Download Utah Envirothon Study Guide

Utah Envirothon
Study Guide
Wildlife
2006
Table of Contents
Wildlife and Related Plants Study List ................ 2
Scientific Classification of Animals ...................... 3
Habitat .................................................................... 4
Food Chains, Webs, and Energy Pyramids ......... 6
Population Dynamics ........................................... 10
Behavior, Adaptations and Activity ................... 12
What Is Wildlife Management?.......................... 14
Threatened and Endangered Species and Loss of
Habitat .................................................................. 20
Pests and Exotic Species ...................................... 23
Glossary ................................................................ 28
Additional Resources ........................................... 32
Additional Websites for Even More Research .. 33
Prepared by the Utah Envirothon with assistance from the
Natural Resource Conservation Service and the Georgia Envirothon
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Wildlife and Related Plants Study List
For the 2006 Utah Envirothon competition, you should learn the preferred habitat, food and how
to identify the following wildlife through tracks, signs and other identifying features. For plants,
you should learn their wildlife value and how to identify them.
Fish
Common Carp
June Sucker
Brown Trout
Bonneville Cutthroat Trout
Bear Lake Sculpin
Walleye
Least Chub
Bluegill
Birds
European Starling
Greater Sage-grouse
Ring-necked Pheasant
Wild Turkey
Swainson’s Hawk
Bald Eagle
American Robin
Wood duck
Great-horned owl
Mammals
Mule Deer
Mountain Lion
Raccoon
Striped Skunk
Rocky Mountain Elk
Rabbit & Hares
Utah Prairie Dog
Beaver
Mice & Voles
Bats
Coyote
Muskrat
Fox
Reptiles and Amphibians
Columbian Spotted Frog
Gopher Snake
Tiger Salamander
American Bullfrog
Rubber Boa
Common Garter Snake
Collared Lizard
Rattlesnakes
Plants
Sagebrush
Serviceberry
Woods rose
Willows
Saltcedar (Tamarisk)
Golden Currant
Narrowleaf Cottonwood
Cheatgrass
Western Yarrow
Antelope Bitterbrush
Sedges/Rushes
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Scientific Classification of Animals
Scientific Classification
Animals are grouped according to the current views of naturally evolved relationships.
Below is the most commonly used hierarchy. Sometimes other divisions are included; such as
superorder, subfamily or tribe.
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order – identified by the Latin ending … formes
Family – identified by the Latin ending … dae
Genus
Species
Subspecies (or race) – identified by the Latin ending … nae
(the King invited Prince Charles Over For Goulash on Saturday for Supper)
Scientific Names:
Genus species subspecies
Examples:
Branta canadensis canadensis
Branta canadensis maxima
Canada goose, Atlantic race
Canada goose, Giant race
Some other ways of grouping animals are:
•
Diet – herbivore, carnivore, omnivore
•
Habitat – aquatic, terrestrial or riparian for example
•
Time of most activity – diurnal, nocturnal, crepuscular
•
Exotic or Native
•
Game or Nongame
•
Endangered, Threatened or Species of Special Concern
•
Resident or migratory
•
Wild, domestic or feral
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Habitat
What is Habitat?
Habitat is the environment where wildlife lives. It includes food, cover, water and space.
When these habitat factors are in good supply, they contribute to the well-being of wildlife. If
any of the habitat factors are missing or significantly altered, it limits suitability, number and
distribution of wildlife and is called a limiting factor. So, for all animal populations, habitat
must consist of all the components of habitat, in the necessary quantity, quality, and
arrangement.
Food: Each wildlife species eats specific foods, regardless of other foods that may be
available. In addition, some plants have more nutritional value than others and this may vary
according to the time of year. For this reason, both the quantity and the quality of the food are
important. Food requirements for an animal depend on that animal’s location, age, size, sex,
behavior and season.
Cover: Wildlife needs cover to protect it while feeding, sleeping, loafing, breeding,
roosting, nesting and traveling. Cover can take many forms, such as vegetation, burrows, rocks
or other natural or even man-made features. Many types of cover may be needed by the same
species throughout the day and year.
Water: All wildlife needs water. Water is used to keep cells alive; to cleanse the body;
to produce food supplies; and (for some) as shelter. Some animals need water daily; others
much less often. Sources of water are surface water, dew, snow and succulent (juicy)
vegetation. Some animals can also use metabolic water (water produced by chemical processes
in the body). In the dry climates of Utah, finding water is often critical for wildlife survival.
Space: The arrangement of food, cover and water in an area determines the wildlife
numbers and their distribution. The best arrangement is when these habitat factors occur in
combinations of small blocks that are close together. The area in which an animal normally must
travel to meet its needs is called its home range. Home ranges for different species can vary
greatly. For example, a rabbit may live its entire life within 1¼ acres of land, while, in its life, a
deer may travel over an area as small as 300 acres or as large as a square mile (Or several
hundred square miles). Generally, for terrestrial animals, small animals have small home
ranges and big animals have large home ranges. Most waterfowl have a combination of the two,
a small home range during the breeding season and a large one in winter. Individuals change
home ranges seasonally due to weather, habitat condition, food availability, and reproductive
condition.
Like waterfowl, some animals migrate (or move great distances) between their winter
and summer ranges. Home range can be defined as seasonal or annual. As such, home ranges
can be located in different habitats and may be temporary during migration. Inside a home range,
an animal may have an area it defends against intruders of the same species and sometimes other
species. This is a territory, where an animal spends most of its time and raises its young.
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Examples: most large carnivores defend a hunting area; birds use displays and songs to delineate
a nesting and foraging area during the breeding season
Wildlife thrive when there is a good arrangement of food, cover and water across the
landscape. When two important elements of habitat are brought together, such as a wooded area
and a field, there is a tendency for some wildlife species to concentrate in the narrow overlap
between these two types of vegetation. This is commonly called the edge effect. However,
many species are intolerant of edge areas. They thrive in the interior of large, continuous areas
of habitat and will not survive when their habitat is too close to edge areas. When habitat is
broken into many small areas with lots of edge, this is called habitat fragmentation.
Fragmentation is associated with many threatened and endangered species. When considering
whether edge is beneficial, it is important to understand the life history and habitat requirements
of the species being affected.
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Food Chains, Webs, and Energy Pyramids
What is a food web?
Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of food in
order to meet their food and energy requirements. These interconnected food chains form a food
web.
What is a food chain?
A food chain is the path of energy flow from producer to consumer. A producer (or
autotroph) is an organism that produces its own food and is the living base of the food chain.
Producers are phytoplankton or plants. A consumer (or heterotroph) uses producers or other
consumers as food. Consumers can be broken down into herbivores, omnivores and carnivores.
Herbivores are generally considered prey species. They eat producers (or plants and
phytoplankton) and are things like carp, ducks, deer and mice. Carnivores generally eat meat
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(or other consumers) and are considered the predator species. These species include animals like
mountain lions, wolves, and shrews. Omnivores are those which eat a combination of plant and
animal material. These animals include bears, coyotes, and raccoons. Another contributor to the
food chain is the decomposer. Decomposers obtain their energy by breaking down the remains
or products of organisms.
The energy pyramid on the following page shows that the food base gets smaller as you
travel up through the food chain. Only about 10% of the energy produced at each level is
transferred to the next higher level. This means that much more energy must be produced at the
lower levels to support the upper levels. This is a highly inefficient system.
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Carrying Capacity
Carrying capacity is the maximum number of animals of one or more wildlife species
that the habitat can support without damage to either the animals or the habitat. The
carrying capacity of an area may vary by season and is based on the needs of the species at
that time.
When wildlife numbers exceed the carrying capacity of the habitat, the excess animals die
from starvation or other causes. Wildlife that are too numerous increase the competition for
food and cover which can wind up damaging those habitat components. If habitat is damaged
or eliminated, it decreases the carrying capacity of the area. The only way to increase wildlife
numbers in an area is to increase the carrying capacity. That can be done by improving
existing habitat or by creating new habitat.
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In addition, the social system of a wildlife species may change the carrying capacity of an
area. Some species tolerate many of their own kind (Canada geese, house finches, etc.) but
others such as wolves tolerate only a few other wolves in the area. Even if the habitat can
support more animals, the social system may limit the number of animals in a home range.
However, generally the size of home range and space requirements changes with food
availability.
Succession
Habitat in an area is subject to gradual change due to the effects of weather, plant growth and
other factors. This change is called succession. During each stage of succession, the plants and
animals change, gradually replaced by other species of plants and animals that are better able to
survive in the type of habitat that has developed.
A good example of succession is a pasture, which unmowed or ungrazed is allowed to
progress to an overgrown field with tall grasses and shrubs. In many places, these plants give
way to woodier vegetation such as evergreen and hardwood trees. Eventually, as the pines and
hardwoods grow to tall trees, the undergrowth is shaded out and a mature forest will stand where
the open pasture once lay. This is not a quick change but happens over a number of years. In
some cases, like much of Utah’s landscape, the vegetation does not progress to the tree stage
because the environment is not suited for trees.
Of course, the animal life that occurs during each stage of succession will be compatible with
the various types of habitat. The small rodents and some ground nesting birds found in the
pasture will be replaced by rabbits, quail and various song birds when the denser vegetation is
allowed to grow. The woody plants, like pines and shrubs, serve as nesting and escape cover for
a variety of wildlife from small game to deer. The mature forest eventually may house turkey,
deer and squirrel which depend on the mast (nuts) from various hardwoods. Many predatory
animals, such as foxes, coyotes, hawks and owls, will also be found there.
Succession can be set back to earlier stages by disturbances such as controlled burning,
lumbering, drainage projects or brush removal. In fact, wildlife managers routinely alter
succession to create habitat suitable for a particular species of wildlife.
Succession of natural plant communities can also be disrupted by the introduction of nonnative species. For example in the western U.S., cheatgrass is a plant species that was
unintentionally introduced from Asia and has altered successional patterns. When
cheatgrass is present in sagebrush ecosystems, it can take over the entire plant community
providing virtually no habitat for wildlife.
Vegetation of early stages in succession, such as shrubby plants, often occurs at the edges of
ponds, fields and forests. Many animals concentrate in this edge cover because it combines the
food and shelter ingredients of several habitats. Each species of wildlife lives in habitat that best
meets its needs. Some species may live in several types, while others may spend their entire life
in one type of habitat. However, diversity of habitat tends to encourage a diversity of wildlife.
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Population Dynamics
A population is all individuals of a species occupying a particular area at a specific time.
Dynamics refers to motion or change. Population dynamics, therefore, means the changes that
occur in a population over time. Animal populations may change as a result of reproduction,
social conflict, movements of animals, ecological succession or disturbance, and death. Two
major factors affect the population dynamics of wildlife - natality (or birth rate) and mortality
(or death rate).
Birth rate is usually defined as the number of births per adult female per year. Birth rates
vary considerably among wildlife species. Many factors influence birth rate, but some of the
most important ones are:
•
•
•
the number of young per litter or clutch
the number of litters or clutches per year
the age at which breeding begins
Mortality is the percentage of animals, in a population, that dies each year. Animals with high
birth rates generally have correspondingly high death rates. The most important factors
influencing death rate are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
starvation
severe weather
predation
diseases and parasites
accidents
hunting
Mortality can be broken down in several ways. Natural mortality is the deaths that are
caused by predation, starvation, disease, weather, accidents, etc. Harvest mortality is the deaths
caused by human activities such as hunting, trapping, and fishing. Harvest mortality is truly just
another form of predation, but it is separated from natural mortality because it can be regulated
and controlled.
Mortality can also be considered additive or compensatory. Compensatory mortality is
the death of animals (normally by hunting) that would normally have died throughout the year by
natural mortality. Additive mortality occurs when harvest mortality results in numbers that
exceeds natural mortality. Example: A population has a 70% natural mortality/yr. So, if you
harvest 35% of the population then 35% of the population will typically die of natural mortality.
The harvested portion is called compensatory mortality. However, if the harvest percentage
causes the total mortality rate to go above natural mortality then it is called additive mortality.
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If the birth rate is greater than the death rate, wildlife numbers increase. If the death rate
is greater than the birth rate, wildlife numbers decrease. When the birth and death rates are equal,
population numbers do not change.
Population growth and decline: Some wildlife species have a tremendous capacity for
reproduction and increasing their numbers, but this growth cannot continue indefinitely. There
is always some factor, usually food or cover, that becomes limiting.
Let’s look at a situation that occurs each year in wildlife populations.
In the spring, the breeding stock, (or animals needed for breeding to replenish the population),
begin having their young. The population reaches its peak in the summer. At that time, the
population numbers have become greater than the carrying capacity of the habitat. The
population then begins to decline because the habitat cannot support the excess animals. The
decline continues through the spring of the following year. This cycle occurs every year. It is in
late spring, just before the first young of the year are produced, that habitat is most limited. It is
the amount of habitat available at this time that determines the carrying capacity.
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Behavior, Adaptations and Activity
Adaptation is defined as any trait (behavioral or physiological) that allows an animal to
live successfully in its environment. Wildlife have adapted to their surroundings over many
thousands of years. These animals have learned to live with their environment, rather than
attempting to change it to fit their needs.
Winter Survival
Hibernation is generally considered to be the passing of winter or a portion of it in a
state of sleep. Some true hibernators, such as chipmunks or marmots, may dramatically lower
their body temperature (to nearly 32°F), respiration, and heart beat; and live off of their stored
body fat. It may take quite a while to wake these hibernators up. Others, like bears, are not true
hibernators but enter into a state of deep sleep, winter dormancy, or “torpor.” They will dig a
den and sleep for varied lengths of time depending on snow cover and species. Torpor does not
bring on the dramatic changes of hibernation. A bear’s body temperature generally only drops
down to between 88° F and 93° F. While in torpor, bears can wake up quickly, move around in
their den, venture outside for a short time, and even give birth and nurse newborns.
In the avian world, the black-capped chickadee actually grows more
feathers in winter to stay warm. Fluffing their feathers adds air and
increases insulation, like a down comforter, during those chilly dark
nights of winter. They roost together as a group for longer hours with
severe cold weather. In laboratory tests, chickadees have been shown to
lower their body temperatures by 18-20 degrees into a hypothermic state,
and then recover, thus saving energy.
Many squirrels will cache or store food for use throughout the winter. In areas with regular snow
cover, mice and voles remain active under the snow, using it as an insulating blanket. Large
mammals grow more fur along their flanks and back. The hollow guard hairs trap air and help to
reduce temperature loss. These same animals will also add more layers of fat to their bodies to
insulate against the cold and provide a source of energy if food becomes scarce. Many ungulates
(hoofed mammals) lower their metabolism in the winter to conserve energy. Because of this, it is
important not to disturb resting deer and elk in the winter.
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Some winter-active animals will also change their fur or feather colors to blend into their
surroundings. This is important for a prey species, like the snowshoe hare, to avoid capture, and
for a predator species, like the long-tailed weasel, to be stealthy. Both of these animals turn
white in their snowy environment.
Summer Survival
In hot, dry deserts animals also have evolved adaptations to deal with the extreme
temperatures. Many animals (especially mammals and reptiles) are crepuscular, that is, they are
active only at dusk and again at dawn. For this reason, humans seldom encounter animals like
rattlesnakes and porcupines. Many animals are completely nocturnal, restricting all their
activities to the cooler temperatures of the night. A few desert animals, such as the desert
tortoise, a diurnal reptile, enter a state of estivation when the days become too hot and the
vegetation too dry. Estivation is a state of dormancy similar to hibernation in which animals
spend a portion of the summer inactive and insulated against heat to avoid its harmful effects.
Other animals that estivate include lizards, chipmunks, snakes, several
species of squirrel.
Some animals dissipate heat absorbed from their surroundings by
various mechanisms. Owls and nighthawks gape open-mouthed while
rapidly fluttering their throat region to evaporate water from their mouth
cavities. (Only animals with a good supply of water from prey can afford
this type of cooling, however.) Many desert mammals have evolved long
appendages to dissipate body heat into their environment. The enormous
ears of jackrabbits, with their many blood vessels, release heat when the
animal is resting in a cool, shady location. Their relatives in cooler regions
have much shorter ears.
Some desert creatures utilize all of these physical and behavioral mechanisms to survive
the extremes of heat and dryness. Certain desert mammals, such as kangaroo rats, live in
underground dens which they seal off to block out midday heat and to recycle the moisture from
their own breathing. They also have specialized kidneys with extra microscopic tubules to
extract most of the water from their urine and return it to the blood stream.
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What Is Wildlife Management?
Wildlife management is the science of managing wildlife and its habitats, including man, for
the benefit of all the plants and animals in an environment. There are several important concepts
basic to the wise management of wildlife.
1. The amount and condition of its habitat is the most important factor determining how
many animals of a species survive in a particular area.
2. Normal populations can replenish themselves annually, replacing animals that die with
new individuals born into the population.
3. Hunting, fishing, and trapping are important activities, and when properly regulated, they
can replace some or most of the natural deaths that would otherwise occur.
4. Management of habitat benefits all wildlife, even those not harvested.
What do wildlife managers do?
Wildlife Managers enhance and improve habitats, minimize conflicts of wildlife with
consumer products, and provide opportunities for recreational and commercial uses of wildlife.
But what do managers actually do to maintain habitat and healthy animal populations, promote
wise use of wildlife resources, and provide for wildlife-based recreation?
1. Evaluate Populations and Habitats
The first step in wildlife management is to determine the abundance and distribution of
animals, and the extent of their habitats. Animals can be identified and counted by their songs,
calls, tracks, droppings and by actual sightings. Because some animals have large home ranges,
managers and researchers learn where, when and why the animals move by marking individuals
with colored tags, bands or electronic devices. Habitat types are measured by classifying
vegetation from aerial photographs and by examining plants during field surveys. To determine
the amount of habitat needed by a given species of animal takes detailed studies of its habits and
environment. Hunter surveys, combined with other scientific data, also yield valuable
information on the size, density and distribution of game populations.
The second step is to evaluate the quality of animals and habitat. It is important to know
the health of animal populations. If supplies of nutritious food are not available, animals may
not be able to resist diseases, parasites, weather and predators. Managers and researchers learn
the food requirements of animals in many ways. They examine food remains in stomachs and
droppings; and with spotting scopes, they observe animals to determine what they eat. Wild
animals raised in captivity are taken into natural habitats where they can be observed at close
range to learn the kinds and amounts of food eaten. These evaluations must be conducted at all
times of the year because preferred and needed foods may differ by season or by weather
conditions. Samples of plants known to be animal foods are taken into the laboratories and
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analyzed for nutritional quality. These factors, as well as reproduction, death, and age and sex
ratios, help determine the status of animal populations.
In many cases, researchers provide wildlife managers with detailed facts concerning
population dynamics and habitat relationships, required for wise decision making. Recreational
hunters also perform valuable services for the wildlife manager. First, through harvesting, they
provide actual animal population controls and ecological balances. Second, they submit animals
for examination, and accounts of recreational experiences. This information helps to provide
basic facts used to manage wildlife populations and habitats more effectively.
2. Manage Populations and Habitats
Reduction and destruction of habitats are the most severe problems facing wildlife
managers. When wildlife managers have information about quantity and quality of habitat,
status of wildlife populations and potential limiting factors, they strive to maintain suitable
environments for the animal populations. If the amount, quality and diversity of habitat
ingredients for a given population are not adequate, managers may attempt to improve the
habitat, reduce the number of animals, or do both to meet population goals. If hunting, trapping
or other uses of wildlife are desired and ecologically feasible, managers advise on regulations for
harvesting surplus animals.
In other words, wildlife managers strive to develop and maintain habitat conditions
suitable to species that can benefit from and cause benefit to a particular area. They know, for
example, that early stages of forest succession provide food and shelter for deer, moose, grouse,
catbirds and other wildlife. In cooperation with foresters, wildlife managers can plan selective
timber harvests, prescribed burns, or seedings to encourage growth of shrubs, grasses and other
flowering plants. However, they may leave certain large trees that provide shelter, food or
nesting sites for other species, thus providing ecological diversity.
Wildlife managers may also work with landowners to maintain shelterbelts, woodlots,
fencerows, wetlands and uncultivated plots because these areas provide essential habitat
ingredients for a variety of wildlife.
They work to reduce pollution and environmental degradation. Houses, factories and
roads are built in wildlife habitat, so wildlife managers try to minimize impacts of these
developments by suggesting alternative locations, construction modifications and standards to
avoid or reduce pollution. In many positions, wildlife managers promote and enforce laws that
protect habitats and animals from careless destruction. While managing habitat is the primary
job of professional wildlife managers, the task of protecting and preserving environments that
benefit both wildlife and people is everyone’s responsibility. Managers can improve habitat for
wildlife only with public understanding and cooperation. The number one threat to wildlife
today is habitat loss.
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Wildlife Management Tools
Management programs must be flexible since wildlife populations and habitat factors may
change from year to year. A good wildlife management program includes managing and
protecting habitat and regulating death and birth rates by managing hunting and, when possible,
other causes of death. Wildlife managers collect information on habitat and wildlife numbers
throughout the year to determine the type of management program needed.
1. Laws
Laws regulating the harvest of wild game came into use to halt or reduce the thoughtless
slaughter that was contributing to the decline or extinction of many species of wildlife. These
early laws were established to restrict the number that could be killed and to prevent hunting
during the breeding seasons. As our knowledge of wildlife increased through careful study, so
did our ability to improve our wildlife laws to protect wildlife while allowing safe and enjoyable
hunting. Today, with proper protection of game laws, our wildlife species are rarely threatened
by excessive hunting. And when research shows that existing laws are not sufficient, modern
wildlife management agencies quickly adjust laws to benefit wildlife.
Hunting regulations also serve to protect hunters and others who live near wildlife habitat.
Many regulations, such as requiring deer hunters to wear blaze orange, are designed to keep
hunters safe from injury during the hunt.
If wildlife management is to be effective, hunters must understand and obey wildlife laws.
2. Predator Control
A predator is an animal that lives by killing other animals for food. Long ago, predators
were tagged as bad animals and bounties (money rewards) were offered to control them. It was
thought that control of predators would result in more wildlife. However, the bounty system was
ineffective in controlling predators or increasing wildlife numbers because of natural population
dynamics.
The extent and effect of predation in a wildlife species depends on:
• the quantity, quality and distribution of cover
• abundance of the wildlife species
• abundance of predators
• other food available to predators (animals that are alternate foods for predators are
called buffers.)
Predation is a common and natural event. Predators usually capture and feed on prey
animals, which represent surplus individuals (animals in excess of the available food or cover
which the prey species need to survive.) Many of the animals used for food by predators likely
would starve or die of exposure at some later time. Thus predation rarely acts as a limiting factor
on prey populations. In fact, hunting is a special type of predation which wildlife managers use
to help keep certain species of wildlife within the carrying capacity of their habitat.
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In certain circumstances, predation can be detrimental to wildlife and predator control
may be necessary or helpful. When a wildlife species is introduced into a new area to restore a
population that was eliminated, the newly transplanted individuals are in unfamiliar surroundings
and their numbers are limited. These individuals may be unusually vulnerable to predators native
to the area and some short-term predator control may help the new population get started.
Another special case occurs when one or more individual predator(s) develop a habit of
preying on livestock. Predator control directed specifically toward the individual(s) causing harm
is necessary to preserve the economic interest of the livestock operator.
3. Refuges
Refuges provide wildlife with protection from most human disturbance and suitable
habitat for the purpose of increasing wildlife numbers. There are three general types of
refuges: big game, waterfowl and nongame.
The goal of a big game refuge is to protect the breeding stock so the population can
increase but the refuge can defeat its own purpose. Deer and elk, for example, may increase in
numbers to the point where they exhaust the available food supply. Damage to the habitat and to
the animals then occurs. If a big game refuge is to be successful, the laws must be flexible so that
wildlife managers can open special hunting seasons to keep the animals at or below the carrying
capacity of the habitat.
A waterfowl refuge may be a breeding area, a wintering area or a flyway refuge.
Breeding areas provide nesting habitat for producing young. Wintering areas shelter the birds
so they can survive until the next breeding season. Flyway refuges provide rest, food and safety
during long migration flights.
Nongame refuges are often established to protect the habitat of some wildlife, usually
rare or endangered species. Some nongame species live in areas where habitat is limited. If this
habitat were altered or destroyed, the species would probably not survive.
Wildlife refuges are very effective when correctly used in combination with other
management tools.
4. Stocking
A purpose of stocking is to re-establish a species of wildlife into areas with restored
habitat, but where the native wildlife species has not replenished itself. Stocking is most
effectively done by trapping wild animals from established populations and transplanting them
into other areas.
Many of the early stocking programs did not consider the limitations of habitat. If man
introduces wildlife beyond the carrying capacity of the habitat, the animals will disappear. Good
habitat can support a large wildlife population; poor habitat only can support a small wildlife
population.
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Severe weather or other factors may decrease wildlife numbers in good habitat, but
populations usually recover when conditions improve. If the habitat is in good condition,
stocking is usually unnecessary.
5. Introduction of Exotic Wildlife
The introduction of exotic species of wildlife is another form of stocking. The purpose
is to introduce an exotic wildlife species into a habitat similar to its native habitat without
displacing native wildlife or damaging the habitat. Most introduced exotics find their habitats
unsuitable and disappear soon after release, although some have become established.
The classic success story is the introduction of the ring-necked pheasant. Introduced from
China, this exotic species found things to its liking, increased its numbers, and is now a wellestablished game bird in many areas. The chukar is another exotic that has been successfully
established in many semi-arid regions. However, in many cases, these species failed to become
established because climate, habitat or other factors were not appropriate.
Not all successful introductions of exotics have been desirable. The introduction of
the European starling resulted in the establishment of a highly undesirable agricultural pest
bird.
6. Habitat Management
Habitat is the key to wildlife survival, but wildlife habitat is declining at an alarming rate
in the United States. Much habitat has been lost to urbanization and other uses as the human
populations demand more living space, food production and so on. Other wildlife habitat has
been destroyed by drainage of marshes and elimination of forests. Without proper habitat,
wildlife cannot survive.
The main purpose of managing habitat is to prevent existing wildlife habitat that is in
good condition from being destroyed or lost.
Perhaps the most important thing each of us can do is support programs to maintain or
improve wildlife habitat. Habitat is the key to wildlife survival. Some things which landowners
can do to provide wildlife habitat include:
• Avoid needless clearing of brush and other vegetation from fence rows, field corners
and edges of woodlots.
• Protect sensitive wildlife areas from overuse by livestock. Fences can help prevent
livestock damage to wildlife habitat by allowing better control over livestock use.
• Plant food for wildlife. You can plant grains, fruit bearing bushes, grasses and
legumes (plants that have pod-like fruit or seeds) along fence rows, ditch and row
banks, field edges or other unused land areas. A few outside rows of grain left
standing near cover also provide food.
• Establish woody thickets or other types of cover. Small tracts of land (field corners,
power and telephone right-of-way) are good spots for planting shrubs and trees. You
can also pile up limbs from pruned or thinned trees to create cover.
• Create a pond or wetland area.
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7. Hunting and Trapping
Hunting and trapping are valuable management tools for helping maintain healthy
wildlife populations at or below the carrying capacity of the habitat. When animals exceed the
carrying capacity, the habitat may be damaged, and the excess animals will die. Hunting and
trapping are closely regulated so that some of the excess animals in a population are removed
each year. Thus, hunting and trapping can be used to manage many wildlife populations
effectively and protect their habitat from damage.
Much anti-hunting sentiment is based on bad experiences with hunters. Thus, it is
more anti-hunter than anti-hunting sentiment. To help solve this problem, support training
schools to upgrade the quality of hunters. Be a sportsman in name and action.
Sport hunting and trapping also provide needed funding for wildlife management
programs. The major sources of revenue are:
• The Pittman-Robertson Act, which provides federal money to state wildlife agencies
through taxes collected on the sale of sporting arms and ammunition. A portion of
Pittman-Robertson monies, specifically the taxes collected from the sale of archery
equipment and handguns, goes to support state hunter education programs.
• the sale of hunting and trapping licenses and stamps.
• donations to management-oriented conservation groups. These funds are used to
manage game and nongame animals. Thus, hunters and trappers are a major source
of revenue for state wildlife management programs.
8. Public Education
Education is essential to gain public understanding and acceptance of wildlife
management programs. When people know more about wildlife and its needs, they support
management programs. For example, some people are strongly opposed to hunting. They
mistakenly think that sport hunting is responsible for seriously endangering wildlife species. In
reality, it is man’s other activities that have destroyed valuable wildlife habitat resulting in the
extinction of some wildlife species.
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Threatened and Endangered Species and Loss of Habitat
As a result of habitat loss, many nongame species (animals that are not legally harvested)
and game species have become threatened, endangered, and even extinct. In recognition of the
fact that various species of plants and animals had been rendered extinct by human action, that
other species had become endangered with extinction or threatened with endangerment, and that
such elements of our natural biodiversity were of “esthetic, ecological, educational, historical,
recreational, and scientific value to the Nation and its people,” the U.S. Congress passed the
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA). The purpose of the ESA was to provide a means for
the conservation of the ecosystems upon which threatened and endangered species depend, and
to provide a program for the conservation of those species. Among other things, the ESA
prohibits taking (to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to
attempt to engage in any such conduct) of threatened or endangered animal species, including
harm through alteration of habitat. It also protects threatened or endangered plants on federal
land, and prohibits foreign and interstate transport and commerce of all listed species.
In Utah, animals and plants are protected under the following categories: Endangered: a
species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or part of its range (currently 14 wildlife
species in UT); Threatened: a species that is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable
future throughout all or part of its range (currently 7 wildlife species in UT); Federal Candidate
Species: a species for which the Fish and Wildlife Service has sufficient information on
biological vulnerability and threat to support a proposal to list as threatened or endangered
species (currently 5 wildlife species in UT); Wildlife Species of Concern: a species for which
there is credible scientific evidence to substantiate a threat to continued population viability (
currently 71 wildlife species in UT); Conservation Agreement Species: a species that currently
has a conservation agreement in place (currently 9 wildlife species in UT). Species can be listed
under state and/or federal protection. See the Utah Sensitive Species report for examples of
protected species in Utah.
Forty bird and mammal species known to have been native to the United States and its
territories became extinct since the time of Christopher Columbus. Most extinct species once
lived on islands or in isolated mainland habitats. Of the 32 species of North American birds that
have become extinct in recent history, 26 were indigenous to Hawaii. Two of the eight extinct
North American mammals were meadow voles, one of which lived on a small island in Long
Island Sound in the eastern United States. The other lived exclusively in an isolated California
marsh. The heath hen was lost after its habitat was confined to a single island off the coast of
Massachusetts. In each of these examples, the animals’ habitats were so restricted that when
disrupted, the animals either had no opportunity to find new habitat or perished before they
could. Other extinct species of wildlife once native to the United States were doomed as a direct
result of human carelessness and indifference or ignorance.
The most dramatic loss of a single species was the demise of the passenger pigeon. Less
than one century ago, countless millions of these birds darkened the sky for miles when they
flew to feeding and nesting cover. The birds were shot and trapped by the ton, largely for
commercial purposes. Combined with logging practices that destroyed great expanses of the
passenger pigeons’ hardwood habitat, the wanton and frequently wasteful killing of the birds
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eliminated the species early in the 20th century. The colonization of North America rapidly
altered the habitat of wildlife, but of even greater harm was the settlers’ attitude that wildlife was
an inexhaustible resource. Before people began to understand the damage they were doing to
wildlife populations, such species as elk, wild turkey, pronghorn, Badlands bighorn sheep,
eagles, white-tailed deer, bison, egrets and spruce grouse, to name a few were on the verge of
extinction. Through enlightened public attitudes and wildlife management efforts, most of these
species have been restored.
Some populations of grizzly bear, wolf and cougar were exterminated because they
threatened livestock and people. Prairie dogs competed with livestock for scarce grass in the
semiarid West, so massive eradication campaigns took place. Not only were some populations
of prairie dogs destroyed, but black-footed ferrets that fed on prairie dogs and lived in prairie dog
“towns” became endangered as well, and remain so today.
Most problems developed when both wild and domesticated animals were introduced to
North America. In some cases, these exotics were carriers of diseases, and in many instances,
they upset delicate native food chains. Introduced predators such as house cats, rats and
mongooses preyed on resident species. Domestic livestock ate food that native wild animals
needed. Even now, habitats are still being altered by these influences.
Threatened and endangered wildlife present a great challenge to resource managers and
all citizens. When a species becomes extinct, its unique genetic characteristics - accumulated
over eons of time - are lost forever. And its vital role in food chains, through energy and mineral
transfers, also is eliminated. In our history, such losses have been unfortunate and unplanned.
Unlike some threatened and endangered wildlife, many species have been able to benefit
from sound management practices, public concern and the establishment of management areas.
Management areas have been established on state, Federal (National Forests), and private
(leased) lands. They exist to maintain high quality, irreplaceable habitat for fishing, hunting,
wildlife viewing, hiking, picnicking, boating, shooting, camping, education, and to preserve
unique and rare habitats.
Through fishing and hunting law and intensive management, management areas have
helped restore and build populations of some waterfowl, shorebirds, and endangered species.
For example, when settlement of the United States expanded during the Eighteenth and
Nineteenth centuries, there may have been as many as 100 million American bison on the North
American continent. Unrestricted shooting of these majestic animals, along with destruction of
their habitat by settlement and agriculture, rapidly depleted the bison herds. By 1895, only 800
remained and were confined to areas of poor habitat. Today, more than 6,000 bison live on
management areas in the western United States and Canada. That population would increase
substantially if additional habitats were available and accessible. However, most of the species’
former habitats are used at this time for other purposes, especially food and fiber production.
Although habitat protection can be effective management in some areas and situations, it
can create problems in others. For example, overzealous guarding against fire has built up fuel
on the forest floor and creates conditions for uncontrollable wild fires. These fires can destroy
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hundreds and thousands of acres of forest, including homes and businesses. Eliminating timber
harvests creates even aged stands of timber, which reduces species diversity. Uneven aged
timber is more desirable as it benefits a wider diversity of wildlife species.
Habitat requirements of the Kirtland’s warbler illustrate the need for sensitive
management. This bird nests only in Michigan and has very specific breeding habitat
requirements. It occupies only jack pines 6-8 feet (1.8-2.4 meters) high. As a result of no-fire
and limited timber-harvest policies, and parasitic egg laying by cowbirds, the Kirtland’s warbler
population became endangered. Wildlife and forest managers have responded to the situation by
establishing management areas, instituting prescribed burning, planting jack pine and controlling
cowbirds. Although Kirtland’s warblers are still on the endangered species list, they are
increasing in number. Controlled disturbances of vegetation, primarily to aid the warblers, also
have benefited other animals. Through similar application of scientific knowledge, plus refined
management practices and increased public support, there are many opportunities for restoring
and maintaining wildlife populations.
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Pests and Exotic Species
Pests
The diets of certain animals-including some rodents, birds, and carnivores-include
important agricultural, forestry, horticultural, and other valued resources. In some areas of the
country, these animals have caused extensive damage to potential consumer products, and
economic difficulties for landowners and operators. Where the apparent benefits of such animals
are overridden by the damages they cause, the animals are referred to as pests. It is essential to
understand that individual animals cause pest damage. However, there has been a tendency on
the part of persons encountering damage to label an entire population or species as “pest,” not
just the individuals that cause damage. Indiscriminate elimination of pests can disrupt the food
web in any habitat, and the ultimate consequence may be worse than the initial problem caused
by individual pests. Most animals cause no problems for people.
However, pest animals pose serious problems for some wildlife and land managers.
Managers must determine how to reduce damages caused by pests without eliminating
populations or species of animals and without endangering the food web of all wildlife in an area
with a pest problem. To obtain favorable results, methods used to eliminate individual pests
must be applied through a well-designed management effort.
Controls include trapping, poisoning, shooting, and the use of “scare” devices and
reproductive inhibitors. Each method has a specific use and, if properly applied, can be useful in
reducing crop, livestock and other losses.
The use of certain chemicals can be effective for both pest and predator control. But
unless used with extreme care, poisons can result in unwarranted, nonselective losses of wildlife.
Poisons intended for the elimination of pest plants or animals, often referred to as pesticides,
frequently are accessible to non-pest organisms. So are some chemical substances, such as
mercury and lead, which are released in the environment without intent to harm plants or
animals. Such substances may be lethal not only to animals that consume or come in direct
contact with them, but to animals that feed on plants or animals that have been contaminated.
Also, some animals, contaminated either directly or indirectly by toxic chemicals, do not die.
However, the chemicals may accumulate in their biological systems and adversely affect
behavior, reproductive success or the health of offspring.
Osprey, for example, subsists primarily on a diet of fish. These fish may be contaminated
with the toxic substance DDE, a residual poison of the pesticide DDT. When a female osprey
eats contaminated fish, toxins build up in her system. Although the build-up may not kill the
osprey, it causes the shells of her eggs to be thin and, consequently, to break easily and
prematurely. Similar reactions have led to serious declines in populations of bald eagle,
peregrine falcon, brown pelican and other species in addition to the osprey. Also, because wideranging animals frequent habitats used by more sedentary animals, uncontrolled use of pesticides
can have adverse impacts on animals far from a problem situation. Fortunately, some of the
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most dangerous poisons, including DDT, have been removed from general use. These actions
will have long-term and far-reaching beneficial effects.
People have created habitats and conditions that encourage pests. Therefore, more of
these animals may be present than is ecologically, economically or socially acceptable.
Particularly in artificial environments, pests tend to withstand most control efforts. Like all
wildlife, pests produce biological surpluses. These surpluses can absorb deaths from managed
control efforts without causing harm to the species or populations elsewhere. Use of traps, scare
devices, reproductive inhibitors, toxic chemicals and shooting may be the only logical means of
curtailing damage caused by pests in certain situations.
Bounties, which are direct dollar payments for removing unwanted wildlife, have been
used for hundreds of years as a pest- or predator-control technique and probably have been
abused for that long too. Properly used, bounties may be helpful in selectively removing
individual problem animals. In actual practice, their value as a means to control wildlife
populations has not been proven. Bounties are subject to fraud. Too frequently, taxpayer funds
are used to pay for animals removed from areas where there are no pest problems. Hides or
bountied parts are transported info areas where bounties are paid. Considerable money may be
spent without satisfying objectives, and animals may be killed unnecessarily.
Exotics
An exotic is a form of life or species that is not found naturally in an area. Everyone
knows the giraffe isn’t found naturally in the United States, but did you know that the European
starling, saltcedar (tamarisk), and the common carp are exotic to the United States? Exotics are
part of our everyday life and some have been around so long that we assume they are native to
Utah. Exotics are one of the leading threats to US species and ecosystems today. Of the
approximately 4,000 exotic plant and 2,300 exotic animal species in the US, few cause problems
and many provide economic benefits for humans. Unfortunately, the worst exotics can cause
severe environmental and economic damage; damages costing billions of dollars!
Ecosystems change naturally over time. Some members of the ecosystem disappear and
new ones take their place. But these changes occurred at nature’s pace and the system had time
to adjust to the loss and gain of species. That is, until we humans took an interest in adding
plants and animals from other places for our own purposes. Exotic species are introduced for a
variety of reasons: to create recreational opportunities, to increase the food supply, for pest
control, or because they are attractive. In their native habitats, organisms have natural predators,
competitors, and diseases that act as checks and balances. However, when introduced to new
areas, these controls may not be in place and problem exotics can thrive, out-compete native
species, and become a pest. Exotics can pose problems for our ecosystems by displacing native
species, introducing diseases that native species have no immunity to, creating economic costs,
adversely affecting our quality of life, impacting wildlife habitat, furthering the endangerment of
protected species or by making life painful for us, such as stepping in a fire ant mound or even
worse, threatening human health. And, once an exotic establishes a breeding population, it is
virtually impossible to control or eliminate. Exotics have been intentionally introduced by
individuals and government agencies without a clear understanding of their potential impacts.
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In 1877 the US Fish Commission decided to use
the carp, native to China, to dampen fluctuations in fish
stocks and to provide food fish to rural areas. Common
Carp were capable of rapid growth, tolerant to a wide
range of environmental conditions, was a thriving foodproducing industry in Europe and Asia, and their culture
had been practiced for several hundred years. Although
warned repeatedly that carp should not be stocked into
waters containing existing populations of other fish, the
enthusiasm of individuals and the U.S. and State
Commissions saw to it that every body of water imaginable received its share of young carp. By
1890, public enthusiasm turned to disapproval and carp stocking was discontinued in 1896.
Despite efforts to remove them, carp have displaced more desirable native fishes, degraded water
quality, and are found in throughout Utah’s lakes, rivers and streams.
Also deliberately introduced, saltcedar (or tamarisk) was
brought to the western United States. It was introduced in
Utah (and other parts of the western U.S.) as an ornamental,
for windbreaks and for streambank erosion control. These
species have now established themselves in many lowerelevation streambeds throughout Utah. Native riparian
cottonwood/willow communities have declined dramatically
with the tamarisk invasion. Generally, these plants provide
unsuitable wildlife habitat because neither the foliage nor the flowers and seeds have any
significant forage value in contrast to native species. In addition, the tamarisk species are
prolific seed-producers and have a considerable tolerance for drought and flood.
Rumor has it that, in 1890, a small flock of European starlings were introduced to the
United States in hopes that every bird mentioned in William Shakespeare’s plays could become
established in the New World. Today, starlings may be one of the most common bird species in
the US. This aggressive cavity-nesting bird has proven to be very adaptable and resilient.
Starlings threaten the reproduction of bird species such as bluebirds and tree swallows that
cannot create cavities on their own. Starlings forage
in groups at livestock feedlots. They can consume a
considerable amount of forage, and may selectively
eat high protein supplements mixed into the feed. In
addition, they can transmit disease among livestock.
Starlings also destroy many orchards and fields by
eating the fruit and defecating on the foliage and have
been the cause of airplane crashes by clogging jet
engines with their bodies.
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Other species are sometimes released by owners
who no longer want them. The American bullfrog has
been introduced to Utah from east of the Rocky Mountains.
These introductions have apparently led to the decline of
many species native to Utah. The Bullfrog is the largest
frog in North America, is primarily carnivorous, and can
outcompete many native species. Another source of exotic
species is the release of leftover baitfish. Of 168 fish
species established outside their native range in the US, 58
may have been introduced as bait or forage fish.
Entire ecosystems can be altered by invasive exotics. Ocean going freighters are able to
move much faster today and exotics are more likely than ever to survive the trip. Native to the
Caspian and Black Seas, the zebra mussel is believed to have been accidentally discharged into
the Great Lakes in the unregulated ballast water of a transatlantic tanker. Due to their hardiness
and explosive growth rate, they are having devastating effects on native mussels and also on fish.
Zebra mussels are also directly affecting your pocket book by clogging municipal and industrial
water intakes. The Zebra mussel has caused tremendous harm to the freshwater systems in the
U.S. The zebra mussel does not currently occur in Utah, but is slowly moving west. You will be
hearing more about this aquatic plague in the years to come as damages from its invasion
continue.
What are the costs associated with exotics? Exotics are one of the leading threats to US
species and ecosystems. They have contributed to the decline of 42% of this country’s
threatened and endangered species. The damage done to the US economy by the most
problematic exotics is estimated to be in the billions of dollars. You pay some of the costs when
you buy pesticides for controlling exotics. And, some of your tax dollars and utility bills are
used to control exotics that impact navigation, water quality, and recreation. Exotics are also
responsible for the loss of agricultural crops and livestock. We cannot undo the mistakes of the
past and re-create what existed 400 years ago. But all is not lost. With the cooperation of
individuals, private organizations, businesses, and governments we can stem the invasion. YOU
have the power to prevent the spread of exotics into new areas. Here are some ways:
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Keep pets indoors. Fence in dogs. Neuter pets that are allowed to roam outdoors. Don’t
contribute to the wild animal problem. Pets allowed to roam free can dramatically alter
the conditions for wildlife.
Learn about pets before you purchase one. Make sure it is legal in Utah. What is legal in
another state may not be legal here.
Never release aquarium fish or plants. Take fish back to the pet store or give them to
another hobbyist. Dry, seal in plastic, and dispose of plants in the garbage.
Never release baitfish after fishing. Take them home and dispose of them properly.
Never dip your minnow bucket into one lake if it has water in it from another.
Never move fish from one body of water to another. What is native to one lake or stream
may not be native to another one near by.
Inspect boats, motors, and trailers and remove all plants, plant fragments and mussels
before leaving the launch site. Inspect the boat hull and motor with your hand for adult
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*
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*
*
mussels. Clean boats, motors, live wells and all equipment that you used with hot soapy
water. And do not move water in live wells and buckets.
Never bring plants, fruits, soil, or animals into the country from abroad without having
them inspected by quarantine officials. There are strict laws regulating the importation of
plants and animals because they can carry pests and diseases.
Avoid sending potentially harmful plants or animals through the mail. Check into plants
received in the mail. Order wisely.
Landscape with native plants or use non-invasive ornamentals appropriate to Utah.
Educate yourself and others about the problems that introducing exotics can cause to our
natural resources.
Even with careful research and testing of proposed introductions, we can never totally foresee all
the effects upon our complex natural systems. If nothing else, the history of past introductions
should teach us to regard our own understanding and actions with caution. We owe future
generations nothing less!
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Glossary
Abiotic – a non-living factor in an environment ie. light, water, temperature.
Aestivation – dormancy, generally seasonally
Accipiter – A hawk of the genus Accipiter, characterized by short wings and a long tail.
Aquatic – growing, living in or frequenting water
Arboreal – tree dweller
Autotroph – an organism capable of manufacturing its own food by synthesis of inorganic
materials, as in photosynthesis.
Brood – the offspring of a bird just hatched.
Browse – (v) to eat the twigs and leaves of woody plants; (n) commonly used in wildlife
management to signify brushy plants utilized by deer.
Buteo – Any of the various hawks of the genus Buteo, characterized by broad wings and broad,
rounded tails.
Carnivore – An animal belonging to the order Carnivora, including predominantly meat-eating
mammals.
Carrion – the bodies of dead animals usually found in nature in a decaying state.
Carrying capacity – The number of wildlife species that a given unit of habitat will support
without damage to the habitat.
Cast – to regurgitate indigestible prey remains
Circadian – designating a biological period of about 24 hours.
Climax stage – the final stage of plant succession.
Consumptive use – any use that involves activity resulting in the loss of wildlife i.e.
hunting.
Contiguous forests – Forests that share an edge or boundary.
Crepuscular – active at dusk and dawn.
Clutch – eggs laid and incubated by a female bird during nesting.
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Corridor – areas of continuous habitat that permit animals to travel securely from one habitat to
another.
Dabbling ducks – duck species that principally feed in shallow water by “tipping up” or dabbling
on the surface.
Diurnal – A term used to describe an animal that is most active during the day.
Diving ducks – duck species that feed principally by diving below the surface
Dorsal – of or pertaining to the upper surface.
Ectotherm - animals whose internal body temperature is close to the ambient temperature. Fish,
reptiles and amphibians. Referred to as cold-blooded. Body temperature is regulated by external
factors.
Edge – the place where two or more different plant communities, successional stages or
vegetative stages meet.
Endemic – confined to a certain area or region.
Endotherm – animals that maintain a constant internal body temperature. Birds and mammals.
Require internal regulation of temperature within a certain range.
Estivation – a state of inactivity during prolonged periods of drought or high temperatures.
Exotic – Not a native species. Was either introduced or escaped.
Flyway – fly routes established by migratory birds.
Food chain or food web – the feeding relationship between producers (autotrophs) and
consumers (herbivores, omnivores, and carnivores).
Furbearers – various animals that have a thick coat of soft hair covering their bodies. State
wildlife agencies normally regulate the harvesting of furbearers.
Guard hairs – Long, coarse hairs that forms a protective coating over an animal’s under fur.
Harvest – proportion or number of a wildlife population brought to bag by hunters; in wildlife
management, killing an animal.
Herbivore – An animal that eats plants.
Hibernation – passing the winter or a portion of it in a state of sleep
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Indigenous – a naturally occurring species.
Insectivore – a mammal or organism that feeds on insects.
Inventory – the process of counting or identifying animals.
Lateral – pertaining to the side.
Limiting factor – Anything that affects a species population. It could result from causes in nature
as well as human activities. Examples include food, water, shelter, space, disease, predation,
climatic conditions, pollution, hunting, poaching and accidents.
Litter – the number of young born with each birthing.
Mandibles – either the upper or lower part of the beak in birds.
Molt – the process of shedding or replacing feathers.
Monogamous – term used when one male breeds with one female.
Mortality (death rate) – the number of animals that die each year.
Natality (birth rate) – ability of a population to increase; reproductive rate.
Niche – that part of a habitat particularly suited to the requirements of a given species.
Nocturnal – active by night; the opposite of diurnal.
Nonconsumptive use – any use that does not directly kill wildlife, i.e. bird watching, hiking,
photography.
Omnivore – An animal or organism that feeds on both animal and plant matter.
Ornithology – The scientific study of birds as a branch of zoology.
Parasite – an organism that lives by deriving benefit (usually doing harm) from another
organism.
Philopatry – annual homing to the same nesting area and often the same nest site.
Polyandry – term used when a female animal breeds with more than one male.
Polygamy or polygyny – term used when a male animal breeds with many females.
Passerine – Birds of the order Passeriformes, which include perching birds and songbirds such as
the jays, blackbirds, finches, warblers and sparrows.
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Pelage – The coat of a mammal, consisting of hair, fur, wool or other soft covering, as distinct
from bare skin.
Population – the number of a particular species in a defined area.
Population dynamics – factors regulating population levels including natality, productivity and
mortality.
Recruitment – addition of a number of young to an adult population of breeders.
Riparian area – the area of influence between upland habitats and aquatic habitats.
Scat – The excrement droppings of an animal.
Species – populations of animals that possess common characteristics and freely interbreed in
nature and produce fertile offspring.
Species richness – the number of wildlife species found in a given area.
Taxonomy – the science of the classification of animals or plants.
Torpor – temporary loss of all or part of the power of motion.
Upland game – Game species that are managed by state wildlife agencies whose habitat needs
are usually found in upland areas. These species in Utah include pheasant, quail, chukar
partridge, Hungarian partridge, sage-grouse, ruffed grouse, blue grouse, sharp-tailed grouse,
cottontail rabbit, snowshoe hare, white-tailed ptarmigan, and the following migratory game
birds: band-tailed pigeon, mourning dove, white-winged dove and sandhill crane.
Trophic level – a feeding level in the food chain of an ecosystem characterized by organisms that
occupy a similar functional position in the ecosystem.
Ventral – of or pertaining to the lower surface.
Waterfowl – water birds, usually referring to ducks, geese and swans.
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Additional Resources
Project Wild: Growing Wild newsletter articles: published by the Utah Division of
Wildlife. Available online at: www.wildlife.utah.gov/projectwild/newsletter_archive.html
or by contacting Diana Vos at ([email protected])
Western Birds, by Roger Tory Peterson OR another bird identification book.
Field Guide to Animal Tracks
Field Guide to Mammals
The Riparian Zone, pamphlet published by the Utah Riparian Management Coalition
Utah 4-H Wildlife Habitat Evaluation Program Manual, available at local county
Extension offices and from the Utah Envirothon.
Endangered and Threatened Animals of Utah, Jack H. Berryman Institute, Department
of Fisheries and Wildlife, Utah State University College of Natural Resources, Logan,
UT 84322-5210. Available online at: www.berrymaninstitute.org/publications.html
Creating Landscapes for Wildlife, published by Utah Division of Wildlife Resources and
USU Extension. Available online at: www.wildlife.utah.gov/publications
Wildlife Fact Sheets, published by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources. Available
online at: www.wildlife.utah.gov/publications/notebook.html
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Additional Websites for Even More Research
(If you’re REALLY interested)
Other publications found on the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources webpage:
http://www.wildlife.utah.gov/ - including the Wildlife Review.
Berryman Institute: http://www.berrymaninstitute.org
Ducks Unlimited: http://www.ducks.org. Excellent website for wetland education –
there’s a curriculum under the “For Kids” section.
Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation: http://www.rmef.org
National Audubon Society: http://www.audubon.org
National Wildlife Federation: http://www.nwf.org
The Nature Conservancy: http://nature.org/
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Species: http://www.fws.gov/species
Skullduggery activity: http://www.uwsp.edu/cnr/cwes/PreandPosts/skullduggery.pdf .
There are other good activities here as well.
University of California, Berkeley, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology:
http://mvz.berkeley.edu
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