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AS/A Level Geology
Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
This document compares the specification learning outcomes from the legacy GCE AS/A
Level Geology (H087/H487) qualification to the new GCE AS/A Level Geology (H014/H414).
It shows where the statements in the old specification are covered in the new spec, indicates
where they are no longer assessed and highlights where new content has been added.
F791: Global tectonics
The learning outcomes in this topic have been refreshed and updated in consultation with
HE. There is an increased emphasis on the application of ideas and links to the underlying
science. For example content explicitly builds on learners’ knowledge and understanding of
chemistry and physics, and the processes at mid-ocean ridges reflects the latest research.
Spec
Ref
Original spec statement
(H087/H487)
Spec
Ref
Reformed spec statement
equivalent (H014/H414)
(old)
Candidates should be able to:
(new)
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
1.1.1a
describe the overall structure of the solar
system including gas giants and
terrestrial planets with a dense inner
core, and current theories of its origin
and age
1.1.1b
describe the geology of the Earth’s
moon, Mars, Venus and the asteroid belt
using knowledge from space exploration
1.1.1c
1.1.1d
1.1.1e
1.1.1f
describe the different types of meteorites
as iron, stony and carbonaceous
chondrites
describe the evidence for impact craters
caused by asteroids and meteorites
colliding with the Earth and other bodies
in the solar system
describe how volcanic activity has been
identified on Io – a moon of Jupiter,
Mars and Venus
explain how the age of the Earth and
other planets can be determined by
radiometric dating methods
Tick
if no
longer
covered
3.1.2b
a qualitative explanation of the nebular
hypothesis for the formation of the solar
system and the Earth
—
N/A
—

3.1.2b
the differentiation of the Earth into layers
of distinct composition and density by
the partitioning of each of the
Goldschmit groups between the crust,
mantle, core, and atmosphere and
hydrosphere
a qualitative explanation of the nebular
hypothesis for the formation of the solar
system and the Earth
N/A
—

2.2.2a
(i) the use of radioactive decay rates of
the radionuclides in minerals to give a
numerical age of those minerals and
rocks
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of halflife curves
—
3.1.2e
AS/A Level Geology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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Page 1 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.1.2a
1.1.2b
state the depths of the main layers of the
Earth: inner core, outer core, mantle,
asthenosphere, continental crust and
oceanic crust
describe how the thickness of the crust
varies under continents and oceans
3.1.1a
3.1.1d
state the depth of the discontinuities:
Lehmann, Gutenberg and Moho
3.1.1a
3.1.2f
1.1.2c
1.1.2d
1.1.2e
1.1.3a
1.1.3b
1.1.4a
1.1.4b
1.1.4c
describe the nature of these
discontinuities and the changes that
occur at them
describe the probable composition of
each of the layers of the Earth: inner
core, outer core, mantle, asthenosphere,
continental crust and oceanic crust
describe and explain the nature of the
asthenosphere as a rheid, plastic layer
with 1–5% partial melting. Describe how
this layer can be identified using P and S
waves and its role in plate tectonics
describe the lithosphere as a rigid, brittle
layer made of part of the crust and upper
mantle, which is divided into plates
explain how evidence from rocks seen in
deep mines up to 5km below the surface
or deep boreholes up to 13km below the
surface can be used as evidence for the
composition of the crust
explain how rocks brought to the surface
by volcanic activity – in kimberlite pipes
as mantle xenoliths – provide evidence
of mantle rocks
explain how ophiolites and rocks
exposed by erosion provide evidence for
the structure and composition of oceanic
crust
3.1.2f
3.1.2f
3.1.1b
3.1.1f
3.1.1c
3.1.2f
3.1.2f
5.3.2b
AS/A Level Geology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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the layered structures of the Earth as
defined by the rheological properties of
the layers
how evidence from gravity anomalies
and isostasy provides indirect evidence
to determine the behaviour of the
lithosphere and asthenosphere
the layered structures of the Earth as
defined by the rheological properties of
the layers
the geochemical layered structure of the
Earth as defined by the mineral
composition of the layers and how the
composition of these layers is inferred
from direct evidence
the geochemical layered structure of the
Earth as defined by the mineral
composition of the layers and how the
composition of these layers is inferred
from direct evidence
the geochemical layered structure of the
Earth as defined by the mineral
composition of the layers and how the
composition of these layers is inferred
from direct evidence
how the variation in P and S wave
velocities provides indirect evidence to
identify layers within the Earth and how
their paths through the Earth produces
the P wave and S wave shadow zones
the nature of the asthenosphere as a
rheid, plastic layer with 1–5% partial
melting
the lithosphere as a rigid, brittle layer
made of the crust and part of the upper
mantle, which is divided into plates
the geochemical layered structure of the
Earth as defined by the mineral
composition of the layers and how the
composition of these layers is inferred
from direct evidence
the geochemical layered structure of the
Earth as defined by the mineral
composition of the layers and how the
composition of these layers is inferred
from direct evidence
the evidence for the internal structure
and processes at mid-ocean ridges
(ophiolite complexes and geophysical
surveys: gravity, reflection seismic and
geoelectrical)
Page 2 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.1.5a
explain how the variation in P and S
wave velocities can be used to identify
layers within the Earth
1.1.5b
explain how the properties of P and S
waves result in shadow zones, which
can be used to determine the state and
depth of the inner and outer core of the
Earth
1.1.5c
explain how the density of the whole
Earth and the rocks at the surface can
be used to infer the density of the core
and mantle rocks
1.1.5d
1.1.6a
1.1.6b
1.1.6c
1.2.1a
1.2.1b
explain how stony and iron nickel
meteorites from within the solar system
can be used to infer the composition of
the mantle and core
describe and explain the probable origin
of the Earth’s magnetic field
describe palaeomagnetism in rocks and
magnetic reversals
describe and explain the variation of
magnetic inclination with latitude
describe the characteristics of P waves
and explain how their path through the
Earth produces the P wave shadow
zone
describe the characteristics of S waves
and explain how their path through the
Earth produces the S wave shadow
zone
1.2.1c
describe the characteristics of surface
(L) waves and explain how these
surface waves may cause damage
1.2.2a
describe the earthquake focus and state
the range of possible depths within the
shallow, medium and deep categories
3.1.1b
how the variation in P and S wave
velocities provides indirect evidence to
identify layers within the Earth and how
their paths through the Earth produces
the P wave and S wave shadow zones
—
3.1.1b
how the variation in P and S wave
velocities provides indirect evidence to
identify layers within the Earth and how
their paths through the Earth produces
the P wave and S wave shadow zones
—
3.1.1g
how the density of the whole Earth and
the rocks at the surface provide indirect
evidence to infer the density of the core
and mantle rocks
—
3.1.2e
3.1.1h
3.2.1d
N/A
3.1.1b
the differentiation of the Earth into layers
of distinct composition and density by
the partitioning of each of the
Goldschmit groups between the crust,
mantle, core, and atmosphere and
hydrosphere
the probable geodynamo origin of the
Earth’s magnetic field which provides
indirect evidence for the subdivision of
the core
how the global distribution of geological
features of the same age provides
evidence to reconstruct historical plate
movement
Learners may be required to
demonstrate understanding of concepts
from GCSE (9-1) Physics/Science
how the variation in P and S wave
velocities provides indirect evidence to
identify layers within the Earth and how
their paths through the Earth produces
the P wave and S wave shadow zones
—
—
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Physics
—
3.1.1b
how the variation in P and S wave
velocities provides indirect evidence to
identify layers within the Earth and how
their paths through the Earth produces
the P wave and S wave shadow zones
—
6.1.1b
(i) the interaction of the transmission of
seismic energy and the competence of
the bedrock / soil
(ii) the interaction of groundwater with
seismic waves (liquefaction)
—
3.2.1b
(i) the evidence from earthquake
seismology data for the nature of
lithospheric plates (aseismic interiors
and boundaries defined by seismic
activity)
—
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AS/A Level Geology
1.2.2b
1.2.3a
1.2.3b
describe the earthquake epicentre and
explain how this can be determined and
plotted using distance from
seismometers or by isoseismal lines
define the Mercalli scale and explain
how it is used to create intensity maps of
earthquake effects
describe the relationship between
intensity and both consolidated and
unconsolidated rocks
3.2.1b
6.1.1a
6.1.1b
plot and interpret isoseismal lines using
intensity data
1.2.3c
1.2.3d
1.2.4a
1.2.4b
1.2.4c
1.2.5a
1.2.6a
1.2.6b
6.1.2c
define the Richter scale and explain how
it is used to measure the magnitude of
an earthquake
explain how earthquakes occur when
stress stored in rocks is released
describe how earthquakes are detected
using a seismometer
interpret and analyse seismograms to
show distance from epicentre and
magnitude; use time/distance graphs to
find the epicentre of an earthquake; use
seismograms to demonstrate shadow
zones
describe the effects of earthquakes: the
type of ground movement, damage to
structures, liquefaction, landslips,
tsunamis and aftershocks; describe the
social and economic effects of
earthquake activity on humans and the
built environment
describe and explain possible methods
of earthquake prediction: seismic gap
theory, detailed measurements of gases,
changes in stress in rocks, changes in
water levels in wells, changes in ground
levels, magnetism and animal behaviour
describe and explain the social
consequences of attempted earthquake
prediction
N/A
3.3.2a
3.2.1b
(i) the evidence from earthquake
seismology data for the nature of
lithospheric plates (aseismic interiors
and boundaries defined by seismic
activity)(iii) the interpretation and
analysis of seismograms
the factors which affect the impact of
earthquakes
(i) the interaction of the transmission of
seismic energy and the competence of
the bedrock / soil
(ii) the interaction of groundwater with
seismic waves (liquefaction)
the use of geographical information
systems (GIS) to synthesise and
summarise geological and geographic
data to improve disaster planning and
communication of information for the use
of non-specialists
Richter scale replaced by moment
magnitude scale
—
—
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
how earthquakes occur when elastic
strain energy stored in rocks is released
(elastic rebound theory)
(iii) the interpretation and analysis of
seismograms
(iii) the interpretation and analysis of
seismograms
—
—
—
3.2.1b
the factors which affect the impact of
earthquakes
6.1.1a
6.1.1b
6.1.2b
6.1.1d
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(i) the interaction of the transmission of
seismic energy and the competence of
the bedrock / soil
(ii) the interaction of groundwater with
seismic waves (liquefaction)
the effectiveness and limitations of
deterministic predictions of tectonic
geohazards
the limitations and utility of seismic
hazard risk analysis which synthesise
and summarise geological data sets to
communicate this information for the use
of non-specialists
Page 4 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.2.6c
1.3.1a
1.3.1b
1.3.2a
1.3.3a
describe measures designed to reduce
the impact of the effects of earthquakes:
building construction codes to ensure
strong foundations and reinforced
structures, buildings with flexible
structural supports, ground isolation
systems using teflon or rubber pads or
rollers; earthquake proofing mains gas,
electricity and water supplies
describe the characteristic features of:
the continental slope, ocean basins with
abyssal plains, seamount, mid-ocean
ridges and deep-ocean trenches
describe the characteristic features of:
major rift systems, continental shields,
fold mountains and continental shelf
describe the evidence for the movement
of continents over time using the fit of
Africa and South America as part of
Gondwanaland:
(i) jigsaw fit of the edges of continental
shelves for a geographical fit;
(ii) the distribution of specific rock types
of the same age;
(iii) the distribution of fold mountain
chains;
(iv) the distribution of fossils;
(v) the distribution of glacial striations
and tillites;
(vi) palaeomagnetic evidence using
polar wandering curves for the
movement of continents
describe the evidence for the process of
sea floor spreading:
(i) the distribution of mid-ocean ridges
(MOR) and the depth of the ocean floor;
(ii) high heat flow and volcanic activity at
the MOR;
(iii) gravity anomaly at the MOR and the
pattern of magnetic anomalies;
(iv) transform faults and the pattern of
earthquakes;
(v) the age pattern and homogenous
structure of the ocean crust and the age
and distribution of sediment in deep
ocean basins;
(vi) direct satellite measurements of the
width of the oceans
how civil engineering can reduce the
impact of future seismic events
6.1.1c
6.1.1d
N/A
N/A
Learners may be required to
demonstrate understanding of term BUT
NOT recapitulate a description
Learners may be required to
demonstrate understanding of term BUT
NOT recapitulate a description
how the global distribution of geological
features of the same age provides
evidence to reconstruct historical plate
movement
—
KS3
geography
KS3
geography
—
3.2.1d
(i) the relationship between spreading
rate and seabed morphology (water
depth, fast and slow spreading midocean ridges)
5.3.2a
5.3.2b
3.2.1f
calculate the rate of sea floor spreading
from different data sources
1.3.3b
the limitations and utility of seismic
hazard risk analysis which synthesise
and summarise geological data sets to
communicate this information for the use
of non-specialists
5.3.2a
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the evidence for the internal structure
and processes at mid-ocean ridges
(ophiolite complexes and geophysical
surveys: gravity, reflection seismic and
geoelectrical)
how the resolution and precision of the
direct measurement of relative
movement of points on different plates
using global positioning systems (GPS)
allow accurate measurement of the
current relative movement of lithospheric
plates
(i) the relationship between spreading
rate and seabed morphology (water
depth, fast and slow spreading midocean ridges)
(ii) the calculation of numerical age
using radioactive decay rates
Page 5 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.3.4a
1.3.4b
1.3.4c
1.3.4d
describe and explain the pattern of
Earth’s seismicity and aseismicity
describe the distribution of shallow
earthquakes in relation to: mid-ocean
ridges, transform faults, major rift
systems, deep-ocean trenches, fold
mountains and subduction zones
describe the distribution of deep and
intermediate earthquakes in relation to
fold mountains and subduction zones
explain the aseismicity of continental
shields and ocean basins
3.2.1c
3.2.1c
3.2.1c
3.2.1c
describe and explain the relationships
between continental drift, sea-floor
spreading and plate tectonics
1.3.5a
1.3.6a
1.3.6b
3.2.1j
describe how plate margins are defined
by seismic activity; describe the nature
of plates
locate and name the major oceanic and
continental plates on maps
3.2.1c
N/A
describe the similarities and differences
between oceanic and continental plates
in terms of thickness, density and
average composition
3.1.1c
3.1.1d
3.1.1e
1.3.6c
1.3.7a
describe divergent plate margins and the
evidence for the plate boundary: midoceanic ridges, submarine volcanic
activity, mafic magma, high heat flow,
smokers, shallow focus earthquakes,
transform faults
3.2.2a
3.3.2d
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the nature of lithospheric plates:
aseismic interiors and boundaries
defined by seismic activity
the nature of lithospheric plates:
aseismic interiors and boundaries
defined by seismic activity
—
—
the nature of lithospheric plates:
aseismic interiors and boundaries
defined by seismic activity
the nature of lithospheric plates:
aseismic interiors and boundaries
defined by seismic activity
i) how the plate tectonic paradigm
emerged from previous, gradually more
sophisticated models (geosynclines,
continental drift, active mantle
convection carrying passive tectonic
plates)
(ii) interpretation of these and other
examples of such developing models.
the nature of lithospheric plates:
aseismic interiors and boundaries
defined by seismic activity
Learners may be required to
demonstrate understanding of terms
BUT NOT simply locate or recapitulate a
description
the lithosphere as a rigid, brittle layer
made of the crust and part of the upper
mantle, which is divided into plates
—
—
—
—
KS3
geography
how evidence from gravity anomalies
and isostasy provides indirect evidence
to determine the behaviour of the
lithosphere and asthenosphere
—
how indirect evidence from
electromagnetic (EM) surveys may be
used to identify the lithosphere and
asthenosphere at mid-ocean ridges
the generation of mafic magma by
partial melting which results from
upwelling of the mantle at divergent
plate boundaries and intraplate hot spot
settings
—
how plate movement at divergent
boundaries causes tensional dominated
tectonic environments, which can lead to
rock deformation as a result of tectonic
or gravity induced stresses
Page 6 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
1.3.7b
1.3.7c
1.3.7d
1.3.7e
1.3.8a
describe convergent plate margins
involving oceanic plates and the
evidence for the plate margin: deepocean trenches, earthquake foci along
the inclined plane of a Benioff zone, heat
flow anomalies, volcanic island arc and
intermediate volcanic activity
describe convergent plate margins
involving continental and oceanic plates
and the evidence for the plate margin:
deep-ocean trenches, earthquake foci
along the inclined plane of a Benioff
zone, heat flow anomalies, fold
mountains, silicic and intermediate
volcanic activity and batholiths
describe convergent plate margins
involving only continental plates and the
evidence for the plate boundary: shallow
and intermediate focus earthquakes,
batholiths, metamorphism and folded
and faulted sediments in fold mountains
describe conservative plate margins
where plates slide past each other and
the evidence for the plate margin:
shallow focus earthquakes and faulting
explain how volcanic activity at ocean
ridges may ‘push’ plates apart. Describe
how gravity and differences in density
may ‘pull’ plates apart
3.2.1b
3.2.2b
3.3.2c
3.2.2b
3.3.2c
3.3.2b
3.2.1h
3.2.1i
3.2.1a
3.2.1b
3.2.1g
1.3.8c
explain how the balance between
formation of oceanic crust and its
subduction affects the distribution of
plate boundaries
—
how plate movement at convergent
boundaries causes compressive and
shear dominated tectonic environments,
which can lead to rock deformation as a
result of tectonic or gravity induced
stresses
the generation of intermediate and silicic
magmas at convergent plate boundaries
where crustal material is carried
downward resulting in partial melting
—
how plate movement at convergent
boundaries causes compressive and
shear dominated tectonic environments,
which can lead to rock deformation as a
result of tectonic or gravity induced
stresses
how plate movement at transform
boundaries causes shear dominated
tectonic environments, which can lead to
rock deformation as a result of tectonic
induced stresses
—
—
how gravity and differences in density
result in ridge push at mid-ocean ridges
describe the evidence for mantle
convection
1.3.8b
(i) the evidence from earthquake
seismology data for the nature of
lithospheric plates (aseismic interiors
and boundaries defined by seismic
activity)
(ii) the evidence for structure in the
mantle from seismic tomography data
the generation of intermediate and silicic
magmas at convergent plate boundaries
where crustal material is carried
downward resulting in partial melting
3.2.1i
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the relative importance of slab pull at
subduction zones and ridge push at midocean ridges as mechanisms driving the
movement of tectonic plates
the transfer of energy from within the
Earth which drives the Earth’s internal
geological processes
(ii) the evidence for structure in the
mantle from seismic tomography data
subduction zones, lithospheric plates
(cold thermal boundary) and mantle
plumes which act as the active limbs of
the convection cells which transfer
energy from within the Earth
the relative importance of slab pull at
subduction zones and ridge push at midocean ridges as mechanisms driving the
movement of tectonic plates
Page 7 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.3.9a
1.3.9b
1.3.9c
define the terms hotspots and mantle
plumes
describe evidence for hotspots and
mantle plumes using heat flow and
seismic tomography
describe and explain how chains of
hotspots and seamounts develop;
explain the age of oceanic islands in
terms of their movement over a hotspot
and how they can be used to calculate
the rate of sea floor spreading
define and be able to explain: beds and
bedding planes, dip, apparent dip and
strike
1.4.1a
1.4.1b
1.4.2a
N/A
define tension, compression and shear
forces and describe competent and
incompetent rocks; explain how tension,
compression and shear forces produce
geological structures
1.4.2b

the evidence for mantle plumes
—
3.2.1e
the evidence for mantle plumes
—
3.2.1e
3.3.1a
measure dip and strike
define and describe stress and strain
and how they affect rocks; explain how
stress and strain vary due to
temperature, confining pressure and
time
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of term BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
3.3.1a
3.3.1b
5.4.1c
3.3.1a
6.2.1a
1.4.2c
describe how the deformation of fossils
and ooliths can be used to measure
strain
3.3.1b
1.4.3a
recognise and explain the origin of an
angular unconformity
4.1.1a
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(i) the geological structures produced by
rock deformation as a result of tectonic
stresses (tension, compression and
shear forces)
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
(iii) the construction of geological crosssections from geological maps
(iv) use of a compass-clinometer
(i) how tectonic stress and strain vary
due to temperature, confining pressure
and time, resulting in the plastic or brittle
deformation of rocks(ii) the use of stress
and strain diagramshow the composition
of the parent rock and conditions (strain
rate, temperature and pressure) at the
time of rock deformation determine the
nature of that rock deformation
(i) the geological structures produced by
rock deformation as a result of tectonic
stresses (tension, compression and
shear forces)
(i) the effect of the interlocking and
cementation of component minerals on
rock strength
(ii) the measurement of rock strength
under compression and under shear
(iii) the density of rocks
(i) how tectonic stress and strain vary
due to temperature, confining pressure
and time, resulting in the plastic or brittle
deformation of rocks
(ii) the use of stress and strain diagrams
the use of evidence in the field,
photographs, diagrams and maps to
recognise the rock cycle
Page 8 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
1.4.3b
1.4.4a
1.4.4b
1.4.4c
1.4.5a
1.4.5b
1.4.5c
1.4.6a
1.4.6b
explain the origin and characteristics of
tectonic joints: tension and cross joints,
cooling joints in igneous rocks,
unloading joints in batholiths
define and recognise fault
characteristics: fault plane, throw, fault
dip, hanging wall, footwall, upthrow and
downthrow
describe and recognise: dip-slip faults
(normal and reverse), graben (rift), horst
and thrusts, strike-slip faults and
transform faults; explain their formation
and how they can be recognised in the
field, on maps and in cross- sections
describe and recognise: slickensides
and fault breccia; explain their formation
define and recognise fold
characteristics: fold limbs, hinge, crest,
trough, axial plane, axial plane trace,
plunge, antiform and synform
describe and recognise symmetrical and
asymmetrical anticlines, synclines,
overfolds, recumbent folds, nappes,
isoclinal folds, domes and basins;
explain their formation and how they can
be recognised in the field, on maps and
in cross-sections
describe and explain the formation of
slaty cleavage in incompetent rocks by
compressive forces and its relationship
to folds
deduce the age relationships of
geological structures using cross-cutting
features of beds, faults, folds and
unconformities to date them relative to
each other
interpret the types of faults and folds
from outcrop patterns and determine
upthrow and downthrow of faults using
the relationships between faults, folds
and beds
3.3.1b
3.2.2d
3.3.1a
3.3.1a
3.3.1b
3.3.1a
3.3.1a
3.3.2c
3.3.1c
4.2.1a
3.3.1a
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(i) how tectonic stress and strain vary
due to temperature, confining pressure
and time, resulting in the plastic or brittle
deformation of rocks
(i) the characteristics of major and minor
intrusive bodies and the settings under
which they form
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
(i) how tectonic stress and strain vary
due to temperature, confining pressure
and time, resulting in the plastic or brittle
deformation of rocks
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
how plate movement at convergent
boundaries causes compressive and
shear dominated tectonic environments,
which can lead to rock deformation as a
result of tectonic or gravity induced
stresses
how compressive forces can lead to the
formation of a slaty cleavage
the geochronological principles used to
place geological events in relative time
sequences in outcrops, photographs,
maps and cross-sections to interpret
geological histories
(ii) the identification, measurement and
description of these geological
structures on photographs, maps, crosssections and in the field, including
production of labelled field sketches
(iii) the construction of geological crosssections from geological maps
Page 9 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
F792: Rocks – processes and products
The learning outcomes in this topic have been refreshed and updated in consultation with
HE. There is an increased emphasis on the application of ideas and links to the underlying
science. Mineralogy has been reintroduced and the advanced petrology moved to the
second year of the reformed geology course.
Spec
Ref
Original spec statement
(H087/H487)
Spec
Ref
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
Candidates should be able to:
describe the rock cycle
2.1.1a
2.1.1b
2.1.1c
2.1.2a
N/A
define processes operating at the
surface: weathering, erosion, transport,
deposition and extrusion
define processes operating below the
surface: burial, diagenesis,
recrystallisation, metamorphism, partial
melting, magma accumulation,
crystallisation, intrusion and uplift
describe the classification of rocks into
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
classes using their relationship to
temperatures and pressures in the rock
cycle
N/A
N/A
2.1.1d
describe the characteristics of the major
rock-forming minerals used to classify
the rock groups
2.1.2b
Reformed spec statement
equivalent (H014/H414)
Learners may be required to
demonstrate understanding of the term
BUT NOT simply recapitulate a definition
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of terms BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
Tick
if no
longer
covered
KS3
science
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of terms BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
the classification of rocks, which are
made up of one or more minerals, as
igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic
using their relationship to temperatures
and pressures in the rock cycle.


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minerals as naturally occurring elements
and inorganic compounds whose
composition can be expressed as a
chemical formula
2.1.1a
2.1.1b
2.1.1c
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rock-forming silicate minerals as
crystalline materials built up from
silicon–oxygen tetrahedra to form
frameworks, sheets or chains and which
may have a range of compositions
(qualitative only)
(i) the diagnostic physical properties of
rock-forming minerals in hand
specimens
(ii) the classification of samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
of minerals using their diagnostic
physical properties
(iii) practical investigations to determine
the density and hardness of mineral
samples
(iv) the techniques and procedures used
to measure mass, length and volume.
Page 10 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
2.1.3a
describe the division of the geological
column into eras and systems using
dating principles
2.2.2b
2.2.1a
describe and classify silicic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic rocks
using their mineral composition (quartz,
feldspars, mafic minerals), crystal grain
size and silica percentage
2.1.2a
2.2.2a
recognise and measure crystal grain
sizes (coarse-grained >5 mm diameter;
medium-grained 1-5 mm diameter; finegrained <1 mm diameter) using
observation of samples, photographs
and thin section diagrams
2.1.2a
explain how crystal grain size provides
evidence for depth of formation and rate
of cooling of volcanic, hypabyssal and
plutonic igneous rocks
2.2.2b
2.2.3a
2.1.2b
describe, recognise and compare
equigranular, glassy, vesicular,
amygdaloidal, flow banding and
porphyritic igneous textures using
observation of samples, photographs
and thin section diagrams
2.1.2b
explain how the textures are formed and
what evidence they provide about the
formation and cooling histories of
igneous rocks
2.2.3b
2.1.2b
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the geochronological division of the
geological column for the Phanerozoic
into eras and periods using a
biostratigraphic relative time sequence.
(i) the classification of igneous rocks on
the basis of their composition (silicic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic) and
crystal grain size (coarse-crystals >5
mm diameter; medium-crystals 1–5 mm
diameter; fine-crystals <1 mm diameter)
(ii) the diagnostic properties of rocks to
identify igneous rocks in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(i) the classification of igneous rocks on
the basis of their composition (silicic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic) and
crystal grain size (coarse-crystals >5
mm diameter; medium-crystals 1–5 mm
diameter; fine-crystals <1 mm diameter)
(ii) the diagnostic properties of rocks to
identify igneous rocks in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(i) igneous textures, crystal shape and
crystal size as evidence for depth of
formation and rate of cooling of igneous
rocks
(ii) the diagnostic properties of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(iii) the representation using drawings
and annotated diagrams of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples
(iv) the techniques and procedures used
to measure temperature.
(i) igneous textures, crystal shape and
crystal size as evidence for depth of
formation and rate of cooling of igneous
rocks
(ii) the diagnostic properties of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(iii) the representation using drawings
and annotated diagrams of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples
(iv) the techniques and procedures used
to measure temperature.
(i) igneous textures, crystal shape and
crystal size as evidence for depth of
formation and rate of cooling of igneous
rocks
(ii) the diagnostic properties of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(iii) the representation using drawings
and annotated diagrams of igneous
textures and crystal shape in samples
(iv) the techniques and procedures used
to measure temperature.
Page 11 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
2.2.4a
2.2.4b
2.2.5a
2.2.5b
2.2.6a
2.2.6b
2.2.6c
2.2.6d
describe and identify: granite,
granodiorite, rhyolite, pumice, obsidian,
pegmatite; diorite, andesite; gabbro,
dolerite, basalt and peridotite; by
observation of crystal grain size, mineral
composition, texture, colour and silica
percentage using observation of
samples, photographs and thin section
diagrams
explain how their characteristics provide
evidence for their origins
explain the source of mafic magma at
divergent plate margins and hotspots by
partial melting of the mantle
explain the source of silicic and
intermediate magma at convergent plate
margins to form volcanoes and
batholiths
describe the sequence of reactions that
occur in Bowen’s Reaction Series
controlling the formation of minerals as
magma cools and crystallises
describe the processes of magmatic
differentiation: fractional crystallisation,
gravity settling and filter pressing
explain how differentiation forms
ultramafic, mafic, intermediate and silicic
rock groups from a single parent magma
explain the results of magmatic
differentiation in the formation of major
layered intrusions
2.1.2a
2.1.2b
3.2.2a
3.2.2b
5.3.1a
5.3.1b
5.3.1b
5.3.1c
explain the results of magmatic
differentiation in magma chambers
below volcanoes and the effect on lava
composition
2.2.6e
5.3.1a
3.2.2g
(i) the classification of igneous rocks on
the basis of their composition (silicic,
intermediate, mafic and ultramafic) and
crystal grain size (coarse-crystals >5
mm diameter; medium-crystals 1–5 mm
diameter; fine-crystals <1 mm diameter)
(ii) the diagnostic properties of rocks to
identify igneous rocks in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
(i) igneous textures, crystal shape and
crystal size as evidence for depth of
formation and rate of cooling of igneous
rocks
the generation of mafic magma by
partial melting which results from
upwelling of the mantle at divergent
plate boundaries and intraplate hot spot
settings
the generation of intermediate and silicic
magmas at convergent plate boundaries
where crustal material is carried
downward resulting in partial melting
(i) the substitution of elements for others
in the crystal structure of minerals and
as magma cools and crystallises (olivine
and plagioclase feldspar as examples of
solid solution series)
(ii) the interpretation of continuous and
discontinuous binary phase diagrams
the geological processes (assimilation,
differentiation and fractionation) which
cause magma composition to evolve
and be modified
the geological processes (assimilation,
differentiation and fractionation) which
cause magma composition to evolve
and be modified
the formation of layered intrusions and
metal ores by magmatic differentiation,
as an example of a geological resource
produced by igneous processes
(i) the substitution of elements for others
in the crystal structure of minerals and
as magma cools and crystallises (olivine
and plagioclase feldspar as examples of
solid solution series)
(ii) the interpretation of continuous and
discontinuous binary phase diagrams
how the composition (percentage silica)
and temperature of the erupting lava
controls its viscosity and its ability to
exsolve volatiles
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Page 12 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
describe the processes of intrusion and
distinguish between major and minor,
concordant and discordant intrusions
3.2.2c
3.2.2d
2.2.7a
2.2.7b
the processes of intrusion which cause a
body of magma to ascend through the
crust and how these affect the country
rock
recognise and describe the
characteristics of sills, transgressive
sills, dykes and batholiths
define the terms contact, country rock
and xenolith; describe and explain how
xenoliths form
2.2.7c
3.2.2f
2.2.8a
2.2.8b
2.2.8c
2.2.8d
define the terms chilled margin, baked
margin and metamorphic aureole
explain how and where chilled and
baked margins and metamorphic
aureoles form
describe and explain the differences
between sills and lava flows by
reference to crystal grain size, baked
and chilled margins, xenoliths, vesicles
and amygdales, alignment of
phenocrysts and weathering
distinguish between major intrusions,
minor intrusions and extrusive rocks
—
—
the processes of intrusion which cause a
body of magma to ascend through the
crust and how these affect the country
rock
3.2.2c
3.2.2e
(i) how changes in the properties of
magma can affect buoyancy forces such
that the magma can make its way to the
surface producing a volcanic eruption
(ii) practical investigations to model the
properties of magma and how changes
to conditions can affect buoyancy forces
the processes of intrusion which cause a
body of magma to ascend through the
crust and how these affect the country
rock
3.2.2c
3.2.2e
(i) how changes in the properties of
magma can affect buoyancy forces such
that the magma can make its way to the
surface producing a volcanic eruption
(ii) practical investigations to model the
properties of magma and how changes
to conditions can affect buoyancy forces
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of terms BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
(i) the characteristics of major and minor
intrusive bodies and the settings under
which they form
(ii) the use of geodetic and geophysical
data to identify the subsurface intrusion
of magma
the diagnostic geological characteristics
of dykes, sills and lava flows
explain the processes involved in the
formation of intrusions: partial melting,
stoping, assimilation and magma mixing
2.2.7d
(i) the characteristics of major and minor
intrusive bodies and the settings under
which they form
(ii) the use of geodetic and geophysical
data to identify the subsurface intrusion
of magma
the diagnostic geological characteristics
of dykes, sills and lava flows
N/A
3.2.2d
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3.2.2f
3.2.2f
—
the diagnostic geological characteristics
of dykes, sills and lava flows
Page 13 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
describe the products of volcanoes:
gases, pyroclasts (pumice, tuffs and
agglomerates), pyroclastic flows
(ignimbrites), lavas of mafic,
intermediate and silicic composition
2.2.9a
2.2.9b
2.2.9c
2.2.10a
2.2.10b
2.2.10c
describe and explain the distribution of
volcanic products around volcanoes due
to energy of blast, grain size of
pyroclasts, velocity and direction of
winds, gradient and magma viscosity
define the term isopachyte, plot and
interpret isopachyte maps of pyroclastic
deposits
describe and explain quiet eruptions of
submarine, fissure and shield volcanoes
where magma viscosity and gas content
are low
describe and explain explosive eruptions
of strato-volcanoes where magma
viscosity and gas content are high
describe and explain the shape and
structure of volcanoes in terms of
viscosity, rate of extrusion, gas content
and frequency of eruption
describe and explain caldera formation
2.2.10d
2.2.10e
2.2.11a
2.2.11b
2.2.11c
3.2.2e
3.2.2g
(i) how changes in the properties of
magma can affect buoyancy forces such
that the magma can make its way to the
surface producing a volcanic eruption
(ii) practical investigations to model the
properties of magma and how changes
to conditions can affect buoyancy forces
3.2.2i
how the composition (percentage silica)
and temperature of the erupting lava
controls its viscosity and its ability to
exsolve volatiles
the nature of volcanic hazards and their
relation to the composition and
properties of the source magma
3.2.2i
3.2.2h
3.2.2h
3.2.2h
3.2.2h
describe and explain geyser formation
describe methods for the prediction of
volcanic activity: historic pattern of
activity, changes in ground level,
changes in gas composition and volume
and precursor earthquake tremors
describe and evaluate the methods of
risk analysis by plotting the extent and
path of lava flows, blast damage, ash
falls, pyroclastic flows and lahars;
describe how these are used to create
hazard maps and contingency plans
describe the benefits and the danger to
life and property of different types of
volcanic activity
N/A
3.2.2d
6.1.2c
N/A
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the nature of volcanic hazards and their
relation to the composition and
properties of the source magma
how the composition and physical
characteristics of the erupted material
control the volcanic landforms produced
by both explosive and effusive activity
how the composition and physical
characteristics of the erupted material
control the volcanic landforms produced
by both explosive and effusive activity
how the composition and physical
characteristics of the erupted material
control the volcanic landforms produced
by both explosive and effusive activity
how the composition and physical
characteristics of the erupted material
control the volcanic landforms produced
by both explosive and effusive activity
—
(i) the characteristics of major and minor
intrusive bodies and the settings under
which they form
(ii) the use of geodetic and geophysical
data to identify the subsurface intrusion
of magma
the use of geographical information
systems (GIS) to synthesise and
summarise geological and geographic
data to improve disaster planning and
communication of information for the use
of non-specialists
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Page 14 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
explain how volcanic activity can cause
climate change
2.2.11d
2.3.1a
2.3.2a
2.3.2b
2.3.2c
7.1.1a
define weathering and describe and
explain the processes and products of
hydrolysis, carbonation, exfoliation, frost
shattering, pressure release, root action
and burrowing
describe how abrasion, attrition and
length of transport affect sediment
describe how sediments may be
transported by solution, suspension,
saltation and traction
analyse and describe the variables of
grain composition, grain size, grain
shape, roundness and degree of sorting
using both qualitative and quantitative
methods. Evaluate how methods of
transport are related to sediment
characteristics
describe and explain the characteristics
of sediments transported by gravity,
wind, ice, rivers and the sea
2.3.2d
2.3.3a
2.3.4a
2.1.3a
2.1.3b
2.1.3b
2.1.3b
4.1.2a
describe and classify mechanically
formed, chemically formed and
biologically formed sedimentary rocks
using grain size, grain shape, mineral
composition and fossil content, using
observation of samples, photographs
and thin section diagrams
describe and identify the clastic rocks:
breccia, conglomerate, sandstones
(orthoquartzite, arkose, greywacke,
desert sandstones), mudstone, clay and
shale using observation of samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
2.1.3c
2.1.3d
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how the Earth has changed through
geological time (with particular focus on
the Phanerozoic Eon):
(ii) the long term changes in the Earth’s
climate and composition of the
atmosphere
weathering and erosion, the mechanical,
chemical and biological processes that
produce the sediments that form
sedimentary rocks
(i) the effect of the process of erosion on
the characteristics and composition of
modern sediments
(ii) sieve analysis of sediments
(i) the effect of the process of erosion on
the characteristics and composition of
modern sediments
(ii) sieve analysis of sediments
(i) the effect of the process of erosion on
the characteristics and composition of
modern sediments
(ii) sieve analysis of sediments
(i) how the characteristics of the facies in
a sedimentary environment are related
to the methods of sediment transport
(ii) the diagnostic sedimentary structures
produced by the sediment transport
processes
(iii) the recognition, application and
sketching of the diagnostic properties of
sedimentary structures to interpret wayup and sedimentary environments, in the
field and on photographs
the diagnostic properties of rocks to
recognise and measure grain sizes in
samples, photographs and thin section
diagrams
(i) the classification of siliciclastic rocks
on the basis of their diagnostic
properties (colour, composition, grain
size and grain shape, sorting)
(iii) the diagnostic properties of rocks to
identify siliciclastic and carbonate rocks
in samples, photographs and thin
section diagrams
Page 15 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
2.3.4b
2.3.5a
2.3.5b
2.3.5c
2.3.5d
2.3.6a
2.3.6b
describe and identify the non-clastic
rocks: limestones (oolitic, fossiliferous,
chalk) using evidence from grain size,
colour grain, mineral composition and
fossil content as appropriate, using
observation of samples, photographs
and thin section diagrams
describe the characteristic features of
the primary sedimentary structures:
cross bedding, ripple marks, graded
bedding, desiccation cracks, flute casts,
salt pseudomorphs and imbricate
structure using observation of samples
and photographs
explain the processes of formation of
these sedimentary structures
explain the evidence for the
environments in which they form and
their uses as way-up, palaeo-current
and palaeo-environmental indicators
plot and interpret rose diagrams showing
palaeo-current information
describe and explain the diagenetic
process of compaction of plant material
to form coals, and mud to form shale
and mudstone
describe and explain the diagenetic
process of cementation to form
cemented sandstones and limestones
evaluate the effects of diagenesis on
rock characteristics
2.3.6c
2.3.7a
2.3.7b
2.1.3d
4.1.2a
4.1.2a
—
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4.1.2a
(ii) the diagnostic sedimentary structures
produced by the sediment transport
processes
(iii) the recognition, application and
sketching of the diagnostic properties of
sedimentary structures to interpret wayup and sedimentary environments, in the
field and on photographs
—
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M2.11
Plot variables from experimental or other
circular data
—
2.1.3e
the processes of diagenesis and
lithification:
(i) mechanical compaction
(ii) chemical compaction by pressure
dissolution and recrystallisation
—
2.1.3e
2.1.3e
describe the deposition in glacial
environments of boulder clay (till),
varves, fluvio-glacial sands and gravels
and explain the processes that formed
them; explain how to identify an ancient
glacial deposit using the evidence from
rocks, fossils and sedimentary structures
describe the deposition in fluvial
environments of alluvial fan breccias,
arkoses and conglomerates, channel
sandstones, flood plain clays and silts
and explain the processes that formed
them; explain how to identify an ancient
fluvial deposit using the evidence from
rocks, fossils and sedimentary structures
(ii) the classification of carbonate rocks
on the basis of their diagnostic
properties (grain size, cement, mineral
composition and fossil content, and
sorting)
(iii) the diagnostic properties of rocks to
identify siliciclastic and carbonate rocks
in samples, photographs and thin
section diagrams
(ii) the diagnostic sedimentary structures
produced by the sediment transport
processes
the processes of diagenesis and
lithification:
(iii) growth of cements
the processes of diagenesis and
lithification:
(iv) how these changes in rock texture
modify the porosity and permeability of
rocks
see 4.1.2a(i)
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
N/A
4.1.2c
—
deposition in fluvial environments which
produces a characteristic threedimensional architecture due to lateral
migration
Page 16 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
2.3.7c
2.3.7d
2.3.7e
2.3.7f
2.3.7g
describe the deposition in hot desert
environments of conglomerates in
wadis, desert sandstones in dunes and
evaporites in playa lakes and explain the
processes that formed them; explain
how to identify an ancient desert deposit
using the evidence from rocks, fossils
and sedimentary structures
describe the deposition in deltaic
environments of delta top (topsets) to
form coal, seat earth and channel
sandstones, sandstones of the delta
slope (foresets) and shales to form
offshore deposition (bottomsets); explain
deltaic deposition in cyclothems; explain
how to identify an ancient deltaic deposit
using the evidence from rocks, graphic
log sequences, fossils and sedimentary
structures
describe the deposition of clastic
material in sediment-rich shallow seas to
form conglomerates, sandstones and
mudstones; explain how to identify an
ancient shallow clastic sea or beach
deposit using the evidence from rocks,
graphic log sequences, fossils and
sedimentary structures
describe the deposition of limestones in
clear, non-clastic, shallow marine
environments; explain how invertebrate
skeletons form bioclastic, reef
limestones and chalk and how chemical
processes form oolitic and micritic
limestones. Explain how to identify an
ancient carbonate deposit using the
evidence from rocks, fossils and
sedimentary structures
describe the deposition in shallow
marine and barred basin environments
of evaporites (gypsum, anhydrite, halite
and potassium salts) and explain the
processes that formed them; explain
how to identify an ancient evaporite
deposit using the evidence from rocks,
fossils, sedimentary structures and
cyclic sequences
4.1.2d
deposition in hot desert environments
which are controlled by gradual aeolian
processes and episodic high energy
events
—
(i) the sedimentary processes which are
infrequent and/or difficult to observe but
can be understood and explained using
scientific principles
5.1.1a
5.1.1c
5.1.1d
4.1.2e
4.1.2f
4.1.2g
how simple (topset, foreset and bottom
set) and more complex deltaic
cyclothem models demonstrate the
application of sedimentary principles
Walther’s law which relates vertical
sequences in outcrop with the lateral
facies changes seen in modern
environments
deposition in fluvial environments which
produces a characteristic threedimensional architecture due to lateral
migration
deposition in shallow carbonate seas
which produces characteristic
limestones within, on and outside the
reef (reef limestone, bioclastic limestone
and oolitic limestones)
—
—
—
deposition in deep water carbonate seas
above the carbonate compensation
depth.
see 2.1.3a

N/A
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Page 17 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
2.3.7h
2.3.7i
2.4.1a
2.4.2a
2.4.2b
2.4.3a
describe the deposition in deep marine
basin environments to form turbidites,
greywackes and shales, and calcareous
and siliceous oozes from microfossils
and explain the processes that formed
them; explain how to identify an ancient
deep sea deposit using the evidence
from rocks, fossils and sedimentary
structures
plot and interpret graphic logs for these
sedimentary environments
explain how varying combinations of
temperature and pressure in the Earth
produce contact, regional and burial
metamorphism
describe and identify the metamorphic
rocks: slate, schist, gneiss, quartzite
(metaquartzite), marble, spotted rock,
using observations of mineral content,
orientation, textures and foliation, by
observation of samples, photographs
and thin section diagrams
explain the origin of these metamorphic
rocks and describe the relationship of
parent rock composition to the
mineralogy of the resultant metamorphic
rock
describe, recognise and compare: slaty
cleavage, schistosity, gneissose
banding, porphyroblastic and
granoblastic textures, using observation
of samples, photographs and thin
section diagrams
(i) the sedimentary processes which are
infrequent and/or difficult to observe but
can be understood and explained using
scientific principles
5.1.1a
5.1.1b
5.1.1d
4.1.2b
Walther’s law which relates vertical
sequences in outcrop with the lateral
facies changes seen in modern
environments
the construction and interpretation of
graphic logs of modern sediment
sequences and ancient sedimentary
rock
—
—
metamorphism as a solid state
isochemical process that changes the
characteristics of rock
2.1.4a
2.1.4c
5.4.1b
2.1.4b
5.4.1a
5.4.1b
explain how the textures are formed
2.4.3b
turbidity currents and how the Bouma
turbidite model of deposition
demonstrates the application of
sedimentary principles
5.4.1c
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how as the intensity of metamorphism
changes different minerals form which
can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism
(ii) the diagnostic properties of
metamorphic fabrics in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
—
—
how the mineralogy and fabric of
metamorphic rocks can be used to infer
the composition of the parent rock
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) the formation of metamorphic fabrics
as a result of directed stress and time
during mountain building (orogeny) and
the use of fabrics to reconstruct
conditions of metamorphism
(ii) the diagnostic properties of
metamorphic fabrics in samples,
photographs and thin section diagrams
how the composition of the parent rock
and conditions (strain rate, temperature
and pressure) at the time of rock
deformation determine the nature of that
rock deformation
Page 18 of 44
—
—
—
AS/A Level Geology
2.4.4a
2.4.4b
describe contact metamorphism by heat
from an igneous intrusion to form
different grades of unfoliated rocks: low
grade – spotted rock, medium grade –
andalusite slate and high grade –
hornfels, and explain their relationship to
temperature within a metamorphic
aureole
describe and explain the factors
controlling the width of contact
metamorphic aureoles: volume,
composition and temperature of magma;
composition of country rock; dip of
contact
5.4.1a
5.4.1a
describe the thermal gradient and the
distribution of the index minerals biotite,
andalusite and sillimanite within a
metamorphic aureole
3.2.2d
5.4.1a
2.4.4c
2.4.4d
2.4.4e
2.4.5a
2.4.5b
describe the Al2SiO5 polymorphs and
explain their relationships to temperature
and pressure conditions in contact
metamorphism
describe and explain the formation of
metaquartzite and marble
explain regional metamorphism at
convergent plate margins as paired
metamorphic belts at subduction zones
and broad orogenic belts at continentalcontinental plate margins
define the terms metamorphic grade,
metamorphic zone, index mineral and
isograd; plot and interpret isograds
5.4.1a
2.1.4b
N/A
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) the characteristics of major and minor
intrusive bodies and the settings under
which they form
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
how the mineralogy and fabric of
metamorphic rocks can be used to infer
the composition of the parent rock
—
—
—
—
—

—
how as the intensity of metamorphism
changes different minerals form which
can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism
2.1.4c
5.4.1a
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(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
Page 19 of 44
—
AS/A Level Geology
describe the grades of regional
metamorphic rocks: low grade – slate,
medium grade – schist; high grade –
gneiss, and explain their relationships to
temperature and pressure conditions
how as the intensity of metamorphism
changes different minerals form which
can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism
2.1.4c
5.4.1a
2.4.5c
describe regional metamorphic zones
(Barrovian) and index minerals: chlorite,
biotite, garnet, kyanite and sillimanite
2.4.5d
2.4.5e
5.4.1a
describe the Al2SiO5 polymorphs and
their relationship to temperature and
pressure conditions in regional
metamorphism
5.4.1a
AS/A Level Geology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
(i) metamorphic grade and how the
formation of different combinations of
minerals can be used to reconstruct the
conditions of metamorphism and infer
the composition of the parent rock
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of
isograds to reconstruct conditions of
metamorphism
Page 20 of 44
—
—
—
AS/A Level Geology
F794: Environmental geology
The learning outcomes in this topic have been refreshed and updated in consultation with
HE. In particular the approach to topics has changed to better reflect the contemporary role
of geologists. There is an increased emphasis on the application of ideas and links to the
underlying science. While many of the specific contexts in the legacy specification are no
longer required teachers may wish to continue to use them, where they judge them to be an
effective tool for learning.
Spec
Ref
Original spec statement
(H087/H487)
Spec
Ref
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
Candidates should be able to:
4.1.1a
define the term porosity and calculate %
porosity; define the term permeability
and calculate permeability as a rate of
flow; describe and explain the factors
that affect porosity and permeability
2.1.3e
5.2.1a
define the terms groundwater and water
table and recognise the position of the
water table
4.1.1b
4.1.1c
4.1.2a
4.1.2b
4.1.2c
5.2.1d
define the terms hydrostatic pressure
and hydraulic gradient and calculate the
hydraulic gradient
define the terms aquifer, aquiclude and
recharge zone; recognise and explain
the difference between an unconfined
and a confined aquifer; describe and
explain the conditions required for a
perched aquifer
recognise and describe an artesian
basin as a type of confined aquifer and
explain the conditions necessary for the
formation of an artesian well
describe and explain the terms draw
down and cone of depression in relation
to water supply from wells and
boreholes
Reformed spec statement
equivalent (H014/H414)
5.2.1b
Tick
if no
longer
covered
the processes of diagenesis and
lithification:
(iv) how these changes in rock texture
modify the porosity and permeability of
rocks
(i) how porosity controls the storage of
fluids (water, oil and gas) in rocks
(ii) how permeability controls the
movement of fluids through rocks
the characteristics of subsurface
geology which control the flow of
groundwater (hydrogeology) including
confined and unconfined aquifers,
aquicludes, aquitards, the water table,
piezometric surfaces and recharge
zones.
the application of Darcy’s law to model
the flow of fluids in rocks
—
—
—
 h  h1 

Q = –A  2
 L 
5.2.1d
the characteristics of subsurface
geology which control the flow of
groundwater (hydrogeology) including
confined and unconfined aquifers,
aquicludes, aquitards, the water table,
piezometric surfaces and recharge
zones.
—
5.2.1d
the characteristics of subsurface
geology which control the flow of
groundwater (hydrogeology) including
confined and unconfined aquifers,
aquicludes, aquitards, the water table,
piezometric surfaces and recharge
zones.
—
N/A
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
—
Page 21 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.1.2d
describe the problems of water
extraction from aquifers and artesian
basins leading to a lowering of the water
table, subsidence and saltwater
encroachment
describe and explain the issues of
groundwater quality and residence time
of pollutants
describe and explain the geological
conditions leading to the formation of
springs where the water table intersects
the topographic surface at the junction of
permeable and impermeable rocks
5.2.1d
recognise and explain how springs form
as a result of lithology, faults and
unconformities
4.1.3b
4.1.4a
4.1.4b
4.1.4c
4.1.4d
5.2.1d
describe and explain the advantages
and disadvantages of surface water
supply from rivers and reservoirs
describe and explain the advantages
and disadvantages of underground
water supply from aquifers and artesian
basins
describe and explain how water supply
is renewable as part of the water cycle
and is sustainable provided the rate of
extraction does not exceed the rate of
recharge
outline initiatives in the development of
underground storage facilities for water
in rocks

—
the controls on groundwater quality
which result from geochemistry
(carbonates and sulfates), aquifer
filtration and residence time
5.2.1c
6.2.2c
4.1.2e
4.1.3a
N/A
—
the role of geological understanding in
the management and remediation of
contaminated land and groundwater, a
source of pollution, such as former
industrial brownfield sites
the characteristics of subsurface
geology which control the flow of
groundwater (hydrogeology) including
confined and unconfined aquifers,
aquicludes, aquitards, the water table,
piezometric surfaces and recharge
zones
the characteristics of subsurface
geology which control the flow of
groundwater (hydrogeology) including
confined and unconfined aquifers,
aquicludes, aquitards, the water table,
piezometric surfaces and recharge
zones
—
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Geography
N/A
—

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Page 22 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
describe a source rock, reservoir rock
and cap rock; describe the environment
of deposition and explain the process of
maturation to form oil and natural gas in
the source rock; describe the process of
migration from source rock to reservoir
rock under a cap rock and explain the
factors that control migration
7.2.2a
7.2.2b
4.2.1a
explain the term trap; recognise and
describe different trap structures:
anticline, fault, salt dome, unconformity,
lithological; describe and explain how oil
and natural gas may be destroyed or
lost from trap structures
4.2.1b
7.2.2b
describe and explain the geophysical
exploration techniques of seismic
reflection and gravity surveys
4.2.2a
7.2.2c
describe how exploration drilling and
downhole logging (porosity, gamma ray,
resistivity) are used to find hydrocarbons
4.2.2b
7.2.2c
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the principles of basin analysis as
applied to the prospecting for
hydrocarbons in the North Sea Basin:
(i) the geological settings and
sedimentary conditions that led to the
formation of oil and natural gas in the
North Sea Basin
(ii) the palaeoenvironments where the
source rocks, reservoir rocks and
caprocks formed
(iii) the process of maturation to form oil
and natural gas in the source rock
(i) the process of migration of oil and
natural gas (fluids) from a source rock to
reservoir rock under a caprock and the
factors that control migration
(ii) The process of rifting and
synsedimentary faulting in the North Sea
Basin which allowed oil and natural gas
traps to form
(iii) The accumulation of oil and gas in
trap structures under caprocks
the principles of basin analysis as
applied to the prospecting for
hydrocarbons in the North Sea Basin:
(i) the process of migration of oil and
natural gas (fluids) from a source rock to
reservoir rock under a caprock and the
factors that control migration
(ii) The process of rifting and
synsedimentary faulting in the North Sea
Basin which allowed oil and natural gas
traps to form
(iii) The accumulation of oil and gas in
trap structures under caprocks
(i) geophysical exploration techniques to
interpret the structural history of the
basin and locate hydrocarbon reserves
(ii) exploration drilling and downhole
logging techniques to locate
hydrocarbon reserves and plan field
development.
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
(i) geophysical exploration techniques to
interpret the structural history of the
basin and locate hydrocarbon reserves
(ii) exploration drilling and downhole
logging techniques to locate
hydrocarbon reserves and plan field
development.
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
Page 23 of 44
—
—
—
—
AS/A Level Geology
4.2.3a
calculate reserves of oil and natural gas
when provided with suitable data and
explain the difficulties in accurately
determining reserves
describe and explain how production
wells are established and oil and natural
gas are extracted by primary recovery
5.5.1f
7.2.2c
7.2.2d
4.2.3b
describe and explain the main methods
of secondary recovery by injection of
water, steam or carbon dioxide and the
use of detergents and bacteriological
techniques
7.2.2c
7.2.2d
4.2.3c
4.2.3d
4.2.4a
outline recent initiatives in exploitation of
unconventional petroleum from oil shale
and the possible future exploitation of
gas hydrates
describe the main environmental and
safety problems of oil and natural gas
extraction and pipeline transportation
describe the technological problems of
oil and natural gas extraction including
those that prevent 100% recovery
N/A
outline recent initiatives in the
development of underground storage
facilities for natural gas in rocks
how the same principles of basin
analysis can be applied to onshore
hydrocarbon basins
(i) geophysical exploration techniques to
interpret the structural history of the
basin and locate hydrocarbon reserves
(ii) exploration drilling and downhole
logging techniques to locate
hydrocarbon reserves and plan field
development.
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
how the same principles of basin
analysis can be applied to onshore
hydrocarbon basins
how the same principles of basin
analysis can be applied to onshore
hydrocarbon basins
—
—
—
—

—
(i) how porosity controls the storage of
fluids (water, oil and gas) in rocks
(ii) how permeability controls the
movement of fluids through rocks
5.2.1a
7.2.2c
4.2.4b
4.2.4c
7.2.2d
how existing data sets and follow-up
surveys are integrated in geological
prospecting, resource exploration and in
defining the reserves.
(i) geophysical exploration techniques to
interpret the structural history of the
basin and locate hydrocarbon reserves
(ii) exploration drilling and downhole
logging techniques to locate
hydrocarbon reserves and plan field
development.
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
N/A
AS/A Level Geology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
Author: CWC
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(i) geophysical exploration techniques to
interpret the structural history of the
basin and locate hydrocarbon reserves
(ii) exploration drilling and downhole
logging techniques to locate
hydrocarbon reserves and plan field
development.
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
—

—
Page 24 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
locate the main areas where oil and
natural gas are found in and around the
British Isles
4.2.5a
4.2.5b
4.2.5c
4.2.5d
4.2.6a
4.2.6b
4.2.6c
4.2.7a
4.2.7b
4.2.7c
4.2.7d
4.2.7e
7.2.2a
describe and explain why both oil and
natural gas are present in the northern
basin of the North Sea from Kimmeridge
Clay source rocks but only natural gas is
present in the southern basin from Coal
Measures source rocks
explain why oil and natural gas are
examples of non-renewable energy
resources
debate the future sustainability of British
oil and natural gas production
describe and explain the climatic and
environmental conditions required for
the formation of peat and coal as part of
deltaic sequences
describe and explain the diagenetic
processes of compaction and
coalification to produce peat and coal
define the terms rank and coal series;
describe the physical and chemical
properties of lignite, bituminous coal and
anthracite
calculate reserves of coal when provided
with suitable data and explain the
difficulties in accurately determining
reserves
describe the geological considerations
and method of opencast coal mining
from quarries
describe long-wall retreat mining as the
main method of underground coal
mining used in the British Isles
describe and explain the geological
factors that can make underground coal
mining difficult and uneconomic
discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of opencast and
underground coal mining including an
outline of economic and safety issues
7.2.2a
the principles of basin analysis as
applied to the prospecting for
hydrocarbons in the North Sea Basin:
(i) the geological settings and
sedimentary conditions that led to the
formation of oil and natural gas in the
North Sea Basin
(ii) the palaeoenvironments where the
source rocks, reservoir rocks and
caprocks formed
(iii) the process of maturation to form oil
and natural gas in the source rock
the principles of basin analysis as
applied to the prospecting for
hydrocarbons in the North Sea Basin:
(i) the geological settings and
sedimentary conditions that led to the
formation of oil and natural gas in the
North Sea Basin
(ii) the palaeoenvironments where the
source rocks, reservoir rocks and
caprocks formed
(iii) the process of maturation to form oil
and natural gas in the source rock
N/A
—
N/A
—
5.1.1c
—
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Science
GCSE
(9-1)
Science
how simple (topset, foreset and bottom
set) and more complex deltaic
cyclothem models demonstrate the
application of sedimentary principles
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

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Page 25 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.2.8a
locate the main areas where coal is
found in and around the British Isles;
explain the difference between an
exposed and a concealed coalfield;
describe the broad structures of the
South Wales and Yorkshire coalfields
discuss the environmental
consequences of the legacy of coal
mining in the British Isles and describe
methods of land restoration
4.2.8d
4.2.9a
explain why coal is an example of a nonrenewable energy resource
discuss the future sustainability of British
coal production from opencast and
underground sources
describe and explain the main methods
of geothermal energy extraction from:
volcanic sources; geothermal aquifers in
sedimentary basins; and the potential for
geothermal energy extraction from hot
dry rock sources such as granite
calculate the geothermal gradient and
explain the source of heat for
geothermal energy
4.2.9b
4.2.9c
4.2.9d
explain why coal is an example of a nonrenewable energy resource
describe and explain the advantages
and disadvantages of geothermal
energy extraction
define the terms resource, reserves, ore,
ore mineral, gangue mineral, average
crustal abundance, cut off grade and
concentration factor
4.3.1a
4.3.1b
4.3.1c
calculate concentration factors and
mineral reserves when provided with
suitable data and explain the difficulties
in accurately determining reserves
discuss the influence of world supply
and demand and stockpiling of strategic
metals on metallic mineral reserves

—
the causes and management of
contaminated minewater, a source of
pollution, from abandoned coal mines
and metal ore mines
5.5.2c
6.2.2c
4.2.8b
4.2.8c
N/A
—
the role of geological understanding in
the management and remediation of
contaminated land and groundwater, a
source of pollution, such as former
industrial brownfield sites
N/A
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Science
N/A
—

N/A
—

3.1.2c
3.2.1a
the transfer of geothermal energy from:
(i) heat of formation by the Earth
(ii) radioactive decay within the Earth
—
the transfer of energy from within the
Earth which drives the Earth’s internal
geological processes
N/A
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Science
N/A
—

3.1.2e
5.5.1a
the differentiation of the Earth into layers
of distinct composition and density by
the partitioning of each of the
Goldschmit groups between the crust,
mantle, core, and atmosphere and
hydrosphere
5.5.1f
N/A
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the low crustal abundances of metals
and the concentration factors that
produce economic ore deposits
how existing data sets and follow-up
surveys are integrated in geological
prospecting, resource exploration and in
defining the reserves
—
—

—
Page 26 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.3.2a
describe and explain the process of
gravity-settling and the properties of
magnetite that allow it to be
concentrated at the base of mafic and
ultramafic igneous intrusions
5.3.1b
5.3.1c
define the term hydrothermal fluid and
explain the source of hydrothermal fluids
3.2.2c
5.3.2d
4.3.2a
4.3.2b
4.3.2c
4.3.4a
4.3.4b
4.3.5a
4.3.5b
4.3.6a
4.3.7a
describe and explain how veins of
cassiterite, galena and sphalerite are
formed by hydrothermal processes
associated with silicic igneous intrusions
describe and explain the distribution and
zonation of hydrothermal mineral veins
in and around igneous intrusions
describe and explain how residual
deposits of bauxite form as the insoluble
product of extreme chemical weathering
of impure limestone and granite
describe and explain the factors that
control the rate of chemical weathering
and the formation of residual deposits
describe how secondary enrichment
processes can increase the grade of
otherwise uneconomic copper deposits
describe and explain the process of
secondary enrichment of chalcopyrite as
a result of chemical weathering and
changes in chemistry above and below
the water table
describe and explain how deposits of
uranium ore are formed in sandstones
as a result of solution, transport in
groundwater and reprecipitation at or
above the water table
describe and explain the weathering,
erosion, transport and depositional
processes involved in placer formation
and the properties of cassiterite, gold
and diamonds that allow them to be
concentrated in placer deposits
N/A
5.3.2d
the geological processes (assimilation,
differentiation and fractionation) which
cause magma composition to evolve
and be modified
—
the formation of layered intrusions and
metal ores by magmatic differentiation,
as an example of a geological resource
produced by igneous processes.
the processes of intrusion which cause a
body of magma to ascend through the
crust and how these affect the country
rock
hydrothermal processes at mid-ocean
ridges and the formation of massive
sulfide ore metal ores as an example of
a geological resource produced by
hydrothermal processes
—

—
hydrothermal processes at mid-ocean
ridges and the formation of massive
sulfide ore metal ores as an example of
a geological resource produced by
hydrothermal processes
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

5.5.1b
5.5.1b
N/A
the concentration of copper ore minerals
by the processes of secondary
enrichment as a result of chemical
weathering and chemical reactions
above and below the water table
the concentration of copper ore minerals
by the processes of secondary
enrichment as a result of chemical
weathering and chemical reactions
above and below the water table
—
—

—
the concentration of ore in placer
deposits in rivers and on beaches
—
5.5.1c
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Page 27 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.3.7b
4.3.7c
4.3.8a
4.3.9a
4.3.10a
4.3.10b
4.3.10c
recognise and explain how placer
deposits form: at meander bends; in
plunge pools and potholes; upstream of
projections; downstream of confluences;
and on beaches
describe the advantages and
disadvantages of mining placer deposits
at the surface compared to mining
underground deposits
describe and explain how magnetic,
gravity and electrical resistivity surveys
are used to find metallic mineral
deposits
define the term geochemical anomaly;
describe and explain how soil and
stream sediment geochemical surveys
are used to find metallic mineral
deposits
describe and explain the environmental
consequences of opencast metal mining
operations
describe and explain the environmental
consequences of underground metal
mining operations
describe the environmental
consequences of heap-leaching and
other mineral processing operations
discuss the long-term environmental
consequences of the legacy of metal
mining in the British Isles
4.3.10d
4.3.10e
4.3.11a
4.4.1b
5.5.2a
5.5.1d
explain why metal mining is an example
of unsustainable resource exploitation
on a global scale
describe and explain the source of radon
gas from the breakdown of radioactive
elements in granite and other rocks and
appreciate the hazard it poses
describe how heavy metal contamination
of soils can be recognised
the principles, economics and
sustainability of surface and
underground mining operations
—
geophysical exploration techniques used
to find metals
—
—
5.5.1e
N/A
—

N/A
—

5.5.2b
the principles, economics and
sustainability of mineral processing
operations
the causes and management of
contaminated minewater, a source of
pollution, from abandoned coal mines
and metal ore mines
the role of geological understanding in
the management and remediation of
contaminated land and groundwater, a
source of pollution, such as former
industrial brownfield sites
—
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

6.2.2c
describe and explain the characteristics
of suitable materials for building stone,
roadstone, brick clay, aggregate, and
the manufacture of cement and
concrete; state the uses for these
materials
describe the extraction of industrial
rocks and minerals by quarrying and
dredging techniques

—
geochemical exploration methods used
to find metals
5.5.2c
4.3.11b
4.4.1a
N/A
the role of geological understanding in
the management and remediation of
contaminated land and groundwater, a
source of pollution, such as former
industrial brownfield sites
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

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Page 28 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.4.1c
discuss the environmental implications
of their exploitation including the location
and development of super-quarries and
dredging offshore for marine aggregates
describe and explain the geological
factors affecting the construction of
dams and reservoirs: rock type and
strength; foundations; attitude of strata;
geological structures; availability of
construction materials
4.4.2a
N/A
6.2.2b
describe and explain methods that can
be used to prevent leakage from
reservoirs: grouting; clay/plastic lining;
cut-off curtain
4.4.2b
4.4.2c
6.2.2b
appreciate the environmental and social
consequences of dam and reservoir
construction including failure and
collapse of dams due to poor siting,
design or construction and their use for
hydroelectric power generation
describe and explain how dam and
reservoir construction can lead to an
increase in seismic activity
4.4.2d
4.4.3a
4.4.3b
4.4.3c
4.4.4a
N/A
6.2.2b
describe and explain the geological
factors that cause landslips and
slumping hazards: rock type; dip;
presence of geological structures
explain how heavy rainfall can increase
the likelihood of landslips and slumping
hazards
explain how human activity can increase
the likelihood of landslips and slumping
hazards
describe and explain the geological
factors affecting the construction of road
cuttings and embankments: slope
stability; foundations; construction
methods
6.1.3c

—
dams as an example of a major civil
engineering activity with multiple
geological impacts on the natural
environment:
(i) how engineering geology is applied to
the construction of dams
(ii) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
hydrogeological impact of dams
(iii) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
impact of dams on slope stability
(iv) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
impact of dam-impounded reservoirs on
seismic activity
dams as an example of a major civil
engineering activity with multiple
geological impacts on the natural
environment:
(i) how engineering geology is applied to
the construction of dams
(ii) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
hydrogeological impact of dams
—
—

—
dams as an example of a major civil
engineering activity with multiple
geological impacts on the natural
environment:
(iv) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
impact of dam-impounded reservoirs on
seismic activity
the causes and effects of landslides and
the application of engineering geology to
mitigate these effects
—
—
6.2.1c
how the strength of rocks and sediments
is changed by hydrostatic pressure (pore
water)
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

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Page 29 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
4.4.4b
4.4.4c
4.4.4d
4.4.5a
4.4.5b
4.4.5c
4.4.6a
4.4.6b
4.4.6c
4.4.6d
describe and explain methods that can
be used to stabilise slopes and rocks:
slope modification; retaining walls;
gabions; rock bolts; rock drains; wire
netting; shotcrete; vegetation
describe and explain the geological
factors affecting the construction of
tunnels through both hard rock and
unconsolidated material: rock type and
strength; attitude of strata; geological
structures; groundwater
describe and explain methods which can
be used to prevent collapse and flooding
of tunnels: lining; rock bolts; grouting;
rock drains
describe and explain the geological
factors affecting the location and
construction of coastal defences: rock
type; attitude of strata; geological
structures; construction considerations
and materials
describe and explain methods that can
be used to prevent coastal erosion and
flooding: sea walls and banks; flood
barriers and barrages; rock buttresses
and revetments; groynes; slope
stabilisation; beach nourishment
discuss the environmental implications
of constructing coastal defences
describe and explain the geological
factors affecting the disposal of waste in
landfill sites: rock type; attitude of strata;
geological structures; groundwater
describe and explain the short-term and
long-term environmental consequences
of disposal of waste in landfill sites
define the term leachate and describe
and explain methods that can be used to
prevent leakage of toxic leachates from
landfill sites: grouting;
clay/geomembrane lining; drainage and
collection
describe and explain the technological
and short-term and long-term
environmental and safety problems of
underground storage of nuclear waste in
rocks
N/A
6.2.2a
6.2.2a

—
tunnelling as an example of a major civil
engineering activity which impacts the
natural and built environment:
(i) how engineering geology is applied to
the construction of tunnels through both
hard rock and unconsolidated material
tunnelling as an example of a major civil
engineering activity which impacts the
natural and built environment:
(ii) the application of engineering
geology to monitor and mitigate the
impacts of tunnelling
—
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

5.5.2d
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the geological controls on the use of
former underground resource operations
as repositories for the storage of waste
products
Page 30 of 44
—
AS/A Level Geology
F795: Evolution of life, Earth and climate
The learning outcomes in this topic have been refreshed and updated in consultation with
HE. In particular the approach to topics has changed to better reflect the contemporary role
of geologists. There is an increased emphasis on the application of ideas and links to the
underlying science. While many of the specific contexts in the legacy specification are no
longer required teachers may wish to continue to use them, where they judge them to be an
effective tool for learning.
Spec
Ref
Original spec statement
(H087/H487)
Spec
Ref
Learners should be able to demonstrate and
apply their knowledge and understanding of:
Candidates should be able to:
5.1.1a
5.1.1b
5.1.1c
5.1.1d
describe how replacement of body
fossils occurs and how fossils are
altered from less stable aragonite to
stable calcite
explain how silicification occurs, where
wood or other organic materials are
replaced by silica
explain how pyritisation occurs as a
result of anaerobic bacterial action on
the deep sea floor
explain how carbonisation of plant and
graptolite fossils occurs as a result of
loss of volatiles, due to increased
pressure and temperature
describe how internal and external
moulds and casts are formed
5.1.2a
5.1.2b
5.1.2c
5.1.2d
5.1.2e
5.1.2fa
2.2.1a
2.2.1a
2.2.1a
2.2.1a
explain how rapid burial, lack of oxygen,
lack of scavengers, rapid deposition of
fine sediment and early diagenesis
affect the level of detail in the fossil
record
explain why the fossil record is
incomplete
describe how amber was formed from
tree resin that trapped small organisms
(especially insects) and then hardened
describe how tar pits trapped organisms
describe the preservation of a varied
assemblage of organisms in the Burgess
Shale
describe the preservation in the
Solenhofen Limestone
Tick
if no
longer
covered
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
—
—
—
—
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
2.2.1a
2.2.1c
5.1.1e
Reformed spec statement
equivalent (H014/H414)
2.2.1b
the use and interpretation of fossils as
palaeoenvironmental indicators:
(ii) body fossils to provide information on
the behaviour of the fossilised organism
and the palaeoenvironment
the nature and the reliability of the fossil
record and the morphological definition
of species
—
—
2.2.1b
the nature and the reliability of the fossil
record and the morphological definition
of species
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

7.2.1a
—
7.2.1b
—
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Page 31 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
5.1.3a
5.1.3b
5.1.3c
5.1.3d
5.1.4a
define trace fossils as a record of the
activity and/or behaviour of an organism
describe how tracks (footprints) are
formed and how trails are formed as
impressions of whole animals at rest or
travelling; explain how dinosaur
footprints are used to interpret the size
and locomotion of dinosaurs
explain how burrows (soft substrate) and
borings (hard substrate) are structures
for dwelling, protection or feeding
explain that a low energy environment is
required to preserve tracks and trails
and that burrows can be formed in
variable energy environments
define the terms: fossil life assemblages,
fossil death assemblages and derived
fossils
explain how fossil assemblages can be
used to interpret palaeoenvironments
5.2.1a
5.2.1b
2.2.1a
2.2.1c
2.21c
N/A
N/A
7.2.3a
7.2.3b
5.1.4b
5.1.4c
NA
describe the methods used and
difficulties encountered in inferring the
mode of life of extinct fossil groups:
trilobites, graptolites, ammonoids,
dinosaurs
describe the trilobite exoskeleton:
cephalon, thorax, pygidium, glabella,
compound eyes, facial suture, free
cheek, fixed cheek, spines, pleura,
nature and position of the legs and gills,
and explain the inferred functions of
these features
describe and explain adaptations for a
nektonic life style, including eyes on
stalks, small size, separated pleura and
spines
N/A
7.1.2a
7.1.2a
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Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of term BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
fossils as the preserved remains of living
organisms or the traces of those
organisms
the use and interpretation of fossils as
palaeoenvironmental indicators:
(i) trace fossils to provide information on
the behaviour of the organism that
formed them and the palaeoenvironment
the use and interpretation of fossils as
palaeoenvironmental indicators:
(i) trace fossils to provide information on
the behaviour of the organism that
formed them and the palaeoenvironment
the nature and the reliability of the fossil
record and the morphological definition
of species
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of terms BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
the principles of basin analysis to the
integration of the sedimentology and
palaeontology of the Welsh basin:
(ii) how palaeoenvironments in the
Welsh Basin can be determined by the
analysis of facies (sediments and
fossils)
the principles of basin analysis in
relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop
out across the United Kingdom (in a
local context):
(ii) facies analysis of the sediments
formed in the basin (sedimentary
structures, sediment type and fossils) to
determine palaeoenvironments

—
—
—

—

—
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) the adaptation of the basic trilobite
morphology to occupy multiple marine
niches during the Palaeozoic
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) the adaptation of the basic trilobite
morphology to occupy multiple marine
niches during the Palaeozoic
Page 32 of 44
—
—
AS/A Level Geology
5.2.1c
describe and explain adaptations for a
planktonic lifestyle including inflated
glabella, small eyes or no eyes, few
pleural segments and small size
7.1.2a
5.2.1d
describe and explain adaptations for a
benthonic life style including ability to
enrol, many thoracic segments and legs,
360° vision
7.1.2a
5.2.1e
describe and explain adaptations for an
infaunal life style including, a large
cephalic fringe, cephalic pits, extended
genal spines and no eyes
7.1.2a
describe coral morphology; septa,
tabulae, dissepiments, columella, calice
and corallite within the corallum;
describe solitary and compound forms
5.2.2a
5.2.2b
5.2.2c
7.1.2a
compare the morphological similarities
and differences between tabulate,
rugose and scleractinian corals
describe and explain the conditions that
modern corals need for good growth;
explain how modern corals have a
symbiotic relationship with
photosynthetic algae and that the
conditions for growth were probably
similar in the past
N/A
7.1.2a
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how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) the adaptation of the basic trilobite
morphology to occupy multiple marine
niches during the Palaeozoic
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) the adaptation of the basic trilobite
morphology to occupy multiple marine
niches during the Palaeozoic
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) the adaptation of the basic trilobite
morphology to occupy multiple marine
niches during the Palaeozoic
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(ii) the application of the ecology of
modern reef building (scleractinian)
corals to interpret and compare fossil
corals (tablulate, rugose) as
palaeoenvironmental indicators of reef
building in the geological record
—
—
—
—

—
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(ii) the application of the ecology of
modern reef building (scleractinian)
corals to interpret and compare fossil
corals (tablulate, rugose) as
palaeoenvironmental indicators of reef
building in the geological record
Page 33 of 44
—
AS/A Level Geology
describe the modern distribution of coral
reefs and explain how coral reefs are
formed
4.1.2f
7.1.2a
5.2.2d
5.2.3a
deposition in shallow carbonate seas
which produces characteristic
limestones within, on and outside the
reef (reef limestone, bioclastic limestone
and oolitic limestones)
describe brachiopod morphology:
symmetry, shape, pedicle and brachial
valves, ornament, pedicle, foramen,
adductor and diductor muscle scars,
umbo, commisure, lophophore support
system, pedicle and shape of hinge line,
and where appropriate explain the
functions of these features
explain how brachiopods feed as filter
feeders using the lophophore
5.2.3b
7.1.2a
7.1.2a
describe how ancient brachiopods lived
in shallow, muddy or carbonate seas
5.2.3c
5.2.4a
5.2.4b
5.2.4c
5.2.4d
7.1.2a
describe echinoid morphology: shape of
test, symmetry, ambulacra,
interambulacra, spines, tubercles, pore
pairs for tube feet, position of periproct /
anus, position of peristome / mouth,
apical system, madreporite, labrum,
fasciole, plastron, anterior groove and
explain the functions of these features
describe an epifaunal (scavenger) mode
of life for the regular echinoids
describe an infaunal (burrowing) mode
of life for the irregular echinoids
compare the morphological similarities
and differences between regular and
irregular echinoids and explain how they
reflect their respective modes of life
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(ii) the application of the ecology of
modern reef building (scleractinian)
corals to interpret and compare fossil
corals (tablulate, rugose) as
palaeoenvironmental indicators of reef
building in the geological record
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic
brachiopod morphology to occupy high
energy and low energy marine
environments
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic
brachiopod morphology to occupy high
energy and low energy marine
environments
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic
brachiopod morphology to occupy high
energy and low energy marine
environments
—
—
—
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

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Page 34 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
5.2.5a
5.2.5b
5.2.5c
5.2.5d
5.2.5e
5.2.5f
describe bivalve morphology: symmetry,
left and right valves, shell shape and
gape, umbone, ornament, dentition,
pallial line and sinus, adductor muscle
scars and explain the functions of these
features
describe and explain adaptations for
cemented forms on hard substrate with
thick shells to withstand a high energy
environment
describe and explain adaptations for
non-cemented, free-lying forms so they
do not easily sink into soft substrate
describe and explain adaptations for
byssally attached forms with rounded
and elongate shells designed to
withstand high energy on rocky shores
describe and explain adaptations for
nektonic (swimming) forms with
corrugated, thin shells
describe and explain adaptations for
infaunal shallow and deep burrowers
and compare these adaptations
compare the morphological similarities
and differences between brachiopods
and bivalves
5.2.5g
5.2.6a
5.2.7a
5.2.7b
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

7.1.2a
describe and recognise gastropods
using the shape of the coiled shell, spire,
and body chamber; describe the mode
of life of gastropods in high and low
energy shallow seas
describe and recognise belemnites
using the shape of guard and
phragmacone; describe the mode of life
and preservation of belemnites in marine
conditions
5.2.6b
5.2.6c
N/A
describe and recognise crinoid
morphology: calyx, brachia, stem and
ossicles; explain how crinoids may be
disarticulated after death and form
bioclastic limestone; describe the mode
of life of ancient crinoids in shallow
carbonate seas
describe the composition of ostracods,
foraminifera, conodonts and radiolaria
and the environments in which they lived
state that most fossil spores and pollen
are derived from vascular land plants
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the marine fossil record, is
used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(vi) the morphological similarities and
differences between brachiopods and
bivalves
—
N/A
—

7.2.3b
the principles of basin analysis in
relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop
out across the United Kingdom (in a
local context):
(ii) facies analysis of the sediments
formed in the basin (sedimentary
structures, sediment type and fossils) to
determine palaeoenvrionments
(iii) the zonation and correlation of the
Jurassic Period using ammonites and
belemnites
—
N/A
—

N/A
—

N/A
—

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Page 35 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
5.2.7c
5.3.1a
outline the main uses of microfossils in
stratigraphy
explain the Darwinian theory of
evolution; state that adaptations are a
result of evolution
describe graptolite morphology: stipe,
sicula, thecae, rhabdosome and nema
5.3.2a
5.3.2b
(iii) the use of microfossils in
biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental
analysis to locate hydrocarbon reserves
—
N/A
—
GCSE
(9-1)
Biology
7.2.3a
describe the changes in morphology as
graptolites evolved through the Lower
Palaeozoic:
(i) describe the change in the number of
stipes in the rhabdosome;
(ii) describe the change in the attitude of
the stipes (pendent, horizontal, reclined,
scandent);
(iii) describe the changes in the shapes
of the thecae (simple, hooked,
sigmoidal);
(iv) describe the change in the shape of
the rhabdosome (uniserial, biserial)
deduce the probable mode of life of
graptolites as planktonic colonial filter
feeders within the water column
5.3.2c
5.3.3a
7.2.2c
7.2.3a
7.2.3a
describe nautiloid and ammonoid
morphology: shell shape, form of coiling,
ornament, aperture, body chamber,
suture lines, saddles and lobes,
siphuncle, septal necks, septa, keel,
sulcus, umbilicus and where appropriate
explain the inferred functions of these
features
7.2.3b
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the principles of basin analysis to the
integration of the sedimentology and
palaeontology of the Welsh basin:
(ii) how palaeoenvironments in the
Welsh Basin can be determined by the
analysis of facies (sediments and
fossils)
(iii) the zonation of the Welsh Basin
using zone fossils
the principles of basin analysis to the
integration of the sedimentology and
palaeontology of the Welsh basin:
(ii) how palaeoenvironments in the
Welsh Basin can be determined by the
analysis of facies (sediments and
fossils)
(iii) the zonation of the Welsh Basin
using zone fossils
the principles of basin analysis to the
integration of the sedimentology and
palaeontology of the Welsh basin:
(ii) how palaeoenvironments in the
Welsh Basin can be determined by the
analysis of facies (sediments and
fossils)
(iii) the zonation of the Welsh Basin
using zone fossils
the principles of basin analysis in
relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop
out across the United Kingdom (in a
local context):
(ii) facies analysis of the sediments
formed in the basin (sedimentary
structures, sediment type and fossils) to
determine palaeoenvrionments
(iii) the zonation and correlation of the
Jurassic Period using ammonites and
belemnites
Page 36 of 44
—
—
—
—
AS/A Level Geology
5.3.3b
5.3.3c
describe the changes in morphology as
nautiloids and ammonoids evolved
through the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic:
(i) describe the changes in suture lines
from simple orthoceratitic to goniatitic
(Carboniferous), ceratitic (Triassic) to
complex ammonitic (Jurassic and
Cretaceous);
(ii) describe the changes in the position
of the siphuncle and the septal necks
between nautiloids and ammonoids;
(iii) describe the changes in shape of the
shell from involute to evolute and
increases in ornamentation
explain that heteromorphs are either
evolutionary changes or adaptations to
different environments
deduce the probable mode of life of
ammonoids as nektonic
5.3.3d
5.3.4a
the geochronological division of the
geological column for the Phanerozoic
into eras and periods using a
biostratigraphic relative time sequence
N/A
7.2.3b
describe the similarities between
coelacanths and lungfish and the early
amphibians in the Devonian using skull
morphology, fin bones, limb bones,
teeth, body shape, tail fin and scales
7.1.2b
explain how early amphibians were
adapted to terrestrial life in the
Carboniferous
5.3.4b
7.1.2b
explain the advantages of amniotic eggs
for life on land
5.3.5a
7.1.2b
describe how dinosaurs evolved into the
Saurischia (saurapoda, therapoda) and
Ornithischia
5.3.5b
—
2.2.2b
7.1.2b
AS/A Level Geology: Learning Outcome mapping of old spec to new
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
—
the principles of basin analysis in
relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop
out across the United Kingdom (in a
local context):
(ii) facies analysis of the sediments
formed in the basin (sedimentary
structures, sediment type and fossils) to
determine palaeoenvrionments
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) how amphibians evolved from marine
animals in the Devonian and were
adapted to terrestrial life in the
Carboniferous
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(i) how amphibians evolved from marine
animals in the Devonian and were
adapted to terrestrial life in the
Carboniferous
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(ii) the characteristics of the amniotic
egg and the evolutionary advantage it
gave for the development of life on land
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic dinosaur
morphology to occupy different
terrestrial niches as exemplified by
saurischian (sauropoda, therapoda) and
ornithichian dinosaurs
Page 37 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
describe the characteristics of
saurischian dinosaurs: arrangement of
hip bones, grasping hand, asymmetrical
fingers, long mobile neck
5.3.5c
5.3.5d
explain how Diplodocus (sauropod
herbivore) and Tyrannosaurus (therapod
carnivore) are adapted to different
modes of life
describe the characteristics of
ornithischian dinosaurs: arrangement of
hip bones, armoured, horned and duck
billed
5.2.5e
5.2.5f
explain how Iguanodon was adapted to
its mode of life on land: horny beak,
teeth, hinged upper jaw, defensive
spike, hand adaptation, quadrupedal
and bipedal stance
describe how the birds evolved from
therapod dinosaurs
5.2.5g
7.1.2b
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic dinosaur
morphology to occupy different
terrestrial niches as exemplified by
saurischian (sauropoda, therapoda) and
ornithichian dinosaurs
—
N/A
—

7.1.2b
how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iii) the adaptation of the basic dinosaur
morphology to occupy different
terrestrial niches as exemplified by
saurischian (sauropoda, therapoda) and
ornithichian dinosaurs
—
N/A
—

7.1.2b
describe the similarities of
Archaeopteryx to both dinosaurs and
birds
5.2.5h
5.3.6a
5.3.6b
5.3.6c
7.2.1b
define the term mass extinction and
state that there have been a number of
mass extinction events over geological
time
describe and explain the possible
reasons for the mass extinction at the
Permo – Triassic boundary; explain how
the evidence for major volcanic activity
(Siberian Traps) can be used to account
for this mass extinction
describe and explain the possible
reasons for the mass extinction at the
Cretaceous – Tertiary boundary; explain
how the evidence for a major asteroid
impact and volcanic activity (Deccan
Traps) can be used to account for this
mass extinction
N/A
7.1.3a
7.1.3a
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how the evolution of life on Earth,
displayed in the terrestrial fossil record,
is used as evidence to investigate long
term gradual change
(iv) how birds evolved from therapoda
and the morphological similarities and
differences between birds and
pterosauria
the geological settings and sedimentary
conditions that led to the exceptional
preservation of organisms in the
Jurassic Solnhofen Limestone
(Germany)
(ii) the evidence for the evolution of
Archaeopteryx
Learners will be required to demonstrate
understanding of term BUT NOT
recapitulate a definition
how the fossil record provides evidence
for a number of short term catastrophic
events through geological time known as
mass extinctions and their probable
causes
how the fossil record provides evidence
for a number of short term catastrophic
events through geological time known as
mass extinctions and their probable
causes
Page 38 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
5.3.6d
state the fossil groups that became
extinct at these boundaries
7.1.3b
explain how radiometric dating is used to
establish an absolute timescale
5.4.1a
5.4.1b
5.4.1c
5.4.1d
5.4.1e
5.4.2a
5.4.2b
5.4.2c
5.4.3a
5.4.3b
5.4.4a
5.4.4b
5.4.5a
2.2.2a
describe and explain the limitations of
radiometric dating based on the scarcity
of appropriate radioactive minerals
describe and explain the problems of
obtaining accurate radiometric dates,
particularly with respect to sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks
describe potassium-argon and rubidiumstrontium methods of radiometric dating
and explain how they are used to date
different rocks of varied ages
plot and interpret half-life curves for
these methods
describe and explain the use of
superposition, original horizontality, wayup criteria, cross-cutting relationships,
included fragments, unconformities and
fossils to date rocks at the surface and
in boreholes
describe and explain the problems of
using relative dating when derived
fossils and erosion may give
contradictory evidence
explain how both relative and
radiometric dating are used to create the
geological timescale
recognise the age relationships between
structures on simplified geological maps,
cross-sections and photographs using
both relative and absolute dates,
correlation and zone fossils
describe the age relationships of beds
using cross-cutting features: beds,
faults, folds, unconformities and igneous
features to interpret map and crosssection geological histories
outline early attempts made to estimate
the Earth’s absolute age: salts in the
ocean, rates of sedimentation, rate of
cooling
describe the division of the geological
column into eras and systems using
both relative and absolute dating
methods
describe and apply biostratigraphic
correlation using first appearance,
stratigraphic range, extinction and fossil
assemblages; explain the problems of
derived fossils or scarcity of fossils
2.2.2a
2.2.2a
N/A
2.2.2a
4.2.1a
4.2.1c
N/A
4.2.1a
4.2.1a
2.2.2a
2.2.2b
4.2.1d
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how mass extinctions resulted in the
replacement of the dominant forms in
major ecological habitats
(i) the use of radioactive decay rates of
the radionuclides in minerals to give a
numerical age of those minerals and
rocks
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of halflife curves
(i) the use of radioactive decay rates of
the radionuclides in minerals to give a
numerical age of those minerals and
rocks
(i) the use of radioactive decay rates of
the radionuclides in minerals to give a
numerical age of those minerals and
rocks
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—
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
—
(ii) the plotting and interpretation of halflife curves
the geochronological principles used to
place geological events in relative time
sequences in outcrops, photographs,
maps and cross-sections to interpret
geological histories
the application and limitations of relative
dating
—
—
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
—
the geochronological principles used to
place geological events in relative time
sequences in outcrops, photographs,
maps and cross-sections to interpret
geological histories
the geochronological principles used to
place geological events in relative time
sequences in outcrops, photographs,
maps and cross-sections to interpret
geological histories
(i) the use of radioactive decay rates of
the radionuclides in minerals to give a
numerical age of those minerals and
rocks
the geochronological division of the
geological column for the Phanerozoic
into eras and periods using a
biostratigraphic relative time sequence
biostratigraphic correlation using first
appearance of macro fossils,
stratigraphic range, extinction and fossil
assemblages
Page 39 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
5.4.5b
5.4.5c
5.4.6a
5.4.6b
5.4.6c
5.5.1a
describe and apply lithostratigraphic
correlation using sequences of beds,
thickness and composition; explain the
problems of lateral variation and
diachronous rocks
describe and apply chronostratigraphic
correlation using tuffs and varves
describe and explain the use of the first
appearance and extinction of the main
invertebrate fossil groups to establish a
relative timescale for the Phanerozoic
into eras and systems
state the stratigraphic ranges of
trilobites, graptolites, tabulate, rugose
and scleractinian corals, goniatites,
ceratites and ammonites, regular and
irregular echinoids, long hinged and
short hinged brachiopods
describe and explain the factors that
make a good zone fossil; outline the
advantages and disadvantages of using
graptolites, ammonoids and microfossils
as zone fossils
define the term climate; describe
changing climate in terms of icehouse –
greenhouse cycles throughout
geological time and explain the possible
link to mass extinction events
4.2.1b
N/A
2.2.2b
N/A
4.2.1d
7.1.1a
describe how Milankovitch cycles may
explain patterns of sedimentation,
particularly in the Jurassic
5.5.1b
7.2.3b
5.5.1c
describe the use of oxygen (18O and
16O) isotopes to determine water
temperature
7.1.1b
5.5.1d
describe the use of carbon (13C and 12C)
isotopes in identifying geological
changes
7.1.1b
5.5.2a
interpret Vail sea level curves showing
changes over geological time in
comparison with modern sea level
7.1.1b
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the critical application of
lithostratigraphic correlation (lateral
variation, diachronous beds)
—

—
the geochronological division of the
geological column for the Phanerozoic
into eras and periods using a
biostratigraphic relative time sequence
—

—
biostratigraphic correlation using first
appearance of macro fossils,
stratigraphic range, extinction and fossil
assemblages
how the Earth has changed through
geological time (with particular focus on
the Phanerozoic Eon):
(ii) the long term changes in the Earth’s
climate and composition of the
atmosphere
the principles of basin analysis in
relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop
out across the United Kingdom (in a
local context):
(i) the evidence for the geological setting
and cyclical sedimentation in shallow
seas
how the long term changes in 7.1.1(a)
can be interpreted from both the
geological record (palaeoenvironments)
and the geochemistry of the rocks,
including isotope studies
how the long term changes in 7.1.1(a)
can be interpreted from both the
geological record (palaeoenvironments)
and the geochemistry of the rocks,
including isotope studies
how the long term changes in 7.1.1(a)
can be interpreted from both the
geological record (palaeoenvironments)
and the geochemistry of the rocks,
including isotope studies
Page 40 of 44
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AS/A Level Geology
explain how both isostatic and eustatic
sea level changes take place
5.5.2b
7.1.1a
5.5.2c
explain the relationship between sea
level and climate change and the
possible link to mass extinction events
7.1.3a
5.5.3a
describe and explain the fossil evidence
for palaeoclimatic changes: corals and
plants
7.1.1b
5.5.3b
5.5.3c
describe and explain the lithological
evidence for palaeoclimatic changes:
coal, desert sandstone, evaporites,
boulder clay (tillite) and reef limestone
describe the evidence for the northward
movement of the British Isles throughout
geological time
7.1.1b
N/A
how the Earth has changed through
geological time (with particular focus on
the Phanerozoic Eon):
(iii) the long term changes in global sea
level
(iv) how the Wilson cycle model can
provide an outline framework to
understand these long term changes
and the link to mass extinctions
how the fossil record provides evidence
for a number of short term catastrophic
events through geological time known as
mass extinctions and their probable
causes
how the long term changes in 7.1.1(a)
can be interpreted from both the
geological record (palaeoenvironments)
and the geochemistry of the rocks,
including isotope studies
how the long term changes in 7.1.1(a)
can be interpreted from both the
geological record (palaeoenvironments)
and the geochemistry of the rocks,
including isotope studies
—
—
—
—

—
New content
New Spec
Reference
Reformed Specification Statement (H014/H414)
Learners should be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge and understanding of:
2.1.2c
minerals as naturally occurring elements and inorganic compounds whose composition can be
expressed as a chemical formula
rock-forming silicate minerals as crystalline materials built up from silicon–oxygen tetrahedra to
form frameworks, sheets or chains and which may have a range of compositions (qualitative only)
(ii) the classification of samples, photographs and thin section diagrams of minerals using their
diagnostic physical properties
(iii) practical investigations to determine the density and hardness of mineral samples
(iv) the techniques and procedures used to measure mass, length and volume.
(iv) the techniques and procedures used to measure temperature
2.1.3b
(ii) sieve analysis of sediments
2.1.1a
2.1.1b
2.1.1c
2.1.3e
2.2.1b
3.1.1d
3.1.1e
the processes of diagenesis and lithification:
(ii) chemical compaction by pressure dissolution and recrystallisation
the nature and the reliability of the fossil record and the morphological definition of species
how evidence from gravity anomalies and isostasy provides indirect evidence to determine the
behaviour of the lithosphere and asthenosphere
how indirect evidence from electromagnetic (EM) surveys may be used to identify the lithosphere
and asthenosphere at mid-ocean ridges
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Page 41 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
3.1.2a
3.1.2c
3.1.2d
3.1.2e
3.2.1a
3.2.1f
3.2.1g
3.2.1i
3.2.1j
3.3.1b
4.1.1b
4.1.1c
4.1.2a
4.1.2g
5.1.1a
5.1.1d
5.1.1e
5.2.1b
5.2.1c
5.3.1a
5.3.2c
5.3.2d
the bulk composition of the Earth and how it is inferred from the composition of meteorites
(chondrites) and the Sun
the transfer of geothermal energy from:
(i) heat of formation by the Earth
(ii) radioactive decay within the Earth
the Goldschmidt classification of elements into four groups and a qualitative understanding of the
preferred formation of states of substances (oxides and sulfides)
the differentiation of the Earth into layers of distinct composition and density by the partitioning of
each of the Goldschmit groups between the crust, mantle, core, and atmosphere and hydrosphere
the transfer of energy from within the Earth which drives the Earth’s internal geological processes
how the resolution and precision of the direct measurement of relative movement of points on
different plates using global positioning systems (GPS) allow accurate measurement of the current
relative movement of lithospheric plates
subduction zones, lithospheric plates (cold thermal boundary) and mantle plumes which act as the
active limbs of the convection cells which transfer energy from within the Earth
the relative importance of slab pull at subduction zones and ridge push at mid-ocean ridges as
mechanisms driving the movement of tectonic plates
(i) how the plate tectonic paradigm emerged from previous, gradually more sophisticated models
(geosynclines, continental drift, active mantle convection carrying passive tectonic plates)
(ii) interpretation of these and other examples of such developing models
(ii) the use of stress and strain diagrams
how uniformitarianism and the rock cycle model developed over time, including ideas of
catastrophism, mass extinctions, and changing conditions and rates of processes through
geological time including the contributions of James Hutton and William Smith
what facies associations are, why facies are the basic unit of sedimentary geology and how
uniformitarianism is applied to the study of facies by analogy with modern sedimentary sequences
and processes.
(i) how the characteristics of the facies in a sedimentary environment are related to the methods of
sediment transport
deposition in deep water carbonate seas above the carbonate compensation depth
(i) the sedimentary processes which are infrequent and/or difficult to observe but can be understood
and explained using scientific principles
(ii) practical investigations to model the processes of sedimentation
Walther’s law which relates vertical sequences in outcrop with the lateral facies changes seen in
modern environments
the deposition of banded iron-formations (BIFs) under the different atmospheric and ocean
chemistry in the Palaeoproterozoic, as an example of a geological resource produced by
sedimentary processes
the application of Darcy’s law to model the flow of fluids in rocks
 h  h1 

Q = –A  2
 L 
the controls on groundwater quality which result from geochemistry (carbonates and sulfates),
aquifer filtration and residence time
(i) the substitution of elements for others in the crystal structure of minerals and as magma cools
and crystallises (olivine and plagioclase feldspar as examples of solid solution series)
(ii) the interpretation of continuous and discontinuous binary phase diagrams
the formation of oceanic crust, how mid-ocean ridges are formed, and the process of seafloor
spreading at fast and slow spreading mid-ocean ridges
hydrothermal processes at mid-ocean ridges and the formation of massive sulfide ore metal ores as
an example of a geological resource produced by hydrothermal processes
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Page 42 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
5.4.1a
5.4.1c
5.5.1f
5.5.2b
5.5.2c
6.1.1d
6.1.2a
6.1.2c
6.1.3a
6.1.3b
6.1.3d
6.2.1a
6.2.1b
6.2.1d
6.2.2c
7.1.1a
7.1.1c
7.1.2b
7.2.1a
(i) metamorphic grade and how the formation of different combinations of minerals can be used to
reconstruct the conditions of metamorphism and infer the composition of the parent rock
how the composition of the parent rock and conditions (strain rate, temperature and pressure) at
the time of rock deformation determine the nature of that rock deformation
how existing data sets and follow-up surveys are integrated in geological prospecting, resource
exploration and in defining the reserves
the principles, economics and sustainability of mineral processing operations
the causes and management of contaminated minewater, a source of pollution, from abandoned
coal mines and metal ore mines
the limitations and utility of seismic hazard risk analysis which synthesise and summarise
geological data sets to communicate this information for the use of non-specialists
(i) the effectiveness and limitations of probabilistic forecasting
(ii) the calculation of probability and return periods from an annual maximum time series (of
geological events)
(iii) the appropriate communication of probability and return periods for the use of non-specialists
the use of geographical information systems (GIS) to synthesise and summarise geological and
geographic data to improve disaster planning and communication of information for the use of nonspecialists
shrinking and swelling clays:
(i) the causes of physical and geochemical changes to these clays in excavations and the forces
generated by the interaction of these clays with groundwater
(ii) the effects of shrinking and swelling clays on structures and the application of engineering
geology to mitigate these effects
the causes and effects of subsidence and the application of engineering geology to mitigate these
effects
the geological evidence for significant tsunamis in the recent geological past, their causes and the
risk of future events
(i) the effect of the interlocking and cementation of component minerals on rock strength
(ii) the measurement of rock strength under compression and under shear
(iii) the density of rocks
how the strength of rocks and sediments is changed by weathering, fracture density and geological
structures
how existing data sets and ground investigations are integrated in a geotechnical site assessment
the role of geological understanding in the management and remediation of contaminated land and
groundwater, a source of pollution, such as former industrial brownfield sites
how the Earth has changed through geological time (with particular focus on the Phanerozoic Eon):
(i) the changes in the distribution of continents from the Neoproterozoic – refer to 3.2.1
(ii) the long term changes in the Earth’s climate and composition of the atmosphere
(iii) the long term changes in global sea level
(iv) how the Wilson cycle model can provide an outline framework to understand these long term
changes and the link to mass extinctions
how the current rate and scale of environmental and biological change illustrate the application of
geochronological principles, and are of the same order as those used to divide the geological
timescale
(iv) how birds evolved from theropoda and the morphological similarities and differences between
birds and pterosauria
the geological settings and sedimentary conditions that led to the exceptional preservation of
organisms in key Lagerstätten deposits from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale (Canada) and the
Lower Cambrian Chengjiang Formation (China)
(ii) how these Lagerstätten deposits provide the evidence for the Cambrian explosion
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Page 43 of 44
AS/A Level Geology
7.2.2a
7.2.2b
7.2.2c
7.2.3a
7.2.3b
7.2.3c
the principles of basin analysis as applied to the prospecting for hydrocarbons in the North Sea
Basin:
(iii) the process of maturation to form oil and natural gas in the source rock
(ii) The process of rifting and synsedimentary faulting in the North Sea Basin which allowed oil and
natural gas traps to form
(iii) the use of microfossils in biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental analysis to locate
hydrocarbon reserves
the principles of basin analysis to the integration of the sedimentology and palaeontology of the
Welsh basin:
(i) the geological settings and sedimentary conditions in the Welsh Basin, throughout the Cambrian,
Ordovician and Silurian periods.
(ii) how palaeoenvironments in the Welsh Basin can be determined by the analysis of facies
(sediments and fossils)
(iii) the zonation of the Welsh Basin using zone fossils
the principles of basin analysis in relation to the Jurassic rocks which crop out across the United
Kingdom (in a local context):
(i) the evidence for the geological setting and cyclical sedimentation in shallow seas
(ii) facies analysis of the sediments formed in the basin (sedimentary structures, sediment type and
fossils) to determine palaeoenvrionments
(iii) the zonation and correlation of the Jurassic Period using ammonites and belemnites
practical investigation integrating field geology and secondary data (e.g. geological maps, seismic
data, well logs, fossils) to understand the palaeoenvironments and geological history within the
context of a basin wide study
New Assessment Objectives (AOs)
Legacy specification statement
(H087/H487)
AO
1
AO
2
AO
3
Recognise, recall and show understanding
of scientific knowledge; select, organise
and communicate relevant information in a
variety of forms.
Analyse and evaluate scientific knowledge
and processes; apply scientific knowledge
and processes to unfamiliar situations
including those related to issues; assess
the validity, reliability and credibility of
scientific information.
Demonstrate and describe ethical, safe and
skilful practical techniques and processes,
selecting appropriate qualitative and
quantitative methods; make, record and
communicate reliable and valid
observations and measurements with
appropriate precision and accuracy;
analyse, interpret, explain and evaluate the
methodology, results and impact of their
own and others’ experimental and
investigative activities in a variety of ways.
Reformed specification equivalent
(H014/H414)
%
38
Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of geological ideas, skills
and techniques.
%
30-35
Apply knowledge and understanding of
geological ideas, skills and techniques.
40
40-44
Analyse, interpret and evaluate geological
ideas, information and evidence to make
judgements, draw conclusions, and
develop and refine practical design and
procedures.
22
26-29
Maximum of 10% of marks available as knowledge in isolation (i.e. recall knowledge).
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Page 44 of 44