Download Relationships between nutrition and brain function have been the

POOR NUTRITION
Literature Review
According to the Oxford Dictionary of Food and Nutrition; nutrition is the process by which
living organisms take in and use food for the maintenance of life, growth, the functioning of
organs and tissue, the branch of science that studies these processes (Bender 2006). Nutrients
are consumed through the food that we eat, and through metabolic processes in the digestive
system these nutrients are absorbed at a cellular level in the body (Gibney 2009).
Nutrition
Nutrition is the science that deals with food and how the body uses the nutrients from the food.
Food supplies the energy for every action the body performs, from reading to running. Food also
provides substance that the body needs to build and repair its tissues and to regulate its organs
and systems. The type of food intake into the body impacts or affects our health. A proper diet
helps prevent certain illnesses and aids in the recovery from others. An improper or inadequate
diet increases the risk of various diseases. Optimum nutrition contributes to health, wellbeing,
normal development, and high quality of life (Gibney 2009). However, undernutrition, over
nutrition, and malnutrition are linked to sub-optimal health outcomes (Gibney et al. 2009).
Based on research, Poor nutrition habits can be a behavioral health issue, because nutrition and
diet affect how you feel, look, think and act. A bad diet results in lower core strength, slower
problem solving ability and muscle response time, and less alertness. Poor nutrition creates many
other negative health effects as well. Some of these health effects may include obesity,
hypertension, High Cholesterol and Heart Disease, diabetes, stroke, gouts, cancer.
POOR NUTRITION
Role of Nutrition
Blake (2010) hypothesize that nutrition is the study of food and nutrients we need to
sustain life and reproduce. They also examined the way food nourishes the body and its health
effects. Rolfe’s et al had a parallel meaning for the term nutrition where it states that ‘nutrition is
the science of foods, the nutrients and other substances they contain, and of their actions within
the body (including ingestion, digestion, absorption, transport, metabolism an excretion)’.
Nutrition plays an imperative role in students’ lives. It is the study of food at work in our bodies,
our source for energy, and the medium for which our nutrients can function. Ladau (2010) posits
nutrition as the building blocks of life, it includes the utilization of food to grow, it maintains and
repairs our bodies, getting the right amount of nutrients from healthy foods in the right
combinations, making smart choices about the foods you eat and proper nutrition helps you
develop and maintain good health. Nutrition has great impact on students. At a particular primary
school in central Manchester a pilot study was conducted by the researcher in which it was on
this foundation that the problems associated with nutrition will be scrutinized in order to disclose
the causes and implications of nutrition on academic performance.
Nutrition and Cognition
Relationships between nutrition and brain function have been the focus of much research.
Studies have shown the impact of dietary foundations on normal brain functions. Chemical
messengers within the brain called neurotransmitters have been studied in conjunction with
nutrition. Growden and Wurtman (1980) proposes that the brain can no longer be viewed as an
autonomous organ, free from other metabolic processes in the body; instead, the brain needs to
be seen as being affected by nutrition, the concentration of amino acids and choline in the blood
which let the brain create and use many of its neurotransmitters such as serotonin, acetylcholine,
POOR NUTRITION
dopamine, and norepinephrine. Food consumption is vital to the brain being able to make the
right amount of amino acids and choline. These are two precursor molecules obtained from the
blood that are needed for the brain to function normally. Kretsch. (2001) shows further
possibilities that our nutrition has a role with affecting our cognitive functioning. Studies have
been done with school aged children and point to a direct correlation between poor nutrition and
lowered school performance.
Importance of nutrition. Erickson (2006) points out five key components, based on
research, required to keep the brain functioning correctly. The substances, all found in food, are
important to brain development and function. Proteins are found in foods such as meat, fish,
milk, and cheese. They are used to make most of the body’s tissues, including neurotransmitters,
earlier identified as chemical messengers that carry information from brain cells to other brain
cells. A lack of protein, also known as Protein Energy Malnutrition, led to poor school
performance by children and caused young children to be lethargic, withdrawn, and passive, all
of which help affect social and emotional development.
Carbohydrates are commonly found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Carbohydrates are
broken down into glucose (sugar) which is where the brain gets its energy. Fluctuating levels of
carbohydrates may cause dizziness and mental confusion, both of which can affect cognitive
performance. Eating a carbohydrate heavy meal can cause one to feel more calm and relaxed
because of a brain chemical called serotonin and its effect on mood. Serotonin is created within
the brain through the absorption and conversion of tryptophan. Tryptophan is absorbed within
the blood and this absorption is enhanced with carbohydrates (Erickson, 2006). Erickson also
notes that fat makes up more than 60% of the brain and acts as a messenger in partial control of
aspects such as mood. Omega3 fatty acids are very important to the optimum performance of the
POOR NUTRITION
brain and a lack of these fats can lead to depression, poor memory, low IQ, learning disabilities,
dyslexia, and ADD. Important foods to consume to ensure an Omega3 fatty acid diet are certain
fish and nuts (Erickson, 2006).
Erickson (2006) discussed vitamins and minerals as an important substance for the
functioning of the brain. Most important are the vitamins A, C, E, and B complex vitamins.
Manganese and magnesium are two minerals essential for brain functioning, sodium, potassium
and calcium play a role in message transmission and the thinking process. Aforementioned in the
research, neurotransmitters are crucial to brain function in the transferring of messages. Erickson
states research that shows nutrition is important to the production of key neurotransmitters such
as acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin.
Effects of nutrition on cognition. Furthering the research under the heading nutrition
and its effects on cognition, diet, exercise, and sleep have the potential to alter brain health and
mental function. Gomez-Pinilla (2008) states that it stands to reason that changes in diet could be
used to enhance cognitive abilities. Gomez-Pinilla (2008) research has shown that Omega3 fatty
acids such as those found in fish, kiwi fruit, and walnuts, provide many benefits in improving
memory and learning, much of which occurs at the synapses. Omega3 fatty acids are essential
for normal brain function. The article states that a deficiency in Omega3 fatty acids can lead to
increased risk of attention deficit disorder and dyslexia. According to Wolpert and Wheeler
(2008), children who had an increase of Omega3 fatty acids performed better in reading,
spelling, and had fewer behavioral problems.
In addition, Gomez-Pinilla (2008) suggests that diets high in Tran’s fats and saturated fats
negatively affects cognition. These Trans fats are found in common fast food and most junk
foods. Through these Trans fats, junk food affects the brain synapses as well as many molecules
POOR NUTRITION
that aid in learning and memory. A diet low in Tran’s fats and high in Omega3 fatty acids can
strengthen synapses and provide cognitive benefits (cited Wolpert & Wheeler, 2008).
Wolfe and Burkman (2000) began by creating an equation: good nutrition + exercise =
optimal learning. They support the following questions with research:
1. How does breakfast help children do better in the classroom?
2. Can certain foods enhance a child’s learning or memory?
3. Does supplements help children perform better in the classroom?
Research that confirmed proper nutritional support is important to allow the brain to
function at its highest ability and to enhance learning (cited Wolfe, 2000). Wolf (2000) further
proposed that it didn’t take much complication or anonymity through expensive foods and
supplements to help students reach their potentials; healthful nutritional habits learned early in
life help endure normal physiological and neurological growth and development, which
translated into students’ achieving optimal learning, defined as the abilities to recall information,
to problem solve, and to think critically.
Wolf (2000) state several dietary components support brain function and neurotransmitter
activity, and that scientists recommend a wide range of foods as nutrient sources; the most
important known today are protein, fat, vitamins B, iron, chlorine, and antioxidants. Offering
students, the right food choices and helping them develop positive, healthy eating habits will
support optimal functioning of the brain. Eating breakfast helps students to eliminate or reduce
stomach pain, headache, muscle tension, and fatigue, all which lead to an interference with
learning. School personnel have the perfect access to students’ breakfast eating habits and need
to utilize the opportunity to teach students good breakfast eating habits, whether at school or
home.
POOR NUTRITION
Wolfe (2000) postulated that without an adequate daily intake of nutrients from food, the
body puts learning on a lower shelf below its need to sustain life support functions. Therefore, in
many cases, skipping a meal negatively affected the body and its learning functions. Wolf (2000)
concluded that as many as half of low income primary students skip breakfast and that children
who eat a good breakfast at school perform better on standardized tests. Also, they found that
children who eat breakfast have improved attention in late morning performance tasks, retrieve
information more quickly and accurately, make fewer errors in problem solving activities, and
concentrate better and perform more complex tasks. Similarly, what the child eats for breakfast is
important. A breakfast comprise of protein, fat, and sugar will prevent drops in blood sugar for
several hours, whereas, as breakfast of just starch and sugar will sustain a child for only about
two hours. A meal that included food from several food groups was the best for a child who was
expects to perform at his or her best in school, educationally and physically. Wolfe (2000) called
attention to school food programs and contend that such programs need support.
Lahey and Rosen (2010) research that nutrition affects learning and behaviour and
suggested that diet can influence cognition and behavior in many ways, which include the
condition of not enough nutrition or the condition of the lack of certain nutrients. About one third
of children who completed a food habit pallet had inadequate fruit and vegetable intake. These
students also showed poor school performance as compared to those students who had an
adequate intake of fruits and vegetables (cited Lahey & Rosen, 2010).
Kar (2008) examined the effect of stunted growth on the nature of cognitive impairments
and on the rate of cognitive development. The study investigated if malnutrition would result in a
concentrated impairment and a general slowing in the rate of development of all cognitive
processes or these effects could be present for some specific cognitive processes. Effects of
POOR NUTRITION
malnutrition on cognitive processes were also looked at in relation to impairment without
affecting the rate of development and its effect on the rate of development of the cognitive
process itself. The participants were identified as being malnourished or adequately nourished in
the age groups of five- to seven-year olds and eight- to ten-year olds (cited Kar, 2008). The
performance of adequately nourished children to malnourished children were compared with age
related differences in cognitive function and found that the malnourished children differed from
the adequately nourished children on tests of phonemic fluency, design fluency, selective
attention, effectively working memory and functions, verbal comprehension, verbal learning, and
memory (cited Kar, 2008).
Nutritional practices by students
Several writers, states that “family, peers, media, and environment influence the health
habits, especially eating habits, of children”. Research has shown that eating habits developed
during childhood continues into adulthood. Thus, childhood eating habits should optimally have
positive effects on every child to create healthy eating habits in the future. These positive
influences will help form a basis for good nutrition and physical activity habits to be followed
throughout an individual's primary, adolescent and adult life. Therefore, students may imitate the
eating habits of their parents who plays a vital role in their lives.
Most parents do not practice healthy diets at home in which their children are forced to
adapt to these practices. They normally complain that purchasing food from all the food groups
are highly expensive. It is well established that young children living in poor communities are at
risk for under nutrition and malnutrition. This is due to lack of resources, neglect, abuse, and
inappropriate care by parents and caregivers, who are often under physical and emotional stress.
According to Little-White’s (2012) in Jamaica, approximately one in every four children under
POOR NUTRITION
the age of four lives in poverty. That is approximately 70,000 children. Promotion of this
behaviour may require attention to nutritional education and child feeding strategies of parents.
Therefore, it can now confirm that parents play a vibrant role in their children food intake. The
statistics have shown that children eat vegetables for different reasons while their parents
partially encourage them to it. However, their environment also influences what they eat.
Whereas they monitor trends and patterns of peers and other sources.
Implications of poor nutrition
Wood (2001) shows possibilities that our nutrition has a role with affecting our cognitive
functioning. There are several studies which have been done with school aged children and point
to a direct connection between poor nutrition and lowered school performance. Iron plays a vital
role in brain function.
Kleinman (2002) reported that persistent or involuntary lack of food over time may result
in malnutrition. Mild-to-moderate malnutrition can be a developmental risk factor. Malnutrition
can limit a child’s ability to comprehend even basic skills and weaken overall learning potential.
Children from food insufficient households may not perform as well on academic achievement
tests as children from food sufficient households. Students who experience food insufficiency are
likely to repeat a grade in school and experience tardiness or absences from school which may
affect their academic performance.
Impact of nutrition on students’ performance
Jensen (1985) hypothesizes that ‘nutrition plays a crucial role in education’. Children
who grow up in poor families are exposed to food with lower nutritional value in which this can
adversely affect them even in the womb (Antonov-Schlorke, 2011). Skipping breakfast is highly
prevalent among urban minority children, and it negatively affects students' academic
POOR NUTRITION
achievement by adversely affecting cognition and raising absenteeism (Basch, 2011). According
to Jensen (1985) when students experience poor nutrition and diminished health practices, it's
harder for them to listen, concentrate, and learn. Students can often appear listless with low
energy or hyperactive on a sugar "high”. ‘Advancing the Approach and Practice of Students of
Social Work’ article, states that the quality of nutrition of families and children has been seen as
an individual affair, and is usually labelled under ‘life style’ rather than being seen as a basic
entitlement.
A diet high in cholesterol and saturated fat is also known to have an adverse effect on
memory, (Burke, 2010). The Jamaica Teachers' Association (JTA) is calling for a national
campaign focusing on the health and nutrition of students.
JTA Wants National Focus On Nutrition
Adams (2010) states “poor nutrition is having a severe impact on students' ability to
learn. A number of them are not able to take part effectively in physical activities, and it severely
affects their concentration”. Students sometimes fall asleep in class, and it opens them up to a
lot of weaknesses where they are unable to learn. They experience fainting spells in the schools
because students are not eating breakfast in the mornings, (Adams 2010). Nutrition is very
important in students’ performance at school. Students tend to lose focus in school and lack
energy when they do not eat breakfast or when they are unhealthy. They normally faint during
school sessions; some are hyperactive while others may seem very lazy because they lack
energy. This has been evident in most schools in Jamaica where teachers are faced with the poor
performance of students.
Protein-energy malnutrition
POOR NUTRITION
Chronic undernutrition manifests primarily as protein-energy malnutrition (PEM), which is the
most common form of malnutrition worldwide. Also known as protein-calorie malnutrition,
PEM is a continuum in which people, all too often children consume too little protein, energy, or
both. At one end of the continuum is kwashiorkor, characterized by a severe protein deficiency,
and at the other is marasmus, an absolute food deprivation with grossly inadequate amounts of
both energy and protein.
An infant with marasmus is extremely underweight and has lost most or all subcutaneous fat.
The body has a “skin and bones” appearance, and the child is profoundly weak and highly
susceptible to infections. The cause is a diet very low in calories from all sources (including
protein), often from early weaning to a bottled formula prepared with unsafe water and diluted
because of poverty. Poor hygiene and continued depletion lead to a vicious cycle of
gastroenteritis and deterioration of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, which interferes with
absorption of nutrients from the little food available and further reduces resistance to infection. If
untreated, marasmus may result in death due to starvation or heart failure. Marchand, Miles,
Glen, Gayle, & Campbell, (2013).
POOR NUTRITION
Reference
Adams, P. (2012). JTA wants national focus on ntrition. The Gleaner. Retrieved from:
http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120407/lead/lead4.html
Antonov-Schlorke, I.; Schwab, M.; Cox, L.A.; Li, C.; Stuchlik, K.; Witte, O.W., et al.
(2011). Vulnerability of the fetal primate brain to moderate reduction in maternal
global nutrient availability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
USA.
Basch, C. (2011). Healthier students are better learners: a missing link in school reforms
to close the achievement gap. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from:
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/51648318_Healthier_students_are_better
_learners_a_missing_link_in_school_reforms_to_close_the_achievement_gap
Bender, D. A. (2002). Food and Nutrition. Oxford Dictionary of p378-9
Blake, J. S.; Munoz, K. D.; Volpe, S (2010). Nutrition from science to you. Glenview IL
60025. Pearson Education Inc.
Burke, T. (2010) Five bad habits that affects performance. The Daily Gleaner. Retrieved
from: http://jamaicagleaner.com/gleaner/20100920/news/news9.html
Erikson, J. (2006). Brain food: the real dish on nutrition and brain function. WisKids
Journal.
Gibney, M., Lanham-New, S., Cassidy, A. & Vorster, H. (2009). Undernutrition.
Introduction to Human Nutrition.
POOR NUTRITION
Gomez-Pinilla, F; and Wolpert, S. (2008). Scientists learn how what you eat affects your
brain -and those of your kids. UCLA news room. Retrieved
from: http://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/scientists-learn-how-food-affects-52668
Growdon, J. H.; and Wurtman, R. J. (1980). Contemporary nutrition: nutrients and
neurotransmitters. New York State Journal of Medicine.
Jensen, E. (1985). How Poverty Affects Classroom Engagement. Educational leadership.
Retrieved from; http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/may13/vol70/num08/How-Poverty-Affects-Classroom-Engagement.aspx
Kar, B.; Rao, S.; and Chandramouli, B. (2008). Cognitive development in children with
Chronic protein energy malnutrition. Behavioral and Brain Functions. Research
Journals.
Kleinman, R.; Hall, S.; Green, H.; Korzec-Ramirez, D.; Patton, K.; Pagano, M.; and
Murphy, J. (2002). Diet, breakfast, and academic performance in children. Annals of
Nutrition and Metabolism Journal.
Lahey, M., Rosen, S. (2002). Dietary factors affection learning behavior. Retrieved
from: http://childrensdisabilities.info
Ladau, K (2010) Nutrition and health. Retrieved from: http://whatisnutritiontips.com/
Little-White, Heather (2012). Improve nutrition among children. The
Gleaner. Retrieved from http://jamaica
gleaner.com/gleaner/20121221/news/news3.html.
Marchand, C; Miles, I; Glen, H; Gayle, R; Campbell, S. (2013); Malnutrition. Home Economics
for the Caribbean.
POOR NUTRITION
Wolfe, P.; Burkman, A.; Streng, K. (2000). The science of nutrition. Educational
Leadership. Research Journal.
Wolpert, S.; Wheeler, M. (2008). Food as brain medicine. UCLA Magazine Online.
Retrieved from: http://magazine.ucla.edu
Wood, M. (2001). Studies probe role of minerals in brain function. Agriculture Research.