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ANCIENT GREECE AND PERSIA
THE WORLD'S FIRST CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS
GREEK PERSIAN WARS
BATTLE OF SALAMIS MONUMENT
THE GREATEST AND MOST DECISIVE BATTLES
IN WORLD HISTORY
The Greek Persian Wars started with the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, which was the Persian
Empire’s first assault wave against the West. The second assault wave came with a series of
battles in 480-479 BC, including the Battle of Thermopylae that gained popular attention a few
years ago with a 2007 movie focused on the last stand of 300 Spartans against the Persians in
the mountain pass at Thermopylae. Reading below, you will quickly learn that lists of the
greatest and most decisive battles in all of human history often include three battles of the
Greek Persian Wars.
Before turning our attention to battles of the Greek Persian Wars, we should take a moment to
consider assertions that this or that battle was "the greatest and most decisive." Such
contentions can result in a never-ending parlor game that fails to resolve differing opinions
because the game is largely based on "what-if" questions. What if the outcome of a battle had
been different? What if the victors had been defeated? What then? This parlor game is
speculative and subject to ongoing debate so reasonable people can make persuasive
Copyright © 2016 Ancient Greece and Persia: The World's First Clash of Civilizations. All Rights Reserved.
arguments for differing views. Nevertheless, the game can be worthwhile because it sharpens
the mind about the significance of historical events that relate to us today, as individuals and as
a society. The point is simple – what happened to our predecessors and ancestors is a key
ingredient in the mix that makes us what we are and binds us to one another. We are well
advised to at least occasionally reflect on times long ago because understanding those past
times is a necessary part of following the ancient Greek maxim – Know Thyself.
Before departing for ancient and often confusing times, let’s consider the "what-if" question in
a more recent and familiar context: What was the greatest and most decisive battle fought
during World War II? A little internet research will suggest one likely answer is The Battle of
Britain.
What if Winston Churchill’s "blood, sweat and tears" had not been sufficient for the British to
keep a stiff upper lip and The Battle of Britain ended in victory for Germany? Then, with all
Europe under Hitler’s thumb, what if The Fuehrer did not need to divide his war-making forces
and Germany was not fighting on two fronts after it attacked the Soviet Union? Then, with
Europe and the Soviet Union subjugated, what if Hitler gazed with squinted eyes west across
the Pacific Ocean to an isolated America, while Japan glared east across the Atlantic. Then
what? Food for thought about happenings not so long ago. Now let’s go back in time about
2,500 years. We will begin by getting the lay of the land.
THE LAY OF THE ANCIENT LAND
Use the map below to follow along on the tour. The map shows numerous important place
names. To help get our bearings, let’s describe the map starting at the bottom-center.
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LAND OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS AND WESTERN PERSIA
The island at the bottom-center of the map is Crete in the Mediterranean Sea. South of Crete
(beyond the map’s boundary) is the continent of Africa with Libya and Egypt as the two closest
African countries to Crete. Moving up, northwest of Crete, you will see the city of Sparta in
southern Greece. The area of southern Greece (up to the city of Corinth) is called the
Peloponnese. The body of water to the far left (west) of Greece is the Ionian Sea, and further
west (beyond the map’s boundary) is Italy. The body of water to the right (east) of Greece is the
Aegean Sea. The Aegean Sea separates Greece from modern-day Turkey to the far right, and
both the Ionian and Aegean Seas are part of the Mediterranean Sea.
Moving north from Sparta to cross the Isthmus at Corinth and leave the area of the
Peloponnese, you come to the city of Plataea. Although small, Plataea played outsized roles at
the beginning and end of the Greek Persian Wars. The Wars started in 490 BC with the Battle of
Marathon, and the Greek soldiers (called hoplites) who fought at Marathon consisted of 9,000
Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans. Eleven years later, in 479 BC, the final land battle against the
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Persians was fought near Plataea by an alliance of Greek city-states.
For a moment, glance to the far right (east) across the Aegean Sea to modern-day Turkey (also
known as Anatolia or Asia Minor), which was just a small part of the vast Persian Empire. Note
the island of Samos just off the coast and, near the coast to the northwest of Samos, the city of
Ephesus (famous in the ancient Greek, Roman and Christian eras). On the coast between Samos
and Ephesus is Mount Mycale (not shown on the map). In 479 BC, the sea and land Battle of
Mycale was fought about the same time as the Battle of Plataea. With the Greeks victorious in
both battles, the Greek Persian Wars came to an end.
Now back to Plataea on the Greek mainland. Moving south from Plataea you will pass a small,
unnamed island just off the coast and, beyond that, you will see the island of Aegina. As with
many of this map’s place names, Aegina will appear and reappear later in our narrative as
historical events unfold. For example: Aegina is the likely place where the first coins of Europe
were made; Aegina was a major economic (and sometimes military) competitor to Athens;
Aegina’s rivalry with Athens was used by the cunning leader of Athens, Themistocles, to trick his
fellow Athenians so they unwittingly prepared for a battle against the Persians that the
Athenians did not see coming. But those stories will come later.
Now go back up north from Aegina to that small, unnamed island between Aegina and Plataea.
There is a fitting coincidence in the fact this island is unnamed on the map. If you were to ask a
random person on the street to name a battle fought during the Greek Persian Wars, you would
usually find yourself stared at as if you had three heads. But on rare occasions you would get a
response, and the most likely answers would be either Marathon or Thermopylae. Fair enough,
but those two battles were not decisive because the Persians came back again ten years after
Marathon and the Greeks lost at Thermopylae. So what if you then asked, “What about the
Battle of Salamis?” Once again, the odds are good you would be looked at as if you had three
heads.
That small unnamed island just off the coast to the south of Plataea and west of Athens is
Salamis for which the 480 BC Battle of Salamis is named – and the Battle of Salamis was
decisive. Granted, there were two more major battles after the Battle of Salamis, but Salamis is
what really broke the Persians and their Great King, Xerxes, who fled the land of the Greeks
after this battle.
As will be discussed later, the Battle of Salamis is arguably the most significant battle of the
Greek Persian Wars, and the Battle of Salamis has a strong claim to be acknowledged as the
greatest and most decisive battle ever fought in all of world history. We also will see later that
one man – and one man alone – had the amazing foresight, political cunning, tactical savvy and
strategic genius to lead the Greeks to a victory that saved Western Civilization from subjugation
by the Persian Empire. That man was Themistocles whose accomplishments we will consider
when we learn later why he was the hero of another man with a very impressive military and
political background – five-star general and U.S. President, Dwight D. Eisenhower.
Back to the map: From the unnamed island of Salamis move east to Athens and, from there, go
northeast to Marathon. Marathon is 26 miles from Athens, and the Battle of Marathon is
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where the Greek Persian Wars started in 490 BC. Shortly, we will discuss this profound event in
some detail as well as the “Mysteries of Marathon.” But first, let’s finish the map.
From Marathon, go northwest to Thermopylae, which is a mountain pass in northern Greece
where the Battle of Thermopylae was fought in 480 BC. The dramatic last stand of King
Leonidas and his 300 fellow Spartans, along with contingents of hoplites from other Greek citystates, made this struggle so memorable.
To the east of Thermopylae you will see the northern edge of a large and long Greek island that
stretches down the east coast of Greece beyond Marathon. This is the island of Euboea (not
identified on the map but its major city of Eretria is identified). The northern point or head of
Euboea was known as Artemisium in ancient times. It was in these waters off northern Euboea
that the Battle of Artemisium took place while the Battle of Thermopylae was underway. So the
Greeks fought two major battles simultaneously, on land and sea, in a futile effort to stop the
advancing Persians.
Now move far north to the area of Macedonia, which had a complex relationship with the
Greeks to the south – a relationship that varied over time. In some ways Macedonia was
“Greek” but in other ways it was not. During the time of the Greek Persian Wars, Macedonia
was a Greek kingdom but beyond the influence sphere of the three major Greek city-states –
Athens, Sparta and Thebes (Thebes is located on the map about halfway between Athens and
Thermopylae). And for a period, Macedonia was even subjugated by Persia, so this is where the
Persian Empire extended its tentacles the greatest distance into Western Civilization. But this is
not what Macedonia is primarily remembered for. That came more than a century later with
the rise of Macedonian King Philip II who, with his phalanxes of long spears, dominated all the
other Greeks and then his son, Alexander the Great, used those same long-speared phalanxes
to dominate the entire known world. But that is another story.
From Macedonia on the map, move far to the east and you arrive in the land of Thrace. You are
still in modern-day Europe, today’s Bulgaria. But during 490–479 BC, Thrace became part of the
Persian Empire.
Moving farther east you come to the city of Byzantium, later renamed Constantinople after the
Roman Emperor Constantine I, or Constantine the Great (272–337 AD), who established
Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. Later, Constantinople was renamed
again as Istanbul when the city was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Today,
Istanbul is the most populous city in Turkey and serves as the “bridge” between the East and
West. In fact, today there are two real bridges in Istanbul that connect “Asia” with “Europe” by
crossing a narrow straight of water called the Bosporus. The Bosporus, in turn, connects the
Sea of Marmara to the south with the Black Sea to the north (upper right corner of the map).
(Note that the Bosporus, Sea of Marmara and Black Sea are not identified by name on the
map.)
During the time of the Greek Persian Wars, there was another “bridge” between the East and
West. On the map move down to the city of Troy. This is the city made famous by the Trojan
War (approx. 1200 BC) and Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey (approx. 750 BC). Just north of Troy and
east of the island of Imbros, there is a long, narrow straight of water that connects the Aegean
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Sea with the Sea of Marmara. This narrow strip of water, separating East and West, was known
as the Hellespont in ancient times (today it is called the Dardanelles). The Hellespont is where
Xerxes, the fourth Great King of the Persian Empire, had his engineers lash together over 300
ships to build a gigantic pontoon bridge so the massive Persian army could cross from East to
West and descend on the Greeks in 480 BC. (Actually, Xerxes needed to build two pontoon
bridges because the first one was destroyed by a storm’s roiling waters. In response, Xerxes had
the waters whipped 300 times and branded with hot irons while the Persian soldiers screamed
at the disrespectful waters. Duly admonished and punished, the waters submitted to the Great
King, and the huge Persian army safely crossed the Hellespont on the second pontoon bridge.)
When Xerxes led his Persian hordes across the Hellespont on the second pontoon bridge, they
arrived on a long peninsula in southern Thrace. In ancient times this peninsula was known as
Thracian Chersonese. Today the peninsula is known as Gallipoli. (Twelve years before Xerxes
crossed the Hellespont, Thracian Chersonese had been ruled by an enigmatic Greek leader –
Miltiades – who played a major role in the Battle of Marathon that we will consider shortly.)
From the Hellespont on the map, go southeast to the city of Sardes (often spelled Sardis)
located in the land called Lydia. Previously, we mentioned that the island of Aegina probably
was the location where the first coins in Europe were made. The Aeginetes got the idea for
coins from the land of Lydia where the first coins in the world were made. About a century
after the development of coinage, Lydian King Croesus (approx. 595–546 BC) came to power,
and the city of Sardes was his capital. Croesus was the richest man in the world at the time, but
his wealth did not protect Croesus from threats brewing in the east as the nascent Persian
Empire was expanding in all directions under the rule of the empire’s founder and first Great
King, Cyrus. Croesus was uncertain what to do about Cyrus so Croesus sent emissaries to Delphi
to get advice (on the map you will find Delphi west of Plataea on the north shore of the
Corinthian Gulf). Delphi was the home of the most famous oracle in the world. (Today, we
tend to think of an “oracle” as a message or prediction that often is ambiguous and easily
misinterpreted. But the word “oracle’ also can refer to the person who delivers the vague
prediction, and the Oracle of Delphi was a priestess known as the Pythia.) The Pythia told King
Croesus’ emissaries that if Croesus attacked Cyrus, Croesus would destroy a great empire. So
Croesus attacked and, as predicted, Croesus destroyed a great empire – his own. Thus, Cyrus
the Great extended the Persian Empire west to edge of the Aegean Sea.
Sardes was one of the most important cities in the western portion of the vast Persian Empire.
Sardes also was the western endpoint of the Persian Royal Road that extended east from
Sardes for more than 1,500 miles (over 2,400 km) to the city of Susa. (To find Susa on a full map
of the Persian Empire, go to the “Persian Culture” tab on this site and click on that map to
enlarge it. Susa is located in the central, southern portion of the Persian Empire, east of
Babylon and north of today’s Persian Gulf.) The full length of the Persian Royal Road could be
traversed within a mere seven days – an amazing speed accomplished by relay riders on
horseback who carried messages to and from the Great King. (Think about America’s pony
express.) According to Herodotus (484–425 BC), the “Father of History” who is our primary
source for what happened during the Greek Persian Wars, the Persian relay riders of the Royal
Road adhered to a creed that much later became the unofficial creed of the United States
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Postal Service as inscribed on the James Farley Post Office in New Your City: “Neither snow nor
rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their
appointed rounds.”
On the map move down to the city of Halicarnassus, the last destination on our tour.
Halicarnassus was founded as a Greek colony – one of many Greek colonies on the coast of
Anatolia to the east of Greece across the Aegean Sea as well as to the west across the Ionian
Sea on the coast of Italy. Halicarnassus is perhaps best known as the site of one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World – the tomb of Mausolus who ruled the land of Caria (see map)
from 377 to 353 BC. The word “mausoleum” is derived from Mausolus, so his tomb and World
Wonder also is known as the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. A century before Mausolus, another
important ruler of the land of Caria resided in Halicarnassus – Queen Artemisia I. Her primary
claim to fame was as a valiant fighter and ship commander during the Battle of Salamis (480
BC). Although she was from a Greek colony, Queen Artemisia I fought for Xerxes because all the
Greek colonies in Anatolia were subjugated by the Persian Empire at that time.
Finally, most of what we know about Queen Artemisia I – and, for that matter, most of what we
know about everything related to the Greek Persian Wars – comes from the most famous
person born in Halicarnassus – Herodotus (484–425 BC). Herodotus was the world’s first true
historian, so he is known as the “Father of History.” His claim to fame is his masterpiece – The
Histories – devoted to the Greek Persian Wars.
Humbly following in Herodotus’ profound footsteps, we now turn our attention to a quick
overview of the major battles of the Greek Persian Wars. The previous tour of the lay of the
ancient land roughly followed the geography of the map. The following overview will
summarize the major battles of the Greek Persian Wars in chronological order. In addition,
there will be a few comments on the images associated with the battles.
BATTLE OF MARATHON
The Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 BC, was the Persian Empire’s first assault wave to wash
away the cradle of Western Civilization. The odds against the Greeks were staggering. The
Greeks were heavily outnumbered, although it is uncertain exactly by how many. A reasonable
estimate is that about 40,000 Persian soldiers fought 10,000 Greeks (9,000 Athenians plus
1,000 Plataeans). In addition, there may have been another 40,000 Persian sailors, although
most of them probably did not directly engage in the battle.
The Persian advantages consisted of more than numbers – much more. The Persian archers
were deadly at both long and short range. As the Greek and Persian formations marched
toward each other, Persian archers would begin by aiming high to rain arrows at maximum
distance, and as the enemy formations closed the archers would progressively lower their aim
to finally shoot parallel to the ground and point blank into the midst of the oncoming Greeks.
The Persians had hundreds of bowmen and the Greeks had few if any.
Even more important, the Persians had their warhorses. The Persian cavalry numbered perhaps
a thousand horses and riders using bows and arrows while the Greeks had none. The Persian
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horses could race up and down the sides or flanks of the enemy, out of the Greeks’ spearthrowing range but well within the range of the arrows whistling in from the deadly accurate
bowmen atop their galloping steeds.
Their cavalry was one the Persians’ greatest advantages, and that fact leads to perhaps the
most intriguing of all the “Mysteries of Marathon.” After we summarize the various battles of
the Greek Persian Wars, we will turn to those fascinating “Mysteries of Marathon,” beginning
with the question: What happened to the Persian cavalry at Marathon?
Now for a few brief comments about this website’s images associated with the Battle of
Marathon.
AESCHYLUS
The most famous person to fight at Marathon was Aeschylus, and what he thought about his
participation in the battle reveals a lot about the mentality of ancient Greeks.
Today, we know Aeschylus because of his writings. He is the “Father of Tragedy” – the first of
the renowned trio of ancient Greek tragedians, along with Sophocles and Euripides. Aeschylus’
surviving plays include: The Persians (based on the Battle of Salamis in which Aeschylus also
fought ten years after Marathon); Seven Against Thebes; The Suppliants; The Oresteia;
Prometheus Bound. A strong argument can be made that Aeschylus has only one rival who
might be a worthy contender for the title of “best” playwright ever – Shakespeare.
Given his profound literary reputation, one might expect Aeschylus to mention his
accomplishments in the epitaph on his tomb that he most likely wrote about himself before he
died in the land of Gela, in Sicily. Indeed, that epitaph does identify the lifetime
accomplishment that was most important to Aeschylus and, as previously noted, his thinking
provides insight into the minds of ancient Greeks:
Beneath this stone lies Aeschylus, the Athenian, son of Euphorion,
who died in Gela’s wheat-growing land.
His glorious valor the hallowed Plain of Marathon can tell,
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and the long-haired Persians know it well.
The Greeks revered valor and glory. “Valor” is akin to “courage.” Valor is internal; it resides
within a person and is manifested by action. That action, for an ancient Greek man, often
meant “stand your ground” and “fight to the death.” For an ancient Greek woman, valor often
meant to “endure,” to “persevere” – to remain “steadfast” and “true.” For those familiar with
Homer’s Odyssey, think of Penelope’s faithful 20-year wait for the return of her husband.
“Glory” was different. Glory was external to the being of an ancient Greek. Glory was
determined by others and what they thought about an individual, especially an individual’s
valor. Glory meant recognition and respect. Ultimately, glory meant that an ancient Greek was
worthy of the highest goal – to be remembered long after the person’s soul departed for the
Underworld (Hades).
The Battle of Marathon ranks extremely high in terms of both valor and glory. It naturally
follows that the name of the man who led the Greeks in this first clash of civilizations would
have been celebrated and his name passed down to following generations to be remembered
in perpetuity. However, the leader of the Greeks at Marathon is uncertain. One of two
possibilities is Miltiades, a complex character with a dubious reputation.
The profile image of Miltiades’ smashed, bronze helmet is from the Archaeological Museum of
Ancient Olympia. (Scroll down for a different perspective of a portrait image of an intact bronze
Corinthian helmet [named after the city-state of Corinth].) Miltiades offered his helmet to the
Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and the inscription on the helmet states, “Miltiades dedicates this
helmet to Zeus.” It is cause for reflection that, 2,500 years after the fact, we can look upon a
real helmet that was used in the real Battle of Marathon (although some scholars, who often
seem to enjoy spoiling our otherwise uplifting imagination, suggest that Miltiades’ helmet may
have been dedicated before the battle instead of being used in the battle).
MILTIADES' HELMET
MILTIADES’ HELMET
Miltiades (550–489 BC) was born into a prominent Athenian family. In his mid-30s, Miltiades
left his homeland to become the ruler of the Thracian Chersonese (today’s Gallipoli). Miltiades
went to the Chersonese to replace his brother who had been the ruler until an ax cleaved his
head. Upon his arrival, Miltiades went into mourning for his brother and invited all the local
leaders to offer their condolences. They dutifully obliged and all of them ended up imprisoned
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by Miltiades who then hired 500 hundred mercenaries to ensure loyalty throughout the land.
Miltiades also married the daughter of the King of Thrace (located immediately north of the
Chersonese) in order to form an alliance and strengthen Miltiades’ rule.
Miltiades maneuvers and manipulations worked well for a few years, but then an overwhelming
threat emerged in the east. The Persian Empire, under the rule of Great King Darius (550–486
BC), was expanding toward the Chersonese and all of Thrace. Miltiades responded by
demonstrating his well-deserved instinct for survival that relied on shrewd duplicity. He joined
forces with Darius. Then for years Miltiades fought with the Persians, and his subservience
lasted until Miltiades thought he could outfox Darius by abandoning the Great King in a battle
campaign that should have ended with Darius’ death. But Great Kings are neither easily
outfoxed nor easily killed. Darius survived so the tables turned and Miltiades had to run for his
life. He ran straight back to Athens in 492 BC, two years before the battle of Marathon.
There are several reasons to believe that Miltiades was the leader of the Athenians at
Marathon, including the following three:
First, when Miltiades returned to Athens he brought something with him that no other
Athenian possessed – an up close and personal knowledge of exactly how the Persians thought
and fought, their tactics and strategy.
Second, subsequent to Miltiades’ death about a year after the Battle of Marathon, he was
widely acknowledged as the Greek leader during the battle. The third and by far most
persuasive reason to believe that Miltiades led the Greeks at Marathon is that the Father of
History, Herodotus (484–425 BC), recognized Miltiades as the leader. (For an image and
discussion of Herodotus, go to this website’s Resources/Contact Us page.) Herodotus’ The
Histories, written a generation after Marathon, is without question the most authoritative
source about the Greek Persians Wars in general and the Battle of Marathon in particular.
While it is well established that Herodotus sometimes exaggerated and embellished his
historical accounts, we must be very cautious to declare Herodotus wrong. Thus, the majority
of scholars accept that Miltiades was, indeed, the Greek leader at the Battle of Marathon.
However, there are potent arguments that Herodotus was, in fact, wrong.
To be continued….
MARATHON TOMB OF 192 ATHENIANS
MARATHON BEACH TODAY
A decade later, in 480-79 BC, Persia’s second wave hit the West with a series of struggles on
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land and sea:
BATTLE OF ARTEMISIUM
A sea battle off the coast of Greece while a land battle was underway at Thermopylae.
BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE
Leonidas, King of Sparta, made a famous last stand at the mountain pass in northern Greece.
The dramatic battle was memorialized in a movie focused on the last 300 Spartans who fought
and died in the shade because the Persian arrows were so many they blotted out the sun.
LEONIDAS
THERMOPYLAE
ARROWHEADS
THERMOPYLAE TODAY
BATTLE OF SALAMIS
After the Persians burned Athens to the ground, the Athenian leader, Admiral Themistocles,
made his stand with his "wooden wall" of warships called triremes. The Persians had so many
more fighters and ships that the Greeks had absolutely no chance. But there was one wildcard.
Themistocles was the most cunning man in the entire world.
THEMISTOCLES
BATTLE OF SALAMIS
BATTLE OF PLATAEA
The final land battle of the Greek Persian Wars when the Spartan soldiers, called hoplites,
slowly marched forward – the Spartans always moved with very slow and steadfast conviction –
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and proved that the Greek phalanx was an irresistible force against Persian hordes that were
not an immovable object.
BATTLE OF MYCALE
This land and sea battle, in conjunction with the land Battle of Plataea, ended the Greek Persian
Wars.
CORITHIAN HELMET
We are dealing with six battles that are mysterious in many ways, partly because most people
know next to nothing about these clashes and partly because even expert historians who
specialize in this era often do not understand exactly what happened. The final outcomes of the
battles may be well known, but what occurred during the battles and, most importantly, how
the ultimately victorious Greeks accomplished their feats, remain mysteries.
Time to narrow our focus and start at the beginning: The Battle of Marathon is a prime
candidate for being among the greatest and most decisive battles in world history. Also, this
first battle of the Greek Persian Wars is an excellent example of facts shrouded in mystery. We
will start with a summary of facts and then examine the "Mysteries of Marathon."
To be continued....
PHALANX
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Copyright © 2016 Ancient Greece and Persia: The World's First Clash of Civilizations. All Rights Reserved.