Download History and some Cognitive Neuroscience History

8/24/11
History and some Cognitive
Neuroscience
(Chapters 1 & 2)
8.24.2011
1
History
Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s
and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s
Psychophysics!
Fechner color effect:!
http://www.itp.uni-hannover.de/~zawischa/ITP/benhamtop.html!
Fechner"s Law – a subjective sensation is
proportional to the logarithm of the
stimulus intensity!
Gustav Fechner!
1801-1887
S = K Log I!
S = Psychological sensation!
I = Physical intensity of the stimulus!
I * 3 = S + S!
I * 3 * 3 = S + S + S!
Geometric increase in stimulus intensity
leads to an additive increase in
sensation.!
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Unconscious inference
•# Some of our perceptions are the
result of unconscious assumptions
we make about the environment
Hermann Von Helmholtz!
1821-1894
•# We infer much of what we know
about the world
Influenced Ebbinghaus, Wundt,
Helmholtz!
Math Modeling!
The mind and body are different
sides of one reality.!
Gustav Fechner!
1801-1887
"Every sensation, presents itself
as an indivisible unit; and it is
quite impossible to read any clear
meaning into the notion that they
are masses of units combined."!
William James!
1842-1910
History
Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s
and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s
Pavlov (1849-1936)
Thorndike (1874-1959)
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Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning!
(Dogs)!
CS – !
UCS –!
UCR – !
CR –!
Pavlov (1849-1936)
Law of Effect!
(Cats)!
Puzzle Box!
Precursor of $Operant" or
$Instrumental" Conditioning!
Alpha, Beta Tests (ASVAB)!
$Active Learning"!
Thorndike (1874-1959)
Pavlov’s Discovery:
Classical
Conditioning
History
Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s
and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s
Pavlov (1849-1936)
Thorndike (1874-1959)
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History
Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s
and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s
Pavlov (1849-1936)
Thorndike (1874-1959)
Early experimental psychology:
Behaviorism
Influential figures: !
John B. Watson, !
B. F. Skinner!
•#Guiding Principles:!
–# Only focus on that which is observable.!
–# Explain behavior; not thought, the mind, consciousness, etc.!
Burrhus Skinner!
1904-1990
•#Contribution to Cognitive Psychology!
–# Emphasis on rigorous experimentation.!
–# Powerful theories of learning!
•# Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)!
–# e.g., Pavlov!s dog learned relationship between bell and
food.!
•# Operant Conditioning (Edward Thorndike)!
–# e.g., A dog learns to sit for a treat.!
John Broadus Watson
1878-1958
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, wellformed, and my own specified world to
bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select –
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and,
yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless
of his talents, penchants, tendencies,
abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and
I admit it, but so have the advocates of the
contrary and they have been doing it for
many thousands of years. [Behaviorism
(1930), p. 82]!
John Broadus Watson
1878-1958
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The Decline of Behaviorism
•# A controversy over language acquisition!
•# Skinner (1957)!
–# Argued children learn language through
operant conditioning!
•# Children imitate speech they hear!
•# Correct speech is rewarded
The Decline of Behaviorism
•# Noam Chomsky (1959)!
–# Argued children do not only learn language
through imitation and reinforcement!
•# Children say things they have never heard
and can not be imitating !
•# Children say things that are incorrect and
have not been rewarded for!
–# Language must be determined by inborn
biological program (LAD)!
–# “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”
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Edward Chace Tolman
1886-1959
•# What happens when the rats are
placed in a different arm of the
maze?!
•# The rats navigated to the specific
arm where they previously found
food!
–# Supported Latent Learning, not
stimulus-response learning!
•#Tolman (1938)!
(a)#Rat initially explores the maze; !
(b)#then learns to turn right to obtain food at B when it starts at A; !
(c)# when placed at C, the rat turns left to reach the food at B.
Limitations of Behaviorism
•# Failures to account for aspects of human
behavior!
•# Over-emphasis on animal experimentation!
•# Language!
•# Skinner suggested language was learned through basic
principles of operant conditioning.!
•# i.e., we learn to say what is rewarded!
•# Fails to account for Generativity of language.!
•# The creation of novel utterances %
that have never been rewarded in the past.!
•# e.g., Chomsky (linguist)
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!#Failure to consider intervening mental processes!
"#Behaviorism:!
Stimu
li
Response
s
"#Cognitive Psychology:!
Stimu
li
Mental
Processes
Response
s
"#Stimulus (memorize this list)!
!# lion, onion, Bill, firefighter, carrot, %
zebra, John, clerk, Tom, nurse, cow!
"#Response (recall)!
!# lion, zebra, cow, onion, carrot, %
firefighter, clerk , nurse, John, Bill, Tom!
"#Mental Processes!
!# Strategies, grouping, reorganization, etc
The Cognitive Revolution
•# Shift from behaviorist"s stimulus-response
relationships to an approach that attempts to
explain behavior in terms of the mind
FIG 1.12
Timeline showing events associated with the
decline of the influence of behaviorism (above the
line) and events that led to the development of
the information-processing approach to cognitive
psychology (below the line).
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Overview of Different Approaches
Stimu
li
Mental
Processes
!#Philosophy!
!#Think about mental processes
Response
s
!
!#Structuralism (Introspection)!
!#Try to directly tap into mental processes!
!#The What of experience!
!#Behaviorism!
!#Study stimulus-response relationships!
!#Ignore mental processes!
!#Cognitive Psychology!
!#Study stimulus-response relationships!
!#Make inferences about mental processes!
!#The How of experience!
!#Mathematical Modeling!
The rebirth of the study of the mind
•# The digital revolution!
–# Information Processing: inputs are
transformed, in stages, to generate outputs.!
–# Flow diagrams for digital computers.!
•# Flow diagrams for the mind.!
–# Colin Cherry (1953): selective attention.!
–# Broadbent"s information processing model of
attention.
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A model for selective attention!
How can you stay focused on your
conversation?!
You must filter out extraneous
information.
“I hate that Shaw guy.”!
Attention can still be broken into.!
(we will explore these ideas more in
chapter 4).
Inputs
Filter
Detector
To memory
25
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Studying the Mind
•# To understand complex cognitive behaviors:
•# Measure observable behavior
•# Make inferences about underlying cognitive
activity
•# Consider what this behavior says about how
the mind works
Researching the Mind
•# Behavior approach measures relationship
between stimuli and behavior
•# Physiological approach measures
relationship between physiology and behavior
•# Both contribute to our understanding of
cognition
Researching the Mind – Memory Consolidation
•# Memory for recent events is fragile
•# If processing is disrupted, recent memories
can fail to be consolidated
•# New information can interfere with memory
consolidation
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•# Behavior
approach the Mind – Memory
Researching
Consolidation
•# Muller and Pilzecker (1900) had participants
learn two lists of words
•# Independent variable:
•# One group learned the second list immediately
after the first list
•# The other group experienced a six-minute delay
between learning the lists
•# Dependent variable:
•# Memory (recall) for the first list of words
Results of the Gais et al. (2007) experiment in which memory for
word pairs was tested for two groups. The sleep group went to
sleep shortly after learning a list of word pairs. The awake group
stayed awake for quite a while after learning the word pairs. Both
groups did get to sleep before testing, so they were equally rested
before being tested, but the performance of the sleep group was
better.
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Cognitive Science
•# Interdisciplinary study of the mind
•# Psychology
•# Computer science
•# Cognitive anthropology
•# Linguistics
•# Neuroscience
•# Philosophy
•# Physiology
•# Molecular Biology
•# Physics
•# Education
Descartes
1596-1640
Broca
1824-1880
Wernicke 1848–1905
Luria (1902-1977)
Timeline showing early experiments studying the mind in the 1800s
and events associated with the rise of behaviorism in the 1900s
Pavlov (1849-1936)
Thorndike (1874-1959)
Cognitive Neuroscience!
•# The microstructure of the brain
•# Neurons
•# Glia
•# Hold neurons in place,
•# Supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
•# Insulate neurons from one another
•# Destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.
•# Also involved in communication
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History of Neuroanatomy
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Microstructure: The Neuron
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35
a) Action potentials are recorded from neurons with tiny microelectrodes that are positioned inside or right next
to the neuron’s axon. These potentials are displayed on the screen of an oscilloscope and are also sent to a
computer for analysis. (b) An action potential recorded by a microelectrode looks like this. The inside of the
axon becomes more positive, then goes back to the original level, all within 1 millisecond (1/1,000 second). (c)
A number of action potentials displayed on an expanded time scale, so a single action potential appears as a
“spike”.
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Microstructure: The Neuron
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•# Remember that voltage is a difference between two locations!
•# the voltage between two points is equal to the electrical
potential difference between those points.
•# Electric potential is the energy required to move a unit electric
charge to a particular place in a static electric field
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Microstructure: The Synapse
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