Download The City of Rome

Rome
Rome’s Founders
The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of
civilization. It is so old, it is today known as “the eternal city.”
The Romans believed that their city was founded in the year
753 BCE. Modern historians though believe it was the year 625
BCE.
Kings governed early Rome, but after only seven of them had
ruled, the Romans took power over their own city and ruled
themselves. This will be discussed later in the reading.
The City of Rome
Ancient Roman People
The Roman Empire was so big that there were a lot of different
people with different cultures living in it, so you can’t really say
there was one way of living in the Roman Empire. There were
many different ways of living. Families living in the Roman
Empire took many different forms. In general, there was more
equality between men and women under Roman law than
there was under the Greeks. But there was more equality in the
western part of the Empire, in Europe and North Africa
(including Egypt), than there was in the east, in West Asia.
People of minority races or cultures probably were more
comfortable under the Roman Empire than they were before or
after. There were people of so many different cultures traveling
around the empire interacting with each other that there
seems to have been in general a lot of tolerance for other
cultures. On the other hand, this contact did also cause
tensions, which sometimes burst out into violent persecutions of
minority groups. People were forced into slavery in every
corner of the Roman Empire, from the beginning to the end,
but again the kind of slavery and the way slaves were treated
depended on where you were and also on when. In Italy and
Sicily, for example, big farms were worked by enslaved field
hands, who were very badly treated. But other slaves were
house servants (nannies, nurses, cooks, laundry-women, stableboys, etc.). These were generally better treated. A lot of slaves
also worked for the Roman government, or for private
businesses, as managers, or running a shop, or in small factories.
Still other slaves were criminals who had been sentenced to
work in the mines or other hard labor as punishment. Even if
they were freed people who had once been enslaved they still
didn’t have the same rights as other people, but their children
did, if they had been born free.
All over the Roman Empire, many boys in cities seem to have
gone to school. Some girls went to school, but most girls were
not allowed to. Most countryside folk could not read or write.
Very few people went to college, but those that did probably
traveled far from home to do so. Girls and boys from rich
families were not allowed to get romantic together. Most
marriages among the upper classes were arranged by the
parents. It was probably different, and more like today, for the
poor.
The Romans knew four classes of people. The division was very
important to the Romans. The lowest class was the slaves. They
were owned by other people. They had no rights at all. The
next class was the plebeians. They were free people, but they
had little say at all. The second highest class was the
equestrians (also called knights). Their name means the
“riders”, as they were given a horse to ride if they were called
to fight for Rome. To be an equestrian you had to be rich. The
highest level were the nobles of Rome. They were called
patricians. All the real power in Rome lay with them.
Roman Religion
In some ways Roman religion was a lot like Greek religion, but in
other ways it was very different. Like the Greeks, the Romans
thought that there were many gods, and that these gods each
controlled different parts of the world, such as storms, the
ocean, marriage, blacksmithing, and so forth.
The Romans were particularly interested in power. The chief of
the gods, for the Romans, was Jupiter. He was the god of the
sky and would throw lightning bolts when angry.
For the Romans their emperors were gods, or something very
close to gods, depending on who was asked. Generally in the
eastern part of the Roman Empire, in Egypt, and Western Asia,
people worshipped the emperors as gods. But in the western
part, in Europe, people worshipped only the emperor’s
guardian angel, not the emperor himself.
The Forum
In the earliest days of Rome the Forum was an uninhabited
swamp, but soon the marshy plain at the bottom of the
Palatine Hill was drained and the first paved street (Via Sacra)
was built. The Via Sacra was to remain the most important
street at the very heart of the city. The Forum, while it did
change, was the center of Roman life. It was where politicians
could be heard, and a huge market stood.
With the growth of the empire and the increase in Rome’s
population the old Forum became to small to cope with the
sheer weight of numbers. In time other places were added,
such as the Forum of Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva, and
Trajan.
Nobles would move about on the Forum always followed by a
group of clients, eager to please their patron and assure that
he came to no harm. Many such nobles flaunted their wealth,
adorned in costly clothes, expensive rings, and having with
them exotic pets. And where there was such wealth, there
were of course also many doubtful characters moving about,
keen to reap the benefit of such riches. Quacks, soothsayers
and charlatans of all shapes and sizes were all around.
A Roman’s Identity and Honor
It was with others that a Roman gentleman had to look for any
confirmation of his ability and identity. In Roman society
confirmation by others was sought as well as required. Be they
the elders of his family, his patrons, his clients, army comrades,
or even the people of Rome. No Roman could be his own
judge, but could see himself only through the eyes of others.
They looked not inwards, but to others to understand
themselves. For it was the opinion of others that dictated the
opinion a Roman ultimately held of himself. “A good man” was
a man deemed worthy by others, a man deemed honorable.
But so too, in Roman mind set honorable was only what was
actually honored. Glory and honor were also measured only
by the recognition it drew from others. Therefore, great noble
deeds might be done, but without people knowing of them
there was no glory, fame, or advantage. Also, to Romans the
only advantage to be gained was to climb the social ladder.
Any credit obtained by a Roman meant he could further his
political fortunes; all in the hope of finally achieving that distant
goal of having a seat in the Roman senate.
Hence any achievement was blatantly bragged about to
make absolutely sure everyone knew about it. Anyone too
dignified to do the bragging oneself, simply found others who
would do it for him or her.
However, in a society in which so much depended on the light
in which others saw you, their view could not only elevate you,
but also could destroy you. Any news, be it good or bad,
spread like wildfire in a society that spent much of the day
gossiping in the public baths or at the Forum. Graffiti was
scribbled on walls, and in the inns drunken songs might ridicule
the high and mighty. In the theaters actors would, in their
plays, praise or deride public figures of the day. As a result,
Rome was a city of rumors, for the entertainment of the many
and for the advancement of those whose worst fate could not
be talked about.
Roman Government
The Roman senate was, at first, only meant to advise the king.
However, with time the senate no longer needed a lifetime
king. Instead the senate (also called the Republic) appointed
a consul who ruled Rome for only one year. This was a wise
idea because the consul tended to be very careful and not
rule like a tyrant, because he knew that after the year he could
be punished for bad rule.
The Republic developed a government of many levels, each
with its particular duties. Power was kept in the hands of the
patricians. The working-class was represented, but had very
little power. Slaves, foreigners, and women were not allowed
to hold office.
The first consul was Julius Caesar. The consul selected members
of the Senate. The Senate’s decrees became law unless
vetoed by the tribunes. The ten tribunes were only the workingclass who were elected officials. In theory, the tribunes could
check the power of the senators and protect the rights of
ordinary citizens. They had the power to veto Senate decrees.
Tribunes were also by law immune from arrest. Consequently,
many tribunes were assassinated when they stood in the way of
a senator’s ambition.
The Republic was certainly not a democracy and was not
without its problems. The patricians spent a lot of time fighting
among themselves, each trying to get just a little more power.
During times of crisis, a powerful man could become a dictator.
Despite these problems, more people had a voice in the
government than ever before. By the time Julius Caesar was
born, Rome looked down on any nation ruled by a monarch.
Most citizens swore that Rome would never have another king.
However, by 44 BCE many Romans were convinced that the
ambitions of one man threatened their Republic.
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was born (by caesarean section according
to an unlikely legend) of Aurelia and Gaius Julius Caesar, a
praetor. His family had noble, patrician roots, although they
were neither rich nor influential in this period. His aunt Julia was
the wife of Gaius Marius, leader of the Popular faction.
In 68 BCE Caesar was elected quaestor and obtained a seat in
the Senate; he married (and later divorced) Pompeia. Caesar
supported Gnaeus Pompey and helped him get an
extraordinary generalship against the Mediterranean pirates,
and he later extended Pompey’s command to the war against
King Mithridates in Asia Minor.
Throughout 65 BCE Caesar was elected curule aedile and
spent lavishly on games to win popular favor; large loans from
Crassus made the expenditures possible. Then in 63 BCE
Caesar spent heavily in a successful effort to get elected
pontifex maximus (chief priest). In 62 BCE he was elected
praetor.
At this time Rome was a huge and very rich empire after the
second Punic War, but the Senate did a poor job of running the
republic. The Senate was designed to govern a city, not a
growing empire. The senators often took bribes or were not
careful about how they voted. Many Romans wanted a strong
leader, and the ambitious Julius Caesar was an obvious choice.
Caesar sought the office to consul in 60 BCE. He had recently
returned from Spain where he served a year as governor. The
two consuls at the time were Crassus and Pompey, the leaders
of the war against the slave revolt. Rather than become
involved in a struggle, Caesar convinced Crassus, Pompey, and
the Roman Senate to name him a third consul. This coalition of
three equal rulers later become known as the First Triumvirate.
When Caesar’s yearlong term as consul ended, he used his
influence to get himself appointed governor of Gaul. Gaul was
a territory northwest of the Italian peninsula. He led an army
that captured most of Western Europe. Caesar’s successes on
the battlefield made him the most popular man in Rome.
In 49 BCE, the Senate ordered Caesar to return to Rome, but to
leave his army behind. Caesar feared that his opponents
would destroy him, so he ignored the order and marched his
army back to Rome. Caesar’s orders clearly told him not to
bring his army across the Rubicon River. When he marched the
army across the river, he knew he faced an important decision.
Caesar knew that if he obeyed the Senate and disbanded his
army, his career would be over; but if he marched his troops
across the river, the Senate would order Pompey and his army
to retaliate.
Caesar’s army seized control of Italy while Pompey and his
army fled to Greece. Caesar hunted Pompey and defeated
his army. Pompey then escaped to Egypt with Caesar in
pursuit. When Caesar arrived in Egypt, the ten-year-old king of
Egypt presented Caesar with Pompey’s decapitated head.
On March 26 however, Caesar fought against and killed the
king of Egypt. It was at this time Caesar and Cleopatra
became partners. In June of 47 BCE Caesar left Alexandria,
having established Cleopatra as a client ruler in alliance with
Rome. Either right before or soon after Caesar left Egypt,
Cleopatra bore a son, whom she named Caesarion.
During August of the same year, Caesar met and immediately
overcame Parnaces in Asia Minor. He later publicized the
rapidity of this victory with the slogan veni, vidi, vici (I came, I
saw, I overcame).
The Roman people admired Caesar as a war hero and a strong
leader. In 46 BCE they elected him dictator of Rome. In that
time, dictators were temporary rulers elected in times of crisis,
but Caesar was elected because of his popularity. The last
Roman dictator had been elected almost 150 years earlier.
Caesar used his power to make many changes in Rome, often
without approval from the Senate. A year after his election as
dictator, the Roman people elected Caesar “dictator for life.”
Please remember Julius Caesar was never a “Caesar.” This,
obviously, outraged the Senate, causing his death.
After Caesar’s Death
A year after Caesar’s murder, the Senate selected Octavian,
Lepidus, and Marc Antony to lead the Republic in the Second
Triumvirate. Octavian was Caesar’s teenage grandnephew.
Caesar’s will stipulated that Octavian would become his
adopted son. Marc Antony and Lepidus were generals in
Caesar’s army. Octavian wanted complete control of Rome.
When Lepidus retired, Octavian’s only rival was Marc Antony.
Marc Antony led the Roman army in Egypt, where he met and
fell in love with Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra hoped to
oust Octavian and rule together, but Octavian used the
relationship between Antony and the unpopular Cleopatra to
his advantage. The Roman people supported Octavian when
he declared war on Antony and Cleopatra.
Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra’s ships in 31
BCE. When Marc Antony noticed Octavian forces drawing
near he committed suicide. According to legend, when
Cleopatra heard of Marc Antony’s death, Cleopatra wrapped
an asp (venomous snake) around her arm and the bite ended
Cleopatra’s life.
With the death of Marc Antony in 31 BCE Octavian become
the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian restored peace and order to
Rome. The Roman people gave Octavian the name of
Augustus, which means “respected one.” He also took the title
of Caesar in honor of Julius Caesar. He ruled for forty-one
years, and after his death was deified by many Roman citizens.
After Augustus many emperors would rule Rome. Some
examples are Nero (who was considered insane) Diocletian
(who split the empire in two pieces), Constantine (first Christian
emperor), and Justinian (the last emperor).
The Fall of Rome
The Roman Empire in the end was overrun by millions of
barbarians from the north and east of Europe. It is believed to
have happened two or three times in history that huge
migrations took place across Europe, where peoples moved to
settle in new territories. These great migrations proved too
much for the Romans to stem. Their armies were designed to
defeat other armies, not entire folks and peoples flooding
toward them. The collapse was completed when Rome itself
was conquered by the Visigoth Odoacer and his men in the
year 476 AD.
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar
William Shakespeare based Julius Caesar on written accounts
of Roman history, especially Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble
Greeks and Romans. Shakespeare may also have been
familiar with Lives of the Caesars, a collection of biographies
written by Gaius Tranquillus Suetonius. Nevertheless,
Shakespeare changed many historical facts to fit his fictional
play.