.2 54 96 27 4 2.4 225 32 32 1 500 1M) 32 210 2 942.0 3 185.3 3 345.0 3 345.5 3 273.1 57 . Contamination of pyrite by other sulphide minerals is the main source of concern. The main sulphide contaminant is chalcopyrite. Polishedsectionsshow that chalcopyrite is intimately intergrown with pyrite in the copper-molybdenum zone as minute 'encapsulated' grains within pyrite grain boundaries and as fillings in microfractures. Pyrite in peripheralvolcanicrocks, the pyritic halo zone,andcrystals from all types of veins generally have negligible chalcopyrite intergrowths. Five chalcopyrite samples from different areas within the deposit were analysed to determine effects of chalcopyrite contaminations. Results are shown in Table 19. I I TABLE 19. MINORELEMENTCONTENTOFCHALCOPYRITE (in ppml Sample No. 1 2 3 4 5 ......................... ........................ ........................ ........................ ........................ Pb Zn Ag 12 180 35.0 38 365 43.0 23 10 23 680 1.0 16 620 14.5 .5 .... 8.0 52.0 21.0 20.0 12.0 26.0 1.0 Ti Ma Sn. Mn 164 38 14.0 5.0 -.1.0 4 8.0 >DL ..... Note: Sb, As, Bi, Co, Ni, and Cd were not detected. ....means less than detection limit. From thesedata,assuming a maximum chalcopyrite content of 1 per cent in a pyrite concentrate, it appears that the only significant contribution to the analytical results by 152 chalcopyrite will be copper and possibly a minor amount of zinc (for example, 6.8 ppm Ti present as contamination in pyrite from chalcopyrite in sample 3). Ag,Mn,Pb,and will be below the detection limit. Sphalerite is the second most abundant sulphide contaminant. It is found mainly in the a few samples from outside the copper-molybdenum veinandbrecciaspecimensand zone.Analysis of a singlesample of zoned,pale to medium brown sphalerite gave the following results: Note: Bi, Co, Ni, Mo, and S n were not detected. Sphalerite with this composition would contribute a number of elements in significant amounts to analytical results for pyrite. However,based on this and other analyses of mixed pyrite-sphaleritegrains, Cd appears to be present always and is, thus, useful as an indicator of sphalerite contamination. Every pyrite analysis containing Cd(seven from the total 100 samples) also contains high values of Zn and commonly Mn, Pb, and Ag. In all thesesevencases it is assumed that sphalerite is present and only analytical values of Bi, Co, Ni, Mo. and Sn (if present) wereutilized. Other potential contaminants are molybdenite, galena, tetrahedrite, and covellite, but these can be avoided by careful sample selection and hand picking of pyrite grains. 153 +- . . Bi CI, . . 1.< 128 S.rnPl. HORNFELS .............. 5.257 ......... 4-220 5-248 ......... 620 8-27? ......... 8490 10-253 12-450 510 820 ......... 12.58, 15-285 13-693 IG-dJZ 14-727 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... 700 ......... ......... ......... I ...... 71-533 71-569 71.657 71-738 71-969 71-915 72-400 154 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... .......... ......... ......... 530 lo- 4w k20 ......... 5-552 ......... ......... 6-350 s449 ......... ......... 6-72 7-235 10-683 ......... ......... tT-404 15-134 17-290 2e-512 21-502 ......... ......... 2*-591 ......... 26-595 .......... ......... ......... 1325 ......... ......... 21JS8 31-33, ......... 34-358 69-463 ......... VEIN , ......... -5% 12-,91 ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... ......... lb251 23-545 24-355 25-165 26-43, ......... 30-363 37-390 ........ ......... ......... 43-355 83-25? ......... 3311-658 55-62, ........ .......... 70.515. ......... 71-580 ......... ......... 11--8M M.24.6. . . . F~HY~P. 3.22.7 .......... 700 9w dW 1980 2 IW .......... ROCKS VOl.CAN1C 3.25.7 sw ...... ......... M3 850 ......... 88-68., 88-480 sw .......... ......... ......... 3.11.6 . . . . . . . . . . 1.8.6.. 3.21.6 . c c 350 800 CHALCOPYRITE 1-596 10-510 ......... ......... 74-rw3 . . . . . . . . 26-43? . . . . . . . . . 71-67, ......... SPHALERITE 30.363 . . . . . . . . . 6300 A h 155 c 81 " N, C" Ptl 156 f t f 151 158
