Download Sustainable Harvests: how investing in agriculture can help farmers

Sustainable Harvests:
How Investing in
Agriculture Can Help
Farmers Address
Environmental
Challenges
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author: Carol Thiessen, senior policy advisor at Canadian Foodgrains Bank
Designer: Courtney Klassen
Special thanks go to Canadian Foodgrains Bank staff who reviewed this report: Jim Cornelius, Paul Hagerman,
Anna-Marie Janzen, Jared Klassen, Mike Salomons and Stu Clark
Further thanks to external reviewers: John van Mossel and Jo-Ellen Parry
Canadian Foodgrains Bank is a partnership of 15 Canadian churches and church-based agencies working together to
end global hunger.
November 2015
Cover photo: Mangli Paharin stands in front of the hillside forest that she, together with her self-help group in
Jharkhand, India, is working to conserve. They receive support from World Relief Canada and its local Indian partner
EFICOR.
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ACRONYMS
AFOLU: Agriculture, forestry and other land use
CA: Conservation agriculture
CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity
C4D: Canadian Coalition on Climate Change and Development
CRED: Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
DFATD: Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (Canada)
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FMNR: Farmer-managed natural regeneration
GCF: Green Climate Fund
GM/CCs: Green manure/cover crops
HLPE: High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition
ICRISAT: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid-Tropics
IFAD: International Fund for Agricultural Development (United Nations)
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPM: Integrated pest management
ISM: Integrated soil management
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PFRA: Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
SRI: System of rice intensification
UN: United Nations
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme
UNEP: United Nations Environment Programme
WFP: World Food Programme
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Our ability to feed ourselves depends on the natural environment. Farmers everywhere rely on sufficient water, healthy
soils, biodiversity, and favourable climatic conditions for their livelihoods.
But the global physical environment is increasingly under stress, negatively impacting agricultural productivity and
food security. Environmental degradation also disproportionately harms women, inhibits improved human nutrition,
and hinders the overall economic potential of agriculture.
Sustainable agriculture practices, which can improve food production and farmer livelihoods, while also conserving
natural resources and providing resilience towards climate change, are needed to help farmers address the
environmental challenges they face.
The benefits of sustainable agricultural development practices have been demonstrated through many studies
undertaken throughout the developing world, showing significant yield increases and positive environmental outcomes
when farmers practise resource-conserving agriculture.
Sustainable agricultural practices are especially important for smallholders, who play a vital role in feeding the world
but are often overlooked and relegated to the most marginal lands. Smallholders already hold many practical solutions
to the problems they face, but they need further support. Strong public investments in agriculture, including aid, are
needed. These investments must seek to improve water management, soil health, biodiversity protection, and climate
resilience.
Water management. Increased demands on water and reduced supply in many places mean farmers need to improve
water management by both reducing water loss and improving water productivity. This could include rainwater
harvesting through small-scale storage tanks, sand dams, and the use of drought-resistant crops and varieties.
Soil health. Land degradation is a global problem, affecting smallholder farmers most severely. Farmers around the
world can improve soil health and management, rehabilitate degraded land, as well as provide other environmental
benefits through sustainable agricultural practices. For example, using conservation agriculture techniques, farmers can
improve soil quality, increase water retention, sequester soil carbon, and ultimately, improve their yields.
Biodiversity protection. Biodiversity is necessary for the stability, resilience and adaptive capacity of agricultural
systems. It helps ensure food security, improve nutrition and sustain stable livelihoods. Typically, within agricultural
settings, the more diversified the land use, the more resilient it is to climate change and other environmental risks.
Smallholders play an important role in conserving biodiversity, especially on their farms.
Climate resilience. The impacts of climate change pose new risks for
farmers. Higher temperatures and more extreme weather, including
droughts and floods, are already harming crop production in some
regions, with worse to come. Farmers require both new ideas and
traditional knowledge to build resilience to climate risks. Many activities,
such as agroforestry, that conserve water resources, build soil health and
uphold biodiversity, will enable adaptation to climate change and provide
environmental and livelihood benefits. These activities also contribute to
food security and, in some cases, greenhouse gas mitigation.
In addition, investments in social protection programs play a vital role in
empowering smallholder farmers to take necessary risks for innovation
in the face of environmental challenges. Social protection programs have
been shown to reduce poverty and inequality, while at the same time
encouraging economic growth from agriculture.
To ensure Canada’s key international development investments bear
fruit now and into the future, environmental risks must be addressed and
turned into opportunities—for greater food security, improved nutrition,
growing prosperity and well-being for all.
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“Growing environmental
degradation creates a
corresponding opportunity
to transition towards more
sustainable agriculture…
Sustainable agricultural
development provides the best
response to the challenges of
today and tomorrow.”
INTRODUCTION
Canada’s bread basket almost wasn’t so. In the 1920s and 1930s recurrent droughts, plagues of grasshoppers and
widespread soil degradation devastated the Canadian prairies, leaving 50,000 farmers bankrupt and thousands of farms
abandoned (Gray, 1967).
Then the Canadian government stepped in. In 1935 it established the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration
(PFRA) with approximately $1 million of funding annually in the early years. Working closely with farmers and the
Dominion Experimental Farms, the PFRA established community pastures, implemented water projects such as small
on-farm ponds, planted trees and introduced soil conservation measures to halt erosion (Gray, 1967). These efforts
helped transform the prairie dust bowl into productive farmland again—and left a longstanding legacy of environmental
land management.
This type of sustainable transition in agriculture is also possible in other parts of the world, with the support of key
investments.
Agriculture and the environment share an important interactive relationship. Farmers everywhere depend on sufficient
water, healthy soils, biodiversity and favourable climatic conditions for their livelihoods. At the same time, agriculture
can negatively affect the environment through the overuse or misuse of natural resources, as well as through land
conversion.
To enable a growing global population to feed themselves, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) estimates that 60 percent more food will need to be produced by 2050, compared to 2005/07 (FAO, 2012).
Approximately 1.5 billion smallholder farmers already produce 80 percent of the food consumed in sub-Saharan Africa
and Asia (FAO, 2012a), the regions where global food insecurity remains the highest (FAO, et al, 2015). To ensure food
is produced where it is urgently needed, and where surpluses can generate extra income for poor rural households, the
focus should be on sustainably improving smallholder agriculture production (Tittonell, 2013). To do so, environment
and agriculture must work together.
This paper will argue that the global physical environment is increasingly under stress. This negatively impacts
both agricultural productivity and food security, especially for smallholder farmers who are often relegated to the
most marginal lands. Environmental degradation also impedes the overall economic potential of agriculture, inhibits
improved human nutrition, and disproportionately harms women.
This paper further argues that sustainable agricultural development is needed to help farmers address the
environmental challenges they face. Strong public investments in agriculture that improve water management, soil
health, biodiversity protection, and climate resilience are necessary to build a sustainable foundation for the future.
Donor countries, including Canada, have an important role in supporting this transition.
The first paper in this series (CFGB, 2015) argued that investment in agriculture can reduce poverty and spur nationwide economic growth. A second paper (CFGB, 2015a) made the case for investing in nutrition-sensitive agriculture to
improve access to diverse, nutritious food. These investments in agricultural development would help Canada meet its
global food security goals and provide foundational support for its international development priorities of sustainable
economic growth and maternal, newborn and child health.
To ensure Canada’s key international development investments bear fruit now and into the future, environmental risks
must also be addressed and turned into opportunities—for greater food security, improved nutrition, growing prosperity
and overall well-being.
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THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT
The world is full of natural beauty. Towering mountains,
waving grasslands, fluttering hummingbirds and ponds
teeming with life inspire awe and wonder. Many argue
that nature has intrinsic value—that as part of life on
earth, nature is good in and of itself (Taylor, 1986). It
is also widely recognized that the Earth’s ecosystems
provide practical benefits, such as food, water, disease
management, climate regulation and esthetic pleasure.
The human population’s ability to feed itself depends
on this natural environment—and it is under enormous
strain (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). The
implication of this situation and potential solutions are
the focus of this paper.
FIGURE 1: Freshwater Stress and Scarcity
1,000
Scarcity
Stress
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000 m3
Vulnerable
Cote d’Ivoire
Niger
Sudan
Ethiopia
WATER AVAILABILITY
PER CAPITA PER YEAR
Malawi
in 1990
in 2025
Water
Water is essential for food security. Clean water is
needed for drinking, processing harvests and enabling
proper food preparation. Sufficient water provides
sustenance for crops and livestock. Furthermore, water
is an integral input for economic activities across a wide
range of sectors (HLPE, 2015).
Kenya
Source: UNEP (2008) Vital Water Graphics, http://www.unep.org/dewa/
vitalwater/article83.html
Rain-fed agriculture is the primary form of global food production, including almost all land in sub-Saharan Africa,
three-quarters of cropland in Latin America, and more than half of crop land in Asia (HLPE, 2015).
Agriculture is the main consumer of fresh water resources globally. Agriculture, especially irrigation, accounts for
70 percent of freshwater withdrawals from rivers and groundwater. In South Asia, agriculture’s share of total water
withdrawal is more than 90 percent; in Africa, it is more than 80 percent (IFAD & UNEP, 2013). Irrigated agricultural
land comprises less than 20 percent of all crop land, but it produces 40-45 percent of the world’s food (Döll & Sibert,
2002).
In most parts of the world, water availability is seriously compromised due to population growth, ecosystem
degradation, and increased competition over water use for different purposes, such as industrialization and urban
water systems. Changes in rainfall patterns, linked to climate variability and change, are exacerbating these stresses
(HLPE, 2015). In many places, groundwater is being extracted faster than it can be replenished. The highest rates of
groundwater depletion are in regions of highest agricultural production, such as northwest India, northwest China and
the US Midwest (Whitmee, et al, 2015).
Globally, 34 million hectares of farmland face salinization problems caused in part by over-irrigation, poor drainage and
inefficient water use. This represents approximately 11 percent of irrigated land in the world (HLPE, 2015).
Water quality is also a growing concern. More than 700 million people in the world—more than half of whom live in subSaharan Africa—depend for their survival on water that is contaminated, and often very limited (Heifer International,
2014).
Soil
Soil, like water, is foundational for food security. Soil is the medium through which plants obtain their nutrients and
water. Healthy soils are highly fertile, with a vibrant mix of mineral particles, living organisms and organic matter, and
have good permeability and water holding capacity (Montpellier Panel, 2014). Healthy soils filter rainwater which will
become drinking water; help regulate the climate by storing carbon; and provide a home for two-thirds of the planet’s
species, including insects, bacteria and other micro-organisms (Chemnitz & Weigelt, 2015). Healthy soil has the ongoing
capacity to sustain life.
Much of the world’s soil, however, is not healthy. Land degradation, which refers to a decline in the ability of land to
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supply human needs, including food, is a world-wide problem.
Degraded land covers about 29 percent of global land area (Le,
Nkonya & Mirzabaev, 2014). Indeed, soil is being lost at a rate 1318 times faster than it is being formed (CBD & UNEP, 2010).
Land degradation is caused by erosion, salinization, and
deterioration of biological, physical and chemical factors.
Agricultural practices such as tilling, irrigation, burning,
harvesting, and pesticide use can all contribute to soil
degradation (IFAD & UNEP, 2013). Each year, approximately 5-8
million hectares of farmland are abandoned due to degradation
(Kirui & Mirzabaev, 2014).
Low-income farmers and pastoralists are especially impacted by
land degradation. Poverty may drive farmers to unsustainable soil
management practices, but land degradation also contributes to
poverty. Forty percent of degraded lands are found in areas with
high poverty rates (FAO, 2012b). Not all is lost however. A small,
but significant, 2.7 percent of global land area has improved in
the last 30 years, suggesting that a reversal of land degradation is
possible. These bright spots are located in the Sahel belt in Africa
(see Box 1), central parts of India, as well as some areas found in
Australia, Turkey, Russia and Alaska (Le, Nkonya & Mirzabaev,
2014).
Biodiversity
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, refers to the variety of life on
earth. It includes plants, animals, fungi and micro-organisms, as
well as the communities they form and the habitats in which they
live (CBD, 2007). Biodiversity, both within agricultural systems
themselves (agro-biodiversity) and in the wider landscape, is
needed for the stability, resilience and adaptive capacity of
agricultural systems (Tittonell, 2013).
Biodiversity is the foundation for much of modern agriculture.
Most of today’s crop and livestock varieties are derived from
their wild relatives. Furthermore, biologically diverse, multifunctional landscapes continue to sustain people, largely
through the provision of ecosystem services. During times of
food insecurity, landscapes like these that may contain a mix of
agricultural, forest and wetlands, provide an important safety
net, through, among others, the provision of wild foods and
meat. Biodiverse landscapes are also more resilient to the threats
posed by climate change, such as increased extreme weather
events. Ecosystem services, including soil fertility, pollination,
seed dispersal, nutrient cycling, and natural pest and disease
control, all depend to some extent on biodiversity (Sunderland,
2011). As with water and soil, global food security depends on
conserving and sustainably using biodiversity (FAO, 2004).
Biodiversity, however, is threatened by a variety of factors
including urbanization, deforestation, pollution and the loss of
wetlands (FAO, 2004). Approximately 75 percent of crop genetic
resources have been lost in the past 100 years, and a third of
today’s genetic diversity could be gone by 2050 (IFAD & UNEP,
2013). Wild and domesticated pollinators are being lost, with
serious implications for agriculture and food security. Plant
Box 1: Farmer-managed Natural Regeneration
Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR)
is re-greening land and improving rural lives in
West Africa. First developed in 1983 to protect the
livelihoods of vulnerable farmers in dryland Niger,
FMNR encourages regrowth from the living stumps
of felled trees.
In a review of FMNR evaluations, Weston et
al (2015) found that FMNR has substantially
increased tree density and cover in parts of Niger,
enhanced soil fertility and crop yields (up to 60
percent higher in FMNR-adopting households),
and improved income and local economies.
The re-greening of Niger has resulted in an
average of about 500,000 additional tonnes of
food produced per year, enough to feed 2.5 million
people (Garrity, et al, 2010).
A case study of a World Vision project in semiarid Northern Ghana found that FMNR added
US$654 per year in additional value for FMNRadopting households, a significant amount in a
country where gross national income per capita is
US$1,410. Community members especially prized
the asset creation that FMNR allowed, both in tree
stock and livestock, which improved household
resilience against a range of shocks. They also
valued the increase of wild foods, mostly for
their consumption, and the social well-being they
derived from their greener landscape (Weston, et
al, 2015).
FIGURE 2: Major types and causes of soil degradation
Chemical
degradation
12%
Wind
erosion
28%
Physical
degradation
4%
MAJOR
TYPES
Water
erosion
56%
Agricultural
activity
27%
Industrial
activity
1%
Deforestation
30%
UNDERLYING
CAUSES
Overgrazing
35%
Overuse of
vegetation
(eg. fuelwood)
7%
Source: FAO/UNEP in FEW Resources, http://www.fewresources.org/soil-science-and-society-were-running-out-of-dirt.html
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pollination by insects is important for at least 87
types of food crops, comprising more than 35 percent
of the annual global food production. Approximately,
2.9 billion people get at least 20 percent of their
annual protein from fish. Over-fishing, warming,
acidification of the oceans and marine habitat
degradation all threaten fish stocks (Whitmee, et al,
2015).
FIGURE 3: Threat Status of Species
Biodiversity within modern agricultural systems is
also being lost. Most farmers rely on a small number
of domesticated plant species and animal breeds.
Some 20 percent of the 6,500 breeds of domesticated
animals are threatened by extinction (CBD & UNEP,
2010). Most of the world’s croplands are planted
with just 12 species of grain crops, 23 vegetable crop
species, and about 35 fruit and nut crop species. In
contrast, one hectare of tropical rainforest typically
contains over 100 species of trees (Allen, Prosperi,
Cogill & Flichman, 2014).
Agriculture plays a role in biodiversity loss. Land
use changes for agricultural expansion, particularly
tropical deforestation, are contributing to significant
losses of native species. Between 1961 and 1999,
cropland area increased by more than 20 percent
in the developing world, home to some of the most
biodiversity-rich areas (Baudron & Giller, 2014). This
trend is likely to continue, including in areas with
high biodiversity value in tropical countries, such as
in central Africa (Phalan, et al, 2013).
These two graphs show the threat status of species as assessed by the International Union
for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The graph on the right pulls out the data from the
“threatened” categories shown in the graph on the left and presents it in more detail.
Source: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2010) Global Biodiversity Outlook 3
Climate Change
We have been living in a golden epoch for agriculture. For much of the last 11,000 years, the earth’s climate has been
relatively stable, allowing for global food production to flourish (Dow, et al, 2005). This is slowly changing. Since the
industrial revolution, increased greenhouse gas emissions have led to rising temperatures. The earth warmed an average
of 0.85⁰C from 1880-2012, and will continue to warm in the coming decades (IPCC, 2014).
The impacts of this change include increased ocean acidification, loss of icesheets and sea ice, shrinking glaciers and
rising sea levels (IPCC, 2014). As well, many species have begun shifting their geographical ranges, migration patterns
and seasonal activities in response to ongoing climate change (IPCCa, 2014). In many places, farmers are already
noticing changes in their local environments. They report shifts in rainfall patterns, the timing of seasons, and in plants,
pests and wildlife (C4D, 2013a).
While climate has always been variable, higher temperatures from climate change will increasingly raise the demand for
water, and lead to more droughts in many regions. Precipitation is expected to decrease in mid-latitude and sub-tropical
dry regions. Climate change is also expected to increase the frequency of heavy precipitation events in some areas, with
more flooding as a result (IPCC, 2014).
Since 2000, there has been an annual average of 341 climate-related disasters, such as floods, droughts and storms, up
44 percent from the 1994-2000 average, while geophysical disasters, such as earthquakes, have remained stable. In 2014,
87 percent of disasters were climate-related. This is not due solely to climate change: population growth and economic
development, especially in vulnerable land areas, also play a significant role (CRED, 2015). However, this fits with the
expectation that extreme precipitation events over mid-latitude land masses and over wet tropical regions will become
more intense and more frequent (IPCC, 2014).
It is estimated that greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU) were responsible
for about 25 percent of global emissions in 2010, with agriculture responsible for about half of those. But unlike other
sectors, AFOLU emissions had not grown since 2000 (IPCC, 2014).
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THE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Degradation of the environment has significant implications for humans, including our food security and our economic
progress. The OECD (2014) warns that failing to address global environmental risks could reverse development gains to
date. It estimates that up to 40 percent of development assistance portfolios are affected by climate risks alone. As the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) cautions: “Throughout the 21st century, climate change impacts will
slow down economic growth and poverty reduction, further erode food security, and trigger new poverty traps, the latter
particularly in urban areas and emerging hotspots of hunger” (2014).
Agricultural Production
In many respects, enormous strides have been taken in agriculture over the last 50 years. New technologies and
practices have helped double the average yields of major food crops globally. But millions of smallholder farmers who
make a living from agriculture have not benefitted. Also, the extent of environmental degradation associated with the
growth raises concerns about how sustainable this progress will be into the future (Tittonell, 2013).
Under current trends, by 2050, almost half of cereal production could be at risk due to water stress (Ringler & Zhu,
2015). The livestock sector, which consumes about 20 percent of water used for agriculture, could also face water stress,
especially as people consume more animal products (HLPE, 2015).
Soil degradation reduces soil fertility and leads to lower yields. In some sub-Saharan African countries, productivity
declined in more than 40 percent of the cropland area in the last two decades (IFAD & UNEP, 2013).
And climate change exacerbates the threats already caused by these and other environmental challenges. Higher
temperatures, more extreme weather events, and the migration of pests and diseases to new areas is evident even now,
affecting agricultural production, with more negative than positive impacts. Evidence also suggests that climate trends
have already negatively impacted wheat and maize production in many regions, and at an aggregate global level (IPCC,
2014a).
In future, crop production could fall by two percent per decade due to climate change, even with efforts to adapt, and
production could fall even more after 2050. These yield losses must be understood in the context of a simultaneous rise
in demand for food of 14 percent per decade. Sub-Saharan Africa could experience average yield losses of 22 percent by
mid-century. Asia’s wheat basket, the Indo-Gangetic Plains, could suffer significant losses due to heat stress, while sea
level rise poses serious risks for rice production in many low lying coastal areas of Asia. Meanwhile, drought threatens
the loss of livestock and their rangelands, and could exacerbate pests and diseases (IPCC, 2014).
While maize is particularly vulnerable to seasonal and overall average temperature rises, sorghum, cassava, yam, barley
and pearl millet show more potential to withstand new conditions (Ramirez-Villegas & Thornton, 2015; Thornton, 2012).
FIGURE 4: Yield change with temperature change
60
Wheat, tropical regions
20
0
-20
-40
-60
No adaptation
With adaptation
40
Yield change (%)
Yield change (%)
40
Rice, tropical regions
60
No adaptation
With adaptation
20
0
-20
-40
1
2
3
4
5
Local mean temperature change (°C)
-60
1
2
3
4
5
Local mean temperature change (°C)
Percentage yield change as a function of temperature for wheat and rice in tropical regions for local mean temperature changes up
to 5°C (n=1,048 from 66 studies). Shaded bands indicate the 95% confidence interval.
Source: Challinior, A.J.; Watson, J.; Lobell, D.B.; Howden, S.M.; Smith, D.R. & Chhetri, N. (2014) “A meta-analysis of crop yield under climate change and adaptation” in Nature Climate Change 4: 287-291
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Food and Nutrition Security
Many regions of the world have made substantial progress in achieving food security. Since 1990, the proportion of
undernourished people in developing regions has been almost halved, nearly meeting the 2015 MDG target (UN, 2015).
Yet, almost 800 million people still lack access to sufficient food (FAO, IFAD & WFP, 2015). Some 70 percent of those
who lack adequate food are involved in agriculture (FAO, 2005).
The evidence indicates that those who already experience hunger on a regular basis are most at risk of increased food
and nutrition insecurity due to environmental crises. Growing environmental challenges could increase undernutrition
and stunting, and undermine all four dimensions of food security: availability, accessibility, utilization and stability of
the food system (Whitmee, et al, 2015).
The loss of biodiversity has significant implications for food and nutrition security. A dependence on a narrow genetic
base for global nutrition sources increases vulnerability to extreme weather, disease and other threats (Sunderland,
2011). In the past, dependence on monoculture agricultural systems contributed significantly to the potato famine of
Ireland in the 1840s, the devastation of grape-growing vines in France in the 19th century, and in recent decades, the
extensive loss of banana plantations in Central America due to a virulent disease (Thrupp, 2000).
The rising demand for water is also likely to negatively impact food and nutrition security. Demand could rise by
approximately 55 percent between 2000 and 2050—due to factors such as population growth, economic development
and urbanization. More than 40 percent of the global population will then be living in river basins under severe water
stress (HLPE, 2015). For some African countries future water scarcity will likely cause pervasive economic and food
insecurity, especially in rural areas (Besada & Werner, 2015).
In many places, climate change will harm water resources and pose other challenges to food security. By 2050, 10-20
percent more people could face increased hunger due to climate change, compared to without climate change (Parry,
et al, 2009). Projections suggest that the effects of climate change could increase severe stunting rates by 23 percent
in central sub-Saharan Africa and by 62 percent in South Asia by 2050, compared to without climate change (Tirado,
et al, 2013). The number of malnourished children globally could increase by 21 percent—24 million more than without
climate change (Parry, et al, 2009).
As climate-related disasters increase, so too does the risk of food security crises. Past events serve to demonstrate this
vulnerability. Failures of seasonal rains in East Africa in 2005 led to food insecurity for at least 11 million people (CRED,
2015). In 2010, a severe drought in West Africa caused serious crop and livestock losses, leading to higher food prices
and increased hunger for 7.1 million people in Niger alone (Africa Progress Panel, 2015).
Such crises can have long reaching impacts. In Ethiopia, researchers found that children born during a drought are 36
percent more likely to be malnourished by the age of five. In Kenya, they were 50 percent more likely to be malnourished
a few years later (UNDP, 2007).
Women
Smallholder farmers are at greatest risk from environmental degradation. They face high exposure to natural hazards,
as they often directly depend on natural resources, such as rain, for their agricultural livelihoods. They also have limited
capacity for adaptation, due to lack of access to credit, inputs, and agricultural extension, among other factors (Tirado, et
al, 2013).
Many smallholder farmers are women, and they are especially vulnerable. They are major contributors to the
agricultural economy, comprising almost half of the agricultural work force in developing countries, yet they are
especially limited in their access to productive resources, such as land, water and credit. In Kenya women own just five
percent of total farmland; in Paraguay they own 27 percent of farmland. Even if a woman owns her own land, she may
lack control over its use and the income it generates (Chemnitz & Weigelt, 2015). Unequal power relations within their
families and communities mean women often have less decision-making power and less access to new agronomic
knowledge and marketing information (Heifer International, 2014). These factors all limit women’s adaptive capacity.
Social norms can further contribute to women’s vulnerability. For example, in much of the developing world women and
girls are responsible for collecting water, and can spend hours each day walking and waiting for water, with impacts on
their health, nutrition, and time for other activities such as school. Further water shortages place even more strain on the
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heavy workloads of women, with negative effects on the rest of their families (HLPE, 2015; Tirado, et al, 2013).
A future paper in this series will further examine the challenges women smallholders face in particular, as well as
opportunities to empower women through agricultural development.
Economy
It should be expected that environmental crises that lower agricultural production and increase food insecurity and
livelihood uncertainty will have knock-on economic impacts. A number of recent reports have quantified some of these
impacts.
USD Billion
The Montpellier Panel
(2014) estimates that land degradation in sub-Saharan Africa costs the economy US$68 billion
25
per year. In Malawi, land degradation reduces GDP by 9.5-11 percent each year (Kirui & Mirzabaev, 2014). In contrast,
efforts to improve20
land management could be an economic boon, delivering up to US$1.4 trillion globally from increased
crop production (Montpellier Panel, 2014).
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The UNDP (2007) estimates that arid and semi-arid areas in sub-Saharan Africa could expand by 60-90 million hectares
due to climate change, an area approximately the size of Zambia. This would cause losses of US$26 billion by 2060, a
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number higher than bilateral aid to that region in 2005. Climate change could lead to global aggregate economic losses
between 0.2 and 2 percent of income at 2.5 degrees warming (IPCC, 2014).
5
Economic losses from natural disasters are especially high. From 1994-2013, losses surpassed US$2.6 trillion globally, but
this may be greatly0underestimated as economic damage losses are often not reported, particularly from Africa (CRED,
23.5
19.3
4.2
2015).
Total
Crop
Livestock
Losses
Losses
Production
Finally, a 2015 study from Losses
the FAO examined the impact of natural disasters on the agricultural economy specifically.
It found that the agricultural sector experiences more economic damage than any other sector, taking on 22 percent of
the economic impacts from significant natural hazards and disasters in developing countries. The 78 disasters studied
caused $30 billion damage on the agriculture sector, and $140 billon overall (FAO, 2015).
FIGURE 5: Crop and livestock production losses to natural disasters by region
30
USD Billion
25
20
15
10
5
0
26
28
11
4
1
Total Production Losses
Africa
Asia
21
27
9
4
Crop Losses
1
Latin America and Caribbean
4
1
2
0
0
Livestock Losses
Near East
Central Asia
Source: FAO (2015) The Impact of Natural Hazards and Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security and Nutrition—a call for action to build resilient livelihoods. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AS A RESPONSE
The extent of environmental degradation and its impact on agriculture, food security, women and economic well-being
are increasingly understood. Many effective solutions to these problems are also known, creating an opportunity to
transition towards more sustainable agriculture practices. This refers to agriculture that improves food production and
farmer livelihoods, while also conserving natural resources, such as soil and water, protecting biological diversity, and
providing resilience towards climate change. Sustainable agricultural practices provide a critical response to the food
security challenges of today and tomorrow.
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Sustainable agricultural practices are especially important
for the world’s 1.5 billion smallholders. These producers play
a vital role in feeding the world but are too often overlooked.
Their productivity, in particular, is more dependent on a wellfunctioning ecosystem. They already hold many practical
solutions to the problems at hand (IFAD & UNEP, 2013). But they
need further support.
There is no single blueprint for sustainable agriculture. The
environmental challenges and uncertainties facing farmers
require innovation and adaptability to local contexts. The
following section provides examples of agricultural practices that
can help smallholders conserve water, build soil health, preserve
biodiversity and respond effectively to climate change, while also
increasing food security. While these practices have been divided
into categories, the environmental challenges that farmers
face are complex and overlap in myriad ways, and many of the
practices provide multiple sustainable benefits.
Water Management
Increased demands on water and reduced supply in many places
mean farmers will need to improve water management. They
can do this by reducing water loss and by improving water
productivity – the ratio of output to the water input (HLPE, 2015).
As mentioned earlier, rain-fed agriculture is still the primary
form of food production—and there are a number of ways to
better utilize available precipitation. This could include rainwater
harvesting through small-scale storage tanks, mulching, minimal
tillage, and use of drought-resistant crops and varieties (World
Bank, 2010). Sand dams, a concrete wall across a seasonal river
to hold underground water in sand, can provide clean water for
people, animals, tree nurseries and fields (Stern & Stern, 2011).
Meanwhile, in livestock systems, water productivity can be
improved through improving animal health, raising more waterefficient animals, such as chickens, and adopting proper grazing
practices to reduce rangeland degradation (HLPE, 2015).
Inexpensive drip irrigation kits save water and money, and can
significantly improve water productivity in rain-fed systems.
Research has shown that the timely application of just 100 to
200 millimetres of supplemental irrigation water in addition to
regular precipitation can increase wheat yields from two tonnes
per hectare to more than five tonnes per hectare. Another study
13
Box 2: Sustainable Agriculture: What’s in a term?
A variety of terms are used to refer to agriculture
that increases food security, supports adaptation
to environmental challenges, supports sustainable
rural economies, and also produces environmental
benefits. Terms such as sustainable intensification,
agroecology and climate smart agriculture are
used in different circles but have proven to be
contentious, with debates as to their definition, the
model of agriculture being promoted, and their
relative benefits. This report has chosen to use
sustainable agricultural development to refer to
agricultural practices that can increase agricultural
production in an environmentally sustainable
manner.
Box 3: Watershed renewal in Ethiopia
In the arid hilly region of Amhara, Ethiopia,
Lingerew Ayele is improving his family’s well-being
and helping to rehabilitate a local watershed.
Ayele participated in a four-year project,
supported by Mennonite Central Committee,
to increase soil and water conservation, restore
biodiversity, and increase food security. In
exchange for terracing, planting trees and other
activities, Ayele and other low-income participants
received predictable seasonal cash and in-kind
assets, such as farm animals, during the hunger
months. “I am very happy that I received sheep
as an in-kind payment for working in the tree
nursery,” he said. “Through reinvesting, I am now
able to feed my family properly and can buy
agriculture inputs for farming.”
The project has been so successful, it received a
Green Award from the Ethiopian president in 2012.
Excerpted from C4D (2013)
Photo Credit: MCC Canada
The benefits of sustainable agricultural development practices
have been demonstrated through many studies undertaken
throughout the developing world. For example, an evaluation
in 57 developing countries showed mean yields increased by 79
percent when farmers practised resource-conserving agriculture,
which also increased carbon sequestration as a climate change
co-benefit (Pretty, et al, 2006). Another study reviewed 40 projects
in 20 countries that used sustainable practices such as integrated
pest management, soil conservation and agroforestry. Crop
yields more than doubled on average over 3-10 years, increasing
aggregate food production by 5.79 million tonnes per year, or 557
kg per farming household (De Schutter, 2010).
found that farmers in both Burkina Faso and Kenya doubled or
even tripled their sorghum and maize yields through supplemental
irrigation of 60 to 88 millimetres. The best results were achieved
when supplemental irrigation was combined with improved soil
fertility management (HLPE, 2015).
Rice consumes the most water of all crops, followed by wheat and
maize (Ringler & Zhu, 2015). Rice cultivation also produces more
than 25 percent of global methane emissions, which contributes
to climate change (UNEP, 2013). A variety of practices can
substantially reduce water usage and methane emissions from rice
production.
Amongst these is the system of rice intensification (SRI), the key
practices being alternate wetting and drying of the soil during
grain filling, rather than continuous flooding. This allows oxygen
infiltration which prevents the build-up of anaerobic bacteria
responsible for methane production. SRI also prioritizes organic
fertiliser use, and adapts the way rice is planted and managed.
In Vietnam, the results have been impressive. Over one million
Vietnamese farmers now practise SRI. On average, they have
improved their yields by 9-15 percent, while using 70-75 percent
less seed, 20-25 percent less nitrogen fertilizer, and 33 percent less
water than farmers following conventional rice systems. It has also
boosted their incomes by US$95-$260 per hectare (Neate, 2013).
Box 4: Conservation Agriculture
Conservation agriculture enables farmers to
reduce vulnerability, adapt to climate change,
and improve food security. It involves three key
management practices: minimal soil disturbance
through reduced or no tillage; permanent organic
soil cover, such as with mulch; and diversified crop
rotations or intercropping (FAO, 2015a).
In an analysis of conservation agriculture systems
at the field level, Corbeels, et al (2014) found
that conservation agriculture has the potential
to increase crop yields in the fields, and income
over the medium-term, and is most beneficial in
rain-dependent systems. A survey of 125 farms in
Zambia during the 2001/02 cropping season found
that hand-hoe farmers following conservation
agriculture practices produced 1.5 tons per hectare
more maize than did farmers using conventional
ox-plow tillage (Garrity, et al, 2010).
Conservation agriculture is knowledge-intensive
and requires careful management and intensive
learning initially (FAO, 2015a). Done well it
is an important boon to soil health, resource
management and greenhouse gas reduction,
particularly for smallholder farmers where
alternatives are limited (Buffet, 2015).
Soil Health
Conservation agriculture is producing positive outcomes for both
farmers and the environment (see Box 4). Using conservation
agriculture techniques, farmers can improve soil quality, increase
water retention, sequester soil carbon, and ultimately, improve
their yields. A study in Mozambique found that maize yields
under a conservation agriculture system of maize-pigeon pea
intercropping without chemical fertilizers were nearly five tonnes
per hectare after three years compared to yields of approximately
one tonne per hectare for solo maize (Tittonell, 2013). Conservation
agriculture is especially beneficial where rainfall is erratic and over
the long-term as soil health improves (Corbeels, et al, 2014).
Integrated Soil Management (ISM) includes a broad range of
soil fertility management practices adapted to local conditions,
such as erosion control, including terracing and bunds, and the
targeted use of inputs. In West Africa, more than 300,000 farmers
are practising micro-dosing of fertilizers with support from the
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid-Tropics
(ICRISAT), resulting in 30-100 percent higher yields for sorghum
and millet. Higher yields, together with improved seeds, access to
finance, storage and markets, has improved incomes by between 50
and 130 percent (Montpellier Panel, 2014).
In Burkina Faso, zai pits—small planting pits supplemented
with organic material—were developed locally with indigenous
knowledge (Motis, et al, 2013). The pits help farmers capture runoff
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Box 5: Saving money and labour in Malawi
Thomas Nkhunda is reaping the benefits of
conservation agriculture in Malawi. He sows 2.8
hectares of his three hectare farm following
conservation agriculture principles, resulting in
higher yields for less labour. The maize under
conservation agriculture yielded 7.8 tonnes per
hectare in 2014, compared to 3.5 tonnes per
hectare on fields grown conventionally, with equal
fertilizer applications on both systems.
Nkhunda received technical support from the
International Wheat and Maize Improvement
Centre (CIMMYT) and extension services from a
local NGO.
Now Nkhunda’s family has surplus food, his
children regularly attend school, he has put a metal
roof on his house, and he has time to work on
other income-generating activities.
Excerpt from a story by Laura Rance
Photo Credit: Laura Rance
There are a number of ways to improve soil health and
management that also provide other environmental benefits, such
as carbon sequestration.
Photo Credit: Kate Green, USC Canada
water and prevent soil erosion, as well as concentrate nutrients when
and where needed. In the past 30 years, between 200,000 and 300,000
hectares of land has been rehabilitated this way. This has enabled
some 80,000 additional tonnes of grain to be grown annually, enough
to feed 500,000 people (Garrity, et al, 2010). It has also spawned a
profitable economic activity for young men, who travel from village to
village digging zai pits for farmers (Pretty, et al, 2011).
Green manure/cover crops (GM/CC) have helped farmers
worldwide. GM/CCs are crops such as cowpea, jackbeans and
buckwheat grown to improve soil fertility, weed control and food
production, especially on degraded land. They increase organic
matter and nutrient cycling, fix nitrogen, conserve soil, improve
soil moisture, and control plant diseases (Bunch, 2003).
A study on 180 communities in Nicaragua following Hurricane
Mitch in 1998 found that smallholder farmers who had integrated
green manures, crop rotations, mulch, trees and other sustainable
agricultural practices had 40 percent more topsoil on average, less
soil erosion, higher field moisture, and lower economic losses than
control plots on conventional farms. Their plots on average lost 18
percent less arable land to landslides and had 69 percent less gully
erosion than conventional farms (De Schutter, 2010).
Biodiversity Conservation within Agriculture
Within agricultural settings, more diversified land use
generally leads to more resilience to climate change and other
environmental risks, helping to ensure food security, improve
nutrition and sustain stable livelihoods (CBD & UNEP, 2010).
Resilience is further gained through crop genetic diversity which,
for instance, provides some resistance to diseases and allows
farmers to take advantage of different soil types and microclimates
for nutritional and other benefits (Allen, et al, 2014).
Box 6: Riverbank rehab in Nepal
In East Central Nepal, formerly barren riverbanks
have been transformed into lush fields and
biodiverse forests. Heavy rains, combined
with steep mountain slopes and changing land
use, triggered landslides and flash floods that
destroyed crops, damaged infrastructure and
displaced families.
But an ongoing project from local NGO Parivartan
Nepal, supported by USC Canada, has mobilized
community members to rehabilitate riverbanks,
sustainably manage community forests, enhance
biodiversity, and improve livestock grazing
practices.
Since 2001, Parivartan has conserved nearly 3,000
hectares of vulnerable riverbank land, benefiting
more than 4,000 people directly and over 70,000
indirectly through improved soil fertility, fodder
supply, biodiversity, and watershed management.
Excerpted from C4D (2013)
Smallholders, including pastoralists, play an important part in
conserving crop genetic diversity, typically on their farms. They
have domesticated at least 5,000 plant species, 40 livestock
species, and have protected more than 7,600 plant breeds over
time. They have the local knowledge, animal germplasm and
experience to continue to conserve biodiversity (ETC Group,
2009). Communities in Peru, for example, are conserving about
1,500 varieties of the approximately 4,000 potato varieties found
in the world today. While modern crop varieties may increase
productivity under good growing conditions, studies have found
that traditional varieties with their greater genetic diversity may
hold up better under environmental stress and climatic variability
(Swiderska, et al, 2011).
A study in China looked at villages that were involved in a 10-year
participatory plant breeding program. It found that villages where
farmers were actively participating in breeding programs had
enhanced crop and animal diversity, forest resources and herbal
medicines. In addition, farmer incomes had increased by about 30
percent compared to non-project villages (Swiderska, et al, 2011).
Integrated pest management (IPM) is another way to use and
preserve biodiversity. Use of pest-resistant varieties, conserving
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Box 7: Irrigation reservoirs in India
Increased frequency of droughts, linked to climate
change, used to force Bishu Murmu to migrate
from his remote village in Jharkhand state, eastern
India, to Delhi in search of work. But that changed
when Murmu and other local villages were hired in
2011 to dig a large water reservoir in the village—
part of a Foodgrains Bank-supported project.
The reservoir means a new water supply to irrigate
their small fields and grow a second crop each
year. “Now we have a pond and I can cultivate my
land. So I will never go to Delhi,” said Murmu.
insect predators, and careful crop management can cut down on
crop losses to insects and diseases. Effective weed management,
from timely weeding to use of surface residues such as mulch, can
reduce the need for synthetic pesticides (IFAD & UNEP, 2013),
and the collateral damage they cause to biodiversity (Oosthoek,
2013). In Mali, where IPM is used in cotton and vegetable
cultivation, pesticide use has fallen from an average of 4.5 litres
to 0.25 litre per hectare (Pretty, et al, 2011). There is still much to
learn about what components of biodiversity impact soil, water
and plant life, but scientists increasingly understand that there
are benefits to preserving the rich web of interdependent, often
unknown organisms (SP-IPM, 2012).
Climate Resilience
The impacts of climate change pose new risks for farmers.
They require both new ideas and the traditional knowledge
that has helped farmers withstand centuries of short-term
climate disturbance and uncertainty. Notably, many activities
that conserve water resources, build soil health and uphold
biodiversity will both enable adaptation to climate change and
provide environmental and livelihood benefits in their own right.
They can contribute to a triple win, for food security, climate
change adaptation and in some cases, greenhouse gas mitigation.
Box 8: Diversified crops in Haiti
Nineteen-year-old Yvette Nicholas hasn’t been
farming long, but she knows that things are
different in Haiti from when her parents were
young. “The older people taught me that rain
started in April. Now people are planting their
gardens in June and July because there’s no rain.”
With support from Mennonite Central Committee
(MCC), Nicholas is taking steps to adapt to these
climatic changes, mostly by diversifying the crops
she’s growing. MCC provided cuttings for sugar
cane, plantains, sorghum and manioc, and seeds
for peanuts and corn. She has also planted papaya,
mango and moringa trees in her garden, which she
purchased from the MCC-supported community
tree nursery.
Agroforestry is one example of a practice that can enhance
food security while also increasing resilience to climate change.
Integrating trees into crop and/or livestock systems can diversify
Story from Stephanie McDonald
farm outputs and rural diets through the provision of fruits
and nuts, and diversify livelihoods by providing food and fuel
wood for sale (Dawson, et al, 2013). In places where heat stress is
problematic, agroforestry systems can provide important shade
for crops. The integration of nitrogen-fixing trees into crop fields
can cut down on fertilizer use, reduce soil erosion, and increase
soil organic material. Using ‘fertilizer trees’ has shown high returns on investment, increasing yields in staple crops and
improving household food security (IFAD & UNEP, 2013). The use of nitrogen-fixing trees in Malawi to help transition
from fertilizer subsidies has benefitted 1.3 million of the poorest people, with yields increasing to approximately two or
three tonnes per hectare from one tonne per hectare (Garrity, et al, 2010).
Furthermore, trees can provide environmental benefits through their ability to sequester carbon above and below
ground, especially for systems using leguminous trees, such as Faidherbia (Montpellier Panel, 2014). However the
mitigation potential of agroforestry systems is highly dependent on the agroecosystem, the species planted and on the
specifics of the agroforestry practice (UNEP, 2013).
Another key approach to building climate resilience is through diversification of crops. Including a wider diversity of
crops, or crop varieties, in farming systems will help spread risk, as will more mixed farming systems. A number of case
studies from Central America found that farmers using more diversified farming systems suffered significantly less
damage after serious natural disasters than those dependent on monocultures. Improved soil health and higher agrobiodiversity in fields of diversified crops minimized crop losses (Silici, 2014).
Sorghum, cassava, yam and pearl millet show more potential to withstand climatic stresses in Africa. By contrast, subSaharan Africa depends substantially on maize for calories, but maize is highly susceptible to heat stress and drought
(Ramirez-Villegas & Thornton, 2015). The growing areas for bananas may change, due to shifting areas of heat stress, but
they could also help farmers diversify, especially in areas with plentiful rainfall (Thornton, 2012).
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Box 9: IFAD’s Adaptation for Smallholder
Agriculture Programme
Risk Management
In many cases, farmers adopting the sustainable agriculture
practices described above will require new knowledge, improved
seeds and new technologies. Changing farming practices without
a safety net to cover potential losses is often risky for farmers who
live from harvest to harvest. A survey of 1,500 households in the
Ethiopian Highlands, for example, found that farmers were more
concerned about potential losses than gains when faced with
decisions about using new technologies. Well-designed social
protection programs, including crop and livestock insurance
and cash transfers, therefore, could play a vital role in enabling
smallholder farmers to experiment with new techniques (African
Progress Report, 2014). With new risks of increased drought,
floods, and other environmental shocks being added to longstanding risks of illness and market variability, the need for social
protection is ever more critical (IFAD, 2011).
With support from Canada, the International Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD) is helping
smallholder farmers adapt to the impacts of
climate change. When the Canadian government
came looking for a dedicated funding window
for smallholder adaptation, the Rome-based UN
agency didn’t have one. But that soon changed.
The Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture
Programme (ASAP) was launched in 2012, with
help from a $20 million grant from Canada (C4D,
2013).
Now IFAD’s ASAP has attracted more than
US$350 million in financing from donor countries
to help IFAD scale up and integrate climate
change adaptation into its investments, ensuring
smallholder farmers can build their resilience to
climate change. In the process, it has become
the largest global climate adaptation program
for smallholder farmers, working in more than 30
developing countries (IFAD, 2014).
Not only can social protection programs empower farmers to take
necessary innovation risks, but they can also lessen the exposure
and sensitivity of vulnerable households to environmental shocks.
When disasters hit, farmers with safety nets are more likely to
be able to protect their productive assets and respond effectively
to new challenges. Social protection programs are an important
way to link short-term risk reduction with long-term resilience
(Tirado, et al, 2013). They have also been shown to reduce poverty
and inequality, while at the same time encouraging economic
growth from agriculture (African Progress Report, 2014). Ethiopia
and Rwanda, which have strong records on reducing poverty and
food insecurity, have both developed innovative and effective
social protection systems (African Progress Report, 2014).
Funding has supported the integration of climate
risk analysis into agricultural value chain projects,
such as for coffee and cocoa growers in Nicaragua;
the training of women as veterinarians to treat
climate-related livestock diseases in Kyrgyzstan;
and the promotion of livelihood diversification and
increased asset bases for women in Nigeria (IFAD,
2014).
FIGURE 6: Crop and livestock production losses after major
droughts in sub-Saharan Africa 2003-2013
THE NEED FOR INVESTMENT IN
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT
25
A transition to more sustainable agricultural practices is
possible—and is essential. It is necessary to ensure farmers
around the world, especially where food insecurity is highest,
can continue to respond to global food needs while also
navigating increased environmental risks. This transition will
require an increase in investment in agriculture. The sustainable
development practices outlined in this paper are often
knowledge-intensive, and will require either the acquisition or
dissemination of knowledge and technologies.
USD Billion
20
15
10
5
0
23.5
Total
Production
Losses
19.3
Crop
Losses
4.2
Livestock
Losses
17
USD Billion
An earlier paper in this series, Money in the pocket, food on
the table (CFGB, 2015), argued for greater investments in
agriculture to reduce poverty and stimulate economic growth.
Source: FAO (2015) The Impact of Natural Hazards and Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security and Nutrition—a call for action to build resilient livelihoods. Rome: Food and Agriculture
For greatest benefits, it recommended targeting smallholder
Organization of the United Nations
farmers, especially women; food crops; public goods, such
as rural infrastructure, research, extension services and farm
organizations; and risk management tools. A second paper, Growing Nutrition (CFGB, 2015a), further argued that
nutrition goals must be considered in all these investments, to ensure30
they contribute to health and nutrition. These will
help safeguard the existing commitments made by the Canadian government
to address maternal, newborn and child
25
health.
20
15
10
5
This paper has argued that it is necessary to ensure that
investments in agricultural development also promote
sustainable agricultural practices. These investments must
enable farmers to conserve natural resources and ecosystems and
boost their resilience while strengthening long-term food security
and economic livelihoods (FAO, 2014). The goal of achieving zero
hunger and building a healthier planet depends on it.
The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has
estimated that an additional US$50.2 billion in public resources
by 2020 are necessary to meet global food security needs.
Transitioning to more sustainable production systems will
require even higher investment levels, especially initially (FAO,
2012c). Restoring degraded lands may mean foregoing income in
the early years. For the poorest farmers, without social protection
there is no cushion for these up-front costs, no matter what food
security and environmental gains result later (IFAD & UNEP,
2013). The additional costs just to adapt to climate change within
agriculture have been estimated variously at US$7 billion per
year to 2050, US$11.3-12.6 billion per year by 2030, and a total of
US$225 billion to 2050 (Deering, 2014).
Box 10: Green Climate Fund
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is designed to
become the main global financing mechanism for
climate change adaptation and mitigation actions
in developing countries, with the potential to make
sustainable agriculture a key focus (GCF, 2014).
The GCF was established in 2010 and became
active in May 2015, with first proposals likely to
be approved in time for the UN climate change
conference in Paris in December 2015 (GCF,
2015). The Fund has identified “sustainable
climate-smart agriculture,” particularly in least
developed countries of Africa and Asia, as a
potential investment priority. This is due to the
importance of agriculture for these economies
and the livelihoods of the poorest people, as well
as agriculture’s significant vulnerability to climate
change impacts (GCF, 2015a).
It remains to be seen how effective the GCF will
be at raising and managing the funds needed,
especially for adaptation which has been
underfunded to date (Rowling, 2014). So far, 34
countries have pledged US$10.8 billion, including
$300 million from Canada (GCF, 2015b).
Preparing farmers to better face the environmental challenges
ahead, however, will be cost-effective in the long term. Investing
in agriculture has significant economic benefits, as outlined in an
earlier paper in this series (CFGB, 2015). Investing in agriculture
can also help reduce the costs of disasters. One study found that
the global economic losses from natural disasters in the 1990s could have been reduced by $280 billion if $40 billion had
been invested in protective measures (CNA & Oxfam America, 2011).
In another case study, significant benefits were found from investing in agricultural-related disaster risk reduction.
International and national humanitarian organizations have long implemented agricultural activities to reduce the
vulnerability of the indigenous Beja people to regular droughts in northeastern Sudan. In 2009, a cost-benefit analysis
found that the cost-benefit ratio was 1:61 for farming terraces, 1:2.4 for earth embankments constructed to capture water
from a seasonal river, and 1:1800 for pump-irrigated communal vegetable gardens (IFRC, 2012). Properly targeted
investment dollars today will reduce the dollars needed in future.
Aid for Agriculture
Money in the pocket, food on the table (CFGB, 2015) also made the case for increased aid for agricultural development.
This is especially necessary to fund a sustainable agricultural transition. As the FAO (2012b) argues: “One of the most
important incentives for sustainable food systems is the availability of long-term finance to support the transition.”
The private sector, especially farmers themselves, will play a significant role in increasing agricultural investments. But
transitioning to sustainable practices often requires new agricultural processes and knowledge, which may not provide
profit incentives for private sector companies (Tittonell, 2013). Public sector research is required. Governments in
low-income countries must also play a role but budget constraints hamper their ability to sufficiently fund agricultural
development (Schmidt-Traub & Sachs, 2015).
To enable farmers in the developing world to adopt some of the key practices of sustainable agriculture development,
donor countries, including Canada, will need to increase their financial support. Canada has prioritized food security as
a key international development objective. Increased support will help meet that goal. It could also help Canada meet its
commitment to supporting developing countries in responding to climate change.
As part of the 2009 Copenhagen Accord on climate change, developed countries pledged to provide both fast start
(short-term) and longer term financing to help developing countries adapt to and mitigate climate change. Canada
contributed approximately $1.2 billion of fast start financing between 2010 and 2012 to meet these goals. While much
of that financing went to support clean energy development and other activities that slow climate change, Canada
18
FIGURE 7: Canada’s aid spending on Food Security (Agriculture, Food
assistance and Nutrition) 2005-2014
500
Million $ Cdn per year
also made some strategic investments in agricultural
adaptation. For example, Canada helped initiate an
adaptation program for smallholder farmers at the
International Fund for Agricultural Development
(IFAD) (See Box 9). Canada also supported a number
of Canadian civil society organizations in their work
helping farmers in vulnerable African communities
adapt to climate change (C4D, 2013). Since 2012,
however, Canada has only contributed approximately
$300 million toward the international community’s
longer term climate financing goal (GCF, 2015b). More
needs to be done.
400
2005-2008
300
2008-2011
200
2011-2014
100
0
Nutrition
Food Assistance
Agriculture
Canada boosted its dedicated funding for agricultural
Source: Data from DFATD (2015a) Statistical Report on Canadian International Assistance, 2013-14
development after 2009. Following the global food
crisis in 2007-08, and the G8 L’Aquila Summit in
2009, Canada doubled its aid for agriculture between 2008 and 2011, to an average of approximately $450 million/year
(DFATD, 2015). But since 2011, Canada’s aid for agriculture has been in decline, down 30 percent from the L’Aquila
commitment (DFATD, 2015a).
A renewed Canadian commitment to sustainable agricultural development will make a vital contribution to the global
future.
CONCLUSION
Sustainable agricultural development is a win for smallholder farmers and it is a win for the planet. As Kanayo F. Nwaze,
president of IFAD put it: “It is clear that food security and climate change, humanity’s two greatest challenges in the 21st
century, are inextricably linked” (IFAD, 2011).
This paper has argued that the global environment is facing serious stress—soil fertility is degrading, water resources
are straining, biodiversity is weakening and climate change is posing serious additional threats. Environmental
degradation harms agricultural production and food security, especially for smallholder farmers. It also impedes the
economic growth potential of agriculture, inhibits improved nutrition, and disproportionately impacts women.
This paper has further argued that a transition to sustainable agricultural systems is needed to improve water
management, soil health, biodiversity, and climate resilience. Social protection systems can support this transition.
The enormous challenges facing agriculture require the full commitment of farmers and other private investors,
developing country governments and donors. Canada can, and should, play a key role in this transition. It should restore
agricultural aid to $450 million per year, the level of spending from 2008-2011.
Eighty years ago the Canadian government saw serious environmental destruction across the Canadian prairies. It
recognized that agricultural production and the livelihoods of thousands of farmers were at stake. And it responded
with timely investments in environmental management and sustainable farming practices that helped transform the
Canadian prairies from a dust bowl to breadbasket.
New sustainable agriculture success stories can be supported in some of the poorest and most environmentally
degraded countries in the world. Together, a sustainable agricultural transition is possible.
19
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Baudron, F. & Giller, K.E. (2014) “Agriculture and nature: Trouble and strife?” in Biological Conservation, 170: 232-245
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