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Communication Theories
TASK 1:Decide whether the theories described below are about:
A)
B)
C)
D)
How information reaches the public
How and why people access information
How people process information
How people are persuaded
TASK 2: search the www to find missing theorists of the theories that interest you
MAGIC BULLET THEORY
 Magic bullet, hypodermic needle, can deliberately alter or control peoples
behaviour
 Outcome of World War I propaganda efforts
 War of the worlds
Single shot attitude change: AKA the "silver bullet" metaphor. Posits that all it takes is
one well constructed and well delivered message to effect change. Carries a heavy
assumption of source responsibility: s/he as source is responsible for success.
 Two Step Flow (Lazarsfield) Information flows from the mass media to the
opinion leaders in society and then to their peers
AGENDA-SETTING THEORY Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
1972/1973
Agenda-Setting Theory says the media (mainly the news media) aren’t always
successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at telling us what to
think about. The media ‘set the agenda’ for what the public will talk about rather than
affect public opinion. This theory assumes a two-step flow when PR
programs/campaigns use mass communication
1) from PR specialists to the media
2) from the media to the target publics
One implication of the theory is that PR managers should not expect limited media
coverage or short-term media coverage to have a dramatic effect on target publics. The
issues need to have been on display for a long period of time.
USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY (Philip Palmgreen)/ (Blumler and Katz)
Concerned with how people use media to satisfy their needs (an outcome of Abraham
Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs)
 Audience is proactive and seeks media that satisfies their need
 People choose what they want to see or read
 Different media compete to satisfy each individuals needs. The four major needs
categories are surveillance, curiosity, diversion, and personal identity.
CRITICAL THEORY
 Concerned with distribution of power in society and the way in which certain
elements are dominated by others
 Media can create symbols and images that dominate or oppress certain groups
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
Frankfurt School (Adorno), Entertainment industry manufactures demand,
places emphasis on material goods and consumption for the benefit of the few
rich magnates
SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY (Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann)
The media publicises opinion that is mainstream or fringe
 Individuals who perceive their own opinion is accepted will express it, whilst
those that don't supress their views
 People adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being
isolated
 Innovators, change agents and the avant-garde don't mind being isolated so are
unafraid to voice differring opinions
CULTIVATION THEORY (George Gerbner)
Tries to determine if watching television influences viewers ideas of what their world is
like.
 TV creates a shared view of the world (because of its dominance)
 TV homogenises different cultures
 TV portrays the world/society as a bad place in which to live (if it bleeds it
leads)
 Effects are small, gradual, indirect but accumulate over a long time
People become distrustful of the world/society
Neo-Aristotlian theory relies on artistic proofs as the primary means of persuasive
practice: ETHOS, LOGOS, PATHOS.
The Rhetorical Canons (given to us by Cicero): INVENTION (coming with the stuff-subject matter--for persuasion), DISPOSITION (organization), ELOCUTION (style),
MEMORIO (memory), ORATORIO (delivery).
Narrative theory (Fisher) explains that the story forms and organizes persuasion. The
concepts of coherence and fidelity are central in evaluation the effectiveness of a
narrative as a persuasive message.
Genre Theory (Jamieson and Campbell) argues for distinct groups/classes/types of
messages: e.g. self-defense, gallows eulogy, stump, inaugural, commencement
speeches. These persuasive messages are generic because they share similar substantive,
situational and stylistic factors to identify them with each other across time and
speakers.
Burkean theory focus us on persuasion as IDENTIFICATION, both a process and a
product of persuasion. The Dramatistic Pentad (scene, act, agency, agent, purpose) can
help receivers understand a sender's motives for persuading.
Attribution theories focus on how one perceives self, and group/social identity. They
include impression management and deindividuation
Marxist and Feminist theories focus on the exploitation of receivers through
persuasion via socio/economic or gender/status dimensions.
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Objective/Qualitative theories as explained in the above table represent the scientific,
mechanistic arm of persuasion theory. These theories are linear in nature.
Rokeach's Belief Hierarchy: Our belief, attitude and value (BAV) system is highly
organized. It guides behavior and supports self regard. Rokeach developed three
hypotheses re our BAV system:
Beliefs vary in centrality: the more central, the more resistant to change
Change in central Beliefs lead to overall change in belief system
Changes in peripheral Beliefs lead to less change in overall system
Value is the most important conception in understanding behavior. Values have two
functions: Instrumental (day to day) and Terminal (ultimate aims).
Skinnerian Learning theory is based on conditioning. Classical conditioning is typified
by the stimulus-response model (Pavlov). Operant conditioning associates some
response as more (or less) likely because of its positive or negative CONSEQUENCES:
assumes that people act to maximize pleasure (positive consequences) and minimize
pain (negative consequence). The whole process of grading is a good example: we often
get the best grades in the courses we like--liking might be due in part to the rewards.
Observational learning allows us to experience conditioning indirectly, rather than
experiencing behavioral consequences.
Social Judgment theory (Muzafer Sherif, Carolyn Sherif, Carl Hovland, 1961 )
suggests that ego-involvement with topic will influence how we process messages: . you
accept a statement or message or reject it based on your cognitive map. You accept or
reject a message based on your own ego-involvement and if it falls within your latitude
of acceptance.
Elaboration-Likelihood theory (Petty and Cacioppo.1986) posits that long-term
changes in attitudes occur more often when a person not only focuses on a message, but
also elaborates upon it while thinking about it. The theory also predicts that certain
aspects of a PR program or campaign are more likely to motivate message-elaboration
than others. Publics can also be defined in terms of their likelihood to be intellectually
engaged by a message ie their likelihood to elaborate. The theory predicts that when the
quality of the message is high (clear, coherent, logical) and is relevant to the public the
information will be focused on seriously and processed centrally. If the quality of the
message is low or has little immediate relevance, then it will be considered more lightly
and processed peripherally. If however, the message contains enough embedded cues –
source credibility, third-party endorsements, attractive design – then there may be
intellectual engagement. In other words, we process persuasive messages two ways:
centrally--where we think and weigh information according to already existing
knowledge, and peripherally--which involves little thinking, more impressions and
feelings. The primary determinant in routing is Significance of Topic to us, which
involves both our motivation to think about the topic and our ability to do so.
Tension Reduction theories are also known as Consistency Theories. The three major
theories in this group (Balance, Congruity and Dissonance) assume that humans are
driven by the need to maintain consistency between their knowledge, beliefs, behaviors,
and experiences in the world. Balance, Congruity and Consonance reinforce behavior,
imbalance, incongruity and dissonance produce tension and alter behavior. Cognitive
Dissonance (Festinger, 1957)
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Technological Determinism (McLuhan) and Cultivation (Gerbner and Gross)
argue that new mediums cause changes in our pace of life, scale of change we
experience, and perceptions of time, space and communication.
McLuhan (Technological Determinism) contextualized this in how a receiver
experiences a medium (hot or cool);
Cultivation theory focuses on the predispositions, preferences and values that
mediated messages cultivate in receivers over time, depending on high or low
exposure.
Lasswell’s Model (1948) = Who … Says what … In what channel … To whom …
With what effects
Commodity theory focuses on the notion of information in and of itself as
valuable. It argues that the more rewarding a message is perceived to be, the more
powerful the message is to receivers. For dimensions of value are relevant: scarcity,
effort, restriction, delay.
Community Power Theories (eg Unitary interest community power theory, Paul
Peterson City Limits 1981), assume that individuals will only change significant aspects
of lifestyle and behaviour if there is a very supportive network of people and
organisations in the person’s life. Eg changing attitudes as “mutual recognition of the
best interests of all of the city’s residents.” (Harrigan 1991) Such a unitary interest
could arise from either a non-partisan or a multi-partisan
program or campaign. As examples of unitary interest at work, Harrigan cites qualityof-life
development and redevelopment programs… In other words this theory considers
communities to be key in the lives of individuals and emphasises the importance of
community values in messages.
Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut and Kelley) is based on the power of reciprocity:
people like balanced relationships. One prediction of the theory is that whenever a
relationship is not perceived as being equitable and balanced, communication among
rational individuals will occur.
Hierarchy of effects
A series of steps by which consumers receive and use information in reaching decisions
about what actions they will take (e.g., whether or not to buy a product). Initially the
theory was receiver-oriented, later it became producer-oriented. The hierarchy of effects
model suggests that consumers pass through cognitive steps as they move towards a
purchase action. The original model establishes four phases, awareness, interest, desire
and action (AIDA), and arranges them in this order.
It holds that the consumer follows these steps in this order for each purchase decision,
allowing that consumers might not spend equal amounts of time on each rung of the
conceptual ladder.
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Later evolutions of the theory add, drop and rearrange the steps. Popularly added phases
include “conviction” and “satisfaction,” both appearing in numerous positions. Most of
these second-generation theories continue emphasize a rigid sequence of the phases.
Lionberger (1960) proposed 5 stages: awareness … interest … evaluation … trial …
adoption
The most significant improvement to the model was Kotler’s (1984) reduction to three
constructs: cognition (awareness or learning), affect (feeling, interest or desire), and
conation (action or behavior) – CAB. Along with this development came a more
flexible view of the order in which these steps are taken. It suggests different
arrangements of the model might prove more effective for different consumer to product
relationships.
The PR Hierarchuy of effects model has the following 5 steps
1. Formuilating the message/campaign/program
2. Disseminating the message/campaign/program
3. Receiving the message/campaign/program
4. Comprehending the message/campaign/program
5. Changing/reinforcing attitudes/opinions
6. Changing/reinforcing behaviours
Situational Model of Publics (Dewey and Blumer) : members of a public have three
basic characteristics
1. They are faced with similar problems or opportunities
2. They recognise and and are willing to discuss these problems or opportunities
3. They want to organise themselves better to deal with these problems or
opportunities
Situational Model of Public Relations (Grunig) three factors help to explain and
predict the communication behaviour of publics
Members of the public must a) recognise the problem b) perceive the problem as being
relevant to their lives c) feel they can do something about the problem
Each of these factors can be influenced by an effective PR manager
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Although the theories discussed in this chapter are varied and represent centuries of
thought about persuasion, they also suggest the myriad of ways that a student of
persuasion can come at a message to gain understanding and appreciation for the
complexity of persuasion in today's world.
Subjective/Qualitative theories Objective/Quantitative theories
Individual interpretation
Group interpretation
Persuasion = Art
Persuasion = Science
Evaluation/Criticism
Explanation/Prediction
Qualitative: kinds or types
Quantitative: amounts
Patterns of message events
patterns of outcomes or responses
Tends to study source or message Tends to study effects in receivers
Symbolic Explanation
Behavioral or attitudinal explanation
Examples: Neo-Aristotelian,
Examples: Skinnerian behaviorism,
Semiotic/Semantic theory, Narrative Psycholinguistic theory, Attitude Change,
theory, Mass Media/Feminist,
Tension Reduction theory, Mass Media/social
Marxist etc. theories
learning, cultivation etc. theories
In the table above, Subjective/Qualitiative theories represent the artistic/humanistic arm
of theory in persuasion. The contemporary, recent theories in this group are what we
would call interactional or transactional theories, assuming both source and receiver are
active, thinking participants in communicative events.
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