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As Southern as a Sweetgrass Basket: Commodification and Cultural Heritage among the Gullah Kristin LaHatte The salience of tourism research within the discipline of anthropology has increased dramatically since the late 1970’s. As the line between the global and local blurs, anthropologists are uniquely poised to study the complex changes associated with tourism from both an emic (inside) and etic (outside) perspective. Anthropologists have the ability to serve as facilitators between the different constituents involved in tourism activities as well as to explore the impact of tourism, particularly on local populations. Over the past decade a marked shift in tourism research occurred as research in cultural anthropology began focusing on cultural heritage and its production and commodification. As a result of this shift in research, new challenges and topics arose in the anthropology of tourism. Current literature addresses issues of authenticity that develop in response to the portrayal of “traditional” or historical productions. Research also stresses the determination of rights and ownership with regard to cultural heritage and economic advancement. One particular area of significance with regard to ownership explores local groups’ efforts to “reclaim” their cultural heritage, often from dominant groups or institutions who utilize local groups’ culture without their expressed permission or consent. Exploring “traditional” cultural depictions in terms of host and guest relationships is another area of inquiry. Current research on the interaction between hosts and guests is significantly one-sided, providing the host viewpoint only. Thus, it lacks a holistic perspective regarding the relationship between hosts and guests as well as a 1 thorough investigation into guest perceptions and beliefs regarding their interaction with hosts. The Gullah people of the South Carolina Sea Islands offer a focus for research on cultural heritage and commodification. Following the Civil War, the Gullah relocated to the Sea Islands, isolating themselves from the mainland and largely preserving their cultural traditions, language, and beliefs. Rapid land development on the Sea Islands since the 1950’s, and the ensuing cultural changes, challenges the Gullah to reinterpret their conceptions of tradition and to determine how it is to be maintained. The commodification of Gullah cultural items, such as the sweetgrass basket, also encourages questions of authenticity, ownership, and host/guest interactions. Presently, no research explores the relationship between the Gullah and tourists in the Charleston area. Additionally, research on the Gullah in Charleston fails to view commodification among the Gullah as a mediated activity. The role of the city of Charleston as a third party that structures and arguably constricts the Gullah’s agency in choices regarding commodification of their cultural heritage needs to be investigated within the larger framework of tourism, commodification, and cultural heritage. This perspective will allow for a holistic view of how the Gullah attempt to preserve their cultural heritage while working with the larger bureaucratic institutions that all local groups must confront in their search for recognition and identity. As more local populations embrace tourism as a viable economic option, the increasing “risks” many groups face in terms of relinquishing control as definers, controllers, and owners of their cultural heritage are often overlooked. As tourism replaces “traditional” economic activities and entire populations become dependent on 2 outside sources for income, a new “hot spot” for tourist activity, or a shift in governmental tourism policy, can prove disastrous for reliant indigenous groups. Anthropologists need to study why groups embrace tourism and facilitate a better understanding of how groups successfully incorporate tourism into their traditional practices while maintaining ownership and control of their cultural heritage. Anthropologists should continue to assist local groups in challenging hegemonic structures and in their attempts to reassert control over their identity and cultural heritage. Annotated Bibliography Brown, Michael. 2003 Who Owns Native Culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. In this text, Brown examines indigenous rights as they are framed within the context of identity and cultural heritage. Brown reviews cases from several indigenous groups worldwide to illustrate the mechanisms that groups employ to redefine the concept of cultural ownership. Brown suggests specific mechanisms groups can use to navigate the uncertain terrain of cultural heritage as a commodity. Comparative Cultural heritage Cultural rights Indigenous people’s rights Cultural policy Applied anthropology Bruner, Edward M. and Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett. 1994 Maasai on the Lawn: Tourist Realism in East Africa. Cultural Anthropology 9(4):435470. This article raises questions of ownership and authenticity as “mass tourism” establishes itself as a way of life for the Maasai moran, male youths, on Mayers Ranch, Kenya. The authors further discuss how staging of events and advertising practices as “traditional” appeals to certain tourist groups in search of authenticity. The article examines this experience as mediated from the tourists’ perspective, thus bridging the gap between hosts and guests. Kenya 3 Maasai Cultural authenticity Tourist-host interaction Cultural anthropology Chambers, Erve. 2005 Can the Anthropology of Tourism Make Us Better Travelers? National Association for Anthropology Bulletin. 23(1):27-44. This article argues that the work of anthropologists has led to the ability to make generalizations on how tourists can travel more responsibly, bridging the gap between theory and practice. Chambers promotes these ideas as “Traveler’s Tips.” He also discusses the “tourism of denial,” travelers belief that they are able to travel and interact without impact on local communities, and the need for travelers to recognize themselves as outsiders. International Responsible tourism Tourist cultural sensitivity Applied anthropology Chambers, Erve, ed. 1997 Tourism and Culture: An Applied Perspective. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. This volume provides case studies on the interaction of culture and tourism. Chambers argues for the importance of this research but points to a lack of discussion on the interactions between the host and guest. Specific studies include the impact of tourism on the Kalahari Bushmen, the promotion of authenticity among the Eastern Cherokee, and urban tourism and revitalization in Boston, Massachusetts. International Tourist-host interaction Culture brokers Anthropology of tourism Cultural anthropology Doron, Assa. 2005 Encountering the “Other”: Pilgrims, Tourists, and Boatmen in the City of Varanasi. Australian Journal of Anthropology 16(2):157-178. Doron examines the relationship between host and guest and how these relationships are structured to conform to what is marketed, using the example of the city of Varanasi, north India. Doron discusses how the Varanasi people in the tourist sector use agency, specifically their ability to influence decisions of tourists and to educate tourists as culture brokers. Furthermore, Doron maintains that the relationship in the 4 “contact zone” is not as tourist-dominated as typically portrayed. North India Agency International tourism Culture brokers Cultural anthropology Gable, Eric and Richard Handler. 1996 After Authenticity at an American Heritage Site. American Anthropologist 98(3):568579. This article examines the techniques of cultural heritage sites whose main objective is to present authenticity. Exploring Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia, the authors demonstrate how using “authenticity-as-impression-management” helps to protect the site from tourist’s questions regarding its true authenticity. Virginia Williamsburg Cultural authenticity Anthropology of tourism Cultural anthropology Jarrett, Charles W. 2003 Connecting with the Soul of a Community: An Interactive Study of Gullah Culture. Paper presented at the Conference on the Africa Diaspora in the Americas: Current Research, Athens, Ohio, April 12. This paper discusses the Gullah people of South Carolina and the impact of current economic changes facilitated by land development on the Carolina Sea Islands. Jarrett advocates for the importance of involving indigenous groups in research and for using several methods for data collection such as archival research, interviews, and autoethnographic observations. The paper discusses the negative impacts of development from an economic as well as ecological perspective, highlighting issues such as land value and the loss of environmentally dependent traditions. South Carolina Sea Islands Gullah culture Negative effects of development Sociology Jarrett, Charles W. and David M. Lucas. 2002 Introducing Folknography: A Study of Gullah Culture. Paper presented at the 65thAnnual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, Chicago, August 14-18. 5 Providing a comprehensive discussion of the Gullah, this papers examines Gullah cultural history and change in South Carolina. The researchers employ, and put forth, the idea of folknography, a technique for rapid rural appraisal centered on the use of ethnography. Employing this method, the researches address how Gullah culture has changed, specifically in the later half of the twentieth century, and how the Gullah people view these changes. South Carolina Sea Islands Gullah culture Rapid research methods Cultural change Sociology Jones-Jackson, Patricia. 1987 When Roots Die: Endangered Traditions on the Sea Islands. Athens: University of Georgia Press. This text provides a vivid portrayal of Gullah beliefs and practices as seen on the Sea Islands of South Carolina, discussing both cultural and linguistic aspects that define the Gullah people. It highlights issues that are most endangered by current development of the Sea Islands such as storytelling, traditional religious practices, medicinal knowledge, and land practices. South Carolina Gullah culture Cultural heritage Economic development and cultural endangerment Cultural anthropology Leatherman, Thomas L. and Alan Goodman. 2005 Coca-colonization of Diets in the Yucatan. Social Science & Medicine 61(4):833-846. Discussing in detail the impact of tourism in globalizing a local economy, this article specifically investigates tourism with regard to food consumption in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. Increasing Mayan tourism has resulted in the commoditization of food, a process the authors refer to as “coca-colonization,” where residents rely on nutrient poor snack foods for a large percentage of their caloric intake. Explores the trickle down effects tourism can have on local interests beyond those areas deemed tourist domains, specifically addressing how these impacts are inequitably experienced. Mexico Yucatan Peninsula Negative effects of international tourism Dietary change Medical anthropology 6 Little, Walter E. 2004 Performing Tourism: Maya Women’s Strategies. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture & Society 29(2):527-533. This article examines Mayan women and their “performance” in the market places of Guatemala. Little argues that women attempt to camouflage their overt economic intentions by building rapport with tourists, creating an authentic experience and thus authentic “traditional” Guatemalan items for purchase. These “performances” are altered for each customer. Their promotion of “traditional” customs and items also legitimize the women’s position in the marketplace, deterring repercussions such as harassment, fines, and possibly arrest from shop owners and local law enforcement. Guatemala Mayan marketplace women Cultural authenticity Tourist-host interaction Culture brokers Cultural anthropology Nash, Dennison. 1996 Anthropology of Tourism. Tarrytown, NY: Elsevier Science Ltd. Dennison discusses three orientations of tourism research: personal transition, acculturation, and superstructure, giving examples within each section to support his argument. Personal transition investigates tourists’ perspectives on the personal changes they undergo as a result of their travels as well as why they chose to travel and to where. Acculturation examines the agency available to hosts concerning tourism decisions and subsequent impacts while the superstructure approach investigates the cause of tourism and looks for the underlying societal and worldwide structures that promote tourism. Dennison also explores the role of anthropologists and their ability to use an integrated approach for the study of tourism, thus providing a broad, people-centered perspective. Theoretical Tourism research Anthropology and tourism Applied anthropology National Park Service. 2005 Low Country Gullah Culture: Special Resource Study and Final Evaluation Impact Statement. Atlanta, GA: NPS Southeast Regional Office. Commissioned by the National Park Service, this study investigates if and how the NPS should be involved in the preservation of the Gullah culture in South Carolina. Researchers incorporated local voices of the Gullah people as well as historical studies of their culture and the Sea Islands where the Gullah live. The report includes sections on 7 why the study was necessary, the Gullah people and their history and current situation, the criteria used by the NPS to determine critical areas of concern, and options for preserving the Gullah culture and educating the public on their rich history. South Carolina Georgia Gullah culture Cultural heritage preservation National Park Service Impact assessment Social science Ryan, Chris and Michelle Aicken, eds. 2005 Indigenous Tourism: The Commodification and Management of Culture. San Diego, CA: Elsevier. This text explores tourism as an income generating venture for indigenous people. It includes specific cases and analysis demonstrating the inherent changes associated with the commodification of cultural heritage and examines how indigenous groups maintain control of their identity and cultural practices. Examples include Australian indigenous tourist activities, the relationship between hosts and guests in Christchurch, New Zealand, community tourism in Lijiang, China, and the winter festival in Jokkmokk, Sweden. Cross-cultural Indigenous tourism management Cultural heritage Commodification of culture Tourism studies Schutte, Gerhard. 2003 Tourists and Tribes in the “New” South Africa. Ethnohistory 50(3):473-487. This article examines the commodification of village life as a representation of an authentic tribal experience in South Africa, though the author maintains that these portrayals are far from accurate. Schutte discusses the historical background of apartheid in terms of tourism, with particular attention to the traditional African cultures. Looking at several villages, Schutte analyzes their interpretation and demonstration of an authentic South African village. South Africa Cultural authenticity Commodification of culture Tourism and local culture Cultural anthropology 8 Smith, Valene, ed. 1989[1979] Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. 2nd edition. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. A seminal publication which discusses the role of anthropology in the study of tourism. Several authors address the study of tourism as a subject worthy of scientific inquiry, particularly as a mechanism for cultural change. Contributions explore different theoretical approaches to the study of tourism and use specific cases to illustrate these perspectives such as Eskimo tourism and men’s roles, tourism’s impact on the art of Southwestern U.S. Indians, cultural complexity in Bali, and host and guest relations in Costa Brava, Spain. Cross-cultural Theoretical approaches to tourism Cultural change Anthropology and tourism Cultural anthropology Stanton, Cathy. 2005 Serving up Culture: Heritage and Its Discontents at an Industrial History Site. Theme Issue, “Resolving Conflicts in Heritage Tourism: A Public Interest Anthropology Approach.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 11(5):425-431. In this article, Stanton thoroughly examines cultural heritage tourism by specifically addressing the concept of “ownership” in the portrayal of traditional customs. She explicitly demonstrates how “cultural producers” with “expert” knowledge can have more influence over the appropriate use and definition of cultural heritage than actual practioners. Stanton also discusses the potential of anthropologists to act as cultural brokers between citizen groups, government, and heritage professionals. Massachusetts, Lowell Cultural heritage Cultural rights Anthropologists as cultural brokers Applied anthropology Stronza, Amanda. 2001 Anthropology of Tourism: Forging New Ground for Ecotourism and Other Alternatives. Annual Review of Anthropology 30:261–283. Stronza provides a review article in which she synthesizes recent anthropological works on tourism, analyzed under the topics of anthropology and tourism, origins of tourism, impacts of tourism, and alternative forms of tourism. The article discusses the difficulty in defining tourism and how new developments in the tourist industry provide a frame through which to view other cultural processes and changes. Stronza advocates for anthropologists to view both players in tourist interactions during each stage as previous studies have taken a largely one-sided approach, looking mainly at the impact of tourism 9 or studying only the tourists themselves. Cross-cultural Host and guests tourism New tourism ventures Anthropology and tourism Cultural anthropology Sylvain, Renee. 2005 Disorderly Development: Globalization and the Idea of “Culture” in the Kalahari. American Ethnologist 32(3):354-370. This article examines how culture can become an instrument of exploitation. It investigates how the concept of indigenous identity gained salience during the past century, specifically by analyzing the use of identity among the San people of Namibia. Sylvain explores the impact of globalization on the San people, discussing how outsiders, mainly media and NGO’s, attempt to portray the Bushmen as highly “primitive” and how the San people strategically embrace this perception as needed. The article demonstrates how ethnotourism in a search for authenticity reshapes cultural local behaviors. Namibia San people Ethnotourism Cultural identity Cultural anthropology Wyllie, Robert W. 1994 Gods, Locals and Strangers: The Effutu Aboakyer as Visitor Attraction. Current Anthropology 35(1):78-82. Wyllie presents a thorough examination of the Aboakyer festival in Ghana and the ability of participants to incorporate international tourism without losing the meaning or rituals that structure the celebration. Wyllie illustrates how the local community continues to ritually hunt deer, feast, and dance in a historically driven and traditional manner. He also explores the positive attitude taken by most local residents with regard to the increase in international tourism. Ghana Cultural commodification Tourism and identity maintenance Cultural anthropology Blood of My Blood: Parental Consanguinity as Genetic Risk in First Cousin Marriages 10 Susan Joy Bishai Risk is one of the few human “universals.” Almost all individuals or communities will at some point face threats, whether “real” or “perceived.” Although risk may be a cross-cultural reality, the ways in which peoples construe and respond to risk vary widely, reflecting the diversity of societies throughout the world. In the spring of 2006, I reviewed published works dealing with a specific risk: consanguineous parents— particularly married first cousins—and their risk of miscarrying or producing children with hereditary birth defects. Three factors prompted my interest in this subject. First, my own cultural background encourages first cousin marriage despite international medicine’s increased designation of consanguineous marriage as a less healthy (or, conversely, more “risky”) choice. Based on my own experience and, later, this annotated bibliography research, I determined that different societies perceive and navigate genetic risk in different ways and that knowledge of genetic risk factors is not always a deterrent to consanguineous marital choice. In some societies, for example, even doctors trained in the Western medical tradition may choose first cousin or other consanguineous marriages as the basis for their own families. Second, I am interested in the ways in which people navigate threats to individual bodies—here, a couple’s potential children—based on communal or society-wide marriage traditions. Finally, recent changes in genetic medicine and technology as well as population migration patterns indicate consanguineous marriage and genetic risk may become or may need to become central issues in some communities’ reproductive health programs. 11 I attempted to create a cross-cultural collection of annotations and references, drawing on research based in locales as diverse as urban Britain and rural Appalachia and China. The majority of available published works, however, identified two socio-cultural environments—Pakistan and its offshoot emigrant communities and the Middle East and North Africa—as the world’s most actively and consistently “consanguineous.” My bibliography thus offers an intensive anthropologically-based introduction to first cousin marriage and genetic risk amongst persons of Pakistani and multi-ethnic and religious Middle Eastern and North African backgrounds, with brief examinations of other countries and regions provided as supplements. Although most of the referenced authors are biological or physical anthropologists, some cultural anthropologists have undertaken studies of consanguineous marriages and parents’ approach to genetic risk. British anthropologist Alison Shaw is one of the most oft-cited and well-regarded cultural anthropologists in the area of consanguinity and genetic risk. Shaw has focused on the large British-Pakistani communities of urban Britain. This mixed immigrant and British-born population presents a prominent example of persistent first-cousin marriage within an urban and fully industrialized society and, as such, provides an ideal context for Shaw’s emphasis on culturally compatible minority health and genetic counseling services. Another British anthropologist who successfully advocates for culturally informed genetic counseling is Nadeem Qureshi, himself of Pakistani descent. Like Shaw, Qureshi argues that clinics and practitioners cannot easily dismiss cultural and religious background and obligations when counseling Pakistani Britons on the genetic risks of cousin marriage. Both Shaw and Qureshi advise against the ever-present dangers of 12 British and other Western health practitioners overriding or dismissing as ignorant the deeply held marriage traditions that Pakistani communities bring to their evaluation of genetic risk. I was surprised by the relatively large amount of material devoted to studies of consanguineous marriage and its relation to genetic risk. Although studies of “incest” have garnered far more anthropological attention, increases in the availability of reproductive and genetic technologies will create more demand for genetic counseling and will cast further light on communities maintaining consanguineous marriage, prompting more anthropologists to devote studies to this subject. Consanguinity and genetic risk also speak to the increasingly multi-ethnic societies of countries throughout the world, stirring up a diverse set of issues related to cultural sensitivity, minority healthcare, and immigration policy. Annotated Bibliography Al-Ghazali, L.I. 1997 Consanguineous Marriages in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Biosocial Science 29 ( 4): 491-497. Al-Ghazali and a team of physical anthropologists and biologists examine the long-standing tradition of cousin marriage amongst Arabian Gulf populations in the United Arab Emirates. The team takes into consideration persisting preferences for cousin marriage and differing levels of education about genetic risks for children of consanguineous marriages. United Arab Emirates—Social life and customs Consanguinity—United Arab Emirates Physical Anthropology—Biogenetics Bittles, A. H. 1993 Infant and Child Mortality in Rural Egypt. Journal of Biosocial Science 25 (3): 415-416. Bittles applies his expertise in South Asian consanguinity issues to child mortality in Upper Egypt. He compares incidences of postnatal death, finding that cultural or social 13 preferences for consanguineous marriage often override acknowledged genetic risk of infant mortality. Africa—Child Mortality North & Northeast Africa—Consanguinity Infant Mortality and Consanguinity—Egypt Biogenetics Bittles, A. H., A. Radha Rama Devi, H.S. Savithri, Rajeswari Sridhar, and N. Appaji Rao. 1987 Consanguineous Marriage and Postnatal Mortality in Karnataka, South India. Man. New Series 22 (4): 736-745. This team of team conducted a five-year study of children born to consanguineous (first cousin and uncle-niece) marriages in four southern Indian states. The researchers looked at the rates of postnatal death among 65, 492 live born pregnancies. Their statistics failed to reveal a consistent link between consanguineous marriages and postnatal infant death. The lack of evidence linking relative marriage to infant mortality was not surprising to local people for whom consanguinity is a well-regarded element of marriage. South India Consanguinity Infant Mortality Biogenetics Darr, Aamra. 1997 Consanguineous Marriage and Genetics: a Positive Relationship. In Culture, Kinship and Genes: Towards Cross-Cultural Genetics. A. Clarke and E. Parsons, eds. Pp 83-97. New York: St. Martin's Press. Working within a British Pakistani community and the larger British society, Darr attempts to de-stigmatize consanguineous (cousin) marriage and its presumed links to genetic birth defects and other disorders. While acknowledging the slightly higher risk for certain genetic disorders, Darr points out the ways in which pre-marital genetic counseling and other measures can help reduce this risk, allowing modern scientific techniques to co-exist with and complement consanguineous marital traditions. Cousin marriage—Pakistanis Consanguinity—Great Britain Consanguinity—genetic risk Genetic disorder Physical Anthropology Guha, Amina. 1990 14 Influence of Cultural Traditions and Social Movements on the Genetic Structure of the Boro-Kachari population. Indian Anthropological Society Journal. 25 (1): 73-81. Guha looks at genetic risk among the Boro and Karachi peoples of the Assam region of northeastern India. She compares modern Boro and Karachi populations’ preference for cousin marriage and the ways in which social preference affects biogenetics, essentially forming and shaping the genetic character of a population. Villagers may consider common disorders an expected or natural component of their population. Consanguinity--India--Assam. Boro (India people)--India--Assam--Social conditions. Kachari (India people)--India--Assam--Social conditions. Physical Anthropology Holy, Ladislav. 1989. Kinship, Honour, and Solidarity: Cousin Marriage in the Middle East. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press. Holy is interested in how pre-industrial kinship structures—many of which originated in Arab Bedu tribal society—have proliferated in ethnic groups and countries throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Although many people in the urban Arabicspeaking world are aware of modern science’s restrictions on relative marriage, kinship ties and family honor continue to furnish the demand for cousin marriage among individuals of diverse socio-economic backgrounds. Themes in Social Anthropology—cousin marriage. Cross-cousin marriage—Middle East Anthropology—sociocultural Hussain, R. 1998 The Role of Consanguinity and Inbreeding as a Determinant of Spontaneous Abortion in Karachi, Pakistan. Annals of Human Genetics 62 (2): 147-157. Hussein establishes the biological phenomenon of spontaneous abortion/miscarriage as higher among consanguineous (first cousin) marriages in Karachi, Pakistan than in stranger or non-consanguineous marriages, leading to increased risk for Pakistani families considering cousin marriage. Consanguinity Cousin marriage—Pakistan Miscarriage Biogenetics Inhorn, Marcia. 2004 15 Middle Eastern Masculinities in the Age of New Reproductive Technologies: Male Infertility and Stigma in Egypt and Lebanon. Medical Anthropological Quarterly (18)2: 162-182. Inhorn posits that Lebanese and Egyptian men’s rates of infertility are compounded and increased by these men’s unawareness of the many social and environmental factors contributing to male infertility. Inhorn touches on high rates of first cousin marriage in Egypt and some parts of Lebanon as one such factor that puts unwitting men at risk for infertility. Middle East—Egypt and Lebanon Male infertility Cousin marriage Biological Anthropology—Medical Jorjani, Eisa. 1998 Demo-Genetic Structure among the Turkmen of Iran. Indian Journal of Physical Anthropology and Human Genetics 21 (2): 67-78. Jorjani examines consanguineous (first-cousin) marriage among Turkmen in twenty villages of Eastern and Western Iran, highlighting the effects on and role of consanguinity in determining population genetics and makeup. Jorjani relies on oral interviews as well as case histories on consanguinity, touching on differences and similarities between Indian, ethnic Persian and Persian Turkmen consanguineous marriages. Turkmen—Iran Consanguinity Population genetics—Iran Physical Anthropology Korotayev, Andrey. 2000 Parallel-cousin (FBD) Marriage, Islamation, and Arabization. Ethnology 39(4): 395-409. Korotayev coins the term “Islamation” to describe the processes of Islamization and Arabization that have accompanied the spread of Islam from southwestern Asia to large portions of Asia, Africa, and some communities in Eastern Europe. Korotayev posits that a country or community’s inclusion in a specific eighth-century Islamic sphere of governance can strongly predict high preference for patrilateral parallel-cousin (FBD) marriage. Korotayev asserts that such stated or conventional preferences do not correspond to actual marriage practices, in which communities may consciously avoid cross-cousin marriages. Although genetic risk factors are not the primary reasons behind such cousin-averse marriages, non-Arabized Muslim populations are aware of genetic risk, and may or may not cite it as a motivation to avoid consanguineous marriage. Cross-cousin marriage Islam—marriage 16 Anthropology—ethnology Meyer, B.F. 2005 Strategies for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseases in a Highly Consanguineous Population. Annals of Human Biology 32 (2):174-179. Meyer offers culturally appropriate strategies for reducing the risk of genetic disorders, such as spinal muscular atrophy, in the “highly consanguineous” population of Saudi Arabia. Meyer’s ideas include culturally-themed genetic counseling and prenatal screening for this population in which first cousin marriage is and frequently practiced. Cousin marriage—Saudi Arabia Genetic Disorders—Saudi Arabia Biogenetics Nishimura, Yuko. 1998 Gender, Kinship and Property rights: Nagarattar womanhood in South India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nishimura explores social pressures and property rights, largely born of kinship concerns, in South Indian women’s first cousin marriages. Most such marriages are arranged or encouraged by the relatives of bride and groom; such social pressures ensure that both families may, despite knowledge of genetic risks, choose cousin marriage. Cross-cousin marriage—India, south Anthropology—sociocultural O’Brien, Elizabeth and L.B. Jorde, Bjorn Ronnlof, Johan Fellman, and Aldur Eriksson. 1989 Consanguinity avoidance and mate choice in Sottunga, Finland. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79 (2): 235-246. O’Brien et. al. are interested in the converse of populations in which consanguineous marriages are socially permissible or even desirable. The team surveyed young adults of marrying age in Finland, a country in which individuals are encouraged to choose their own mates irrespective of familial approval or benefit. Finnish men and women expressed a conscious desire to avoid consanguineous marriages of any kind, including marriages to cousins three and four times removed. The authors present Finnish people’s marriage choices in contrast to local immigrant communities in which first cousin marriages are encouraged. Mate selection--Finland--Genetic aspects Finland—Population genetics Marriage—Finland Physical Anthropology 17 Ottenheimer, Martin. 1996 Forbidden Relatives: The American Myth of Cousin Marriage. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Ottenheimer compares restrictions on and views of cousin marriage in Europe and the United States, including Euro-American, native European, and non-Western immigrant perspectives. He posits that the mainstream American concern over cousin marriages is largely a myth/construction in light of American cousin marriage rates that are lower than popularly assumed. Ottenheimer also uses several chapters to review the different biogenetic arguments made for and against cousin marriage. Different social and ethnic groups employ these scientific data when making their own calculations of the risks/benefits of cousin marriage. Cousin marriage—Europe Cousin marriage—United States Anthropology—Biogenetics Qureshi, Nadeem. 1997 The Relevance of Cultural Understanding to Clinical Genetic Practice. In Culture, Kinship, and Genes: Towards Cross-Cultural Genetics. A. Clarke and E. Parsons, eds. Pp 111-119. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Qureshi makes an anthropologically based case for culturally themed genetic counseling and practices. He takes as his prominent example the well-studied case of British-born Pakistanis for whom first cousin marriage is widely preferred and practiced. Qureshi argues that clinics and practitioners cannot ignore cultural and religious background and obligations when counseling Pakistani Britons on the genetic risks of cousin marriage. Great Britain-Minorities Pakistanis-Great Britain—Medical Care Genetic Counseling—Great Britain. Physical Anthropology Raz, Aviad and Marcela Atar. 2005 Perceptions of Cousin Marriage Among Young Bedouin Adults in Israel. Marriage & Family Review 37 (3): 27-46. The authors are ethnographers who observed Bedouin* Arabs of marriageable age and their reactions to the risk of genetic disorders in traditional Bedouin cousin marriages. *A minority of available recent anthropological literature uses the alternate term “Bedu,” for which some Bedu have expressed a preference. To facilitate future research, I have used “Bedouin” and “Bedu” where authors have used each and where cataloguing systems have listed each as a subject term. Raz and Atar found that a significant percentage of young Bedouin in a specific clan (37%) favored first cousin marriage, with another large percentage (22%) reacting 18 unfavorably toward cousin marriage but anticipating their own such marriage due to familial or social expectations. Both groups of young people demonstrated clear knowledge of the genetic risks associated with first cousin marriage yet either preferred consanguineous marriage or had resigned themselves to the practice. Israel—Bedouins Bedu Consanguinity Israel Ethnography Saedi-Wong, Simin. 1989 Socio-economic Epidemiology of Consanguineous Matings in the Saudi Arabian Population. Journal of Asian and African Studies 24 (3/4): 247-52. Saedi-Wong examines the social and economic underpinnings of Saudi people’s deep-seated preferences for first cousin marriage despite widespread indications (from Western medicine and media, for example) that such unions increase offspring’s risk of genetic disorders. Middle and Near East Consanguineous marriage—Saudi Arabia Cultural Anthropology Shaw, Alison. 2000 Conflicting Models of Risk: Clinical Genetics and British Pakistanis. In Risk Revisited. Pat Caplan, Ed. Pps 85-107. London: Pluto Press. Shaw highlights the tension between “native” British healthcare professionals’ and British-born or immigrant Pakistanis’ conflicting views on genetic risk of birth defects for children born of consanguineous (first cousin) parents. Shaw makes several recommendations including specifically tailoring genetic counseling literature and education to render them more accessible to lay and specific ethnic, particularly Pakistani, communities. Great Britain—Asian immigrants Pakistani immigrants Cousin Marriage Genetic Risk Anthropology—Physical—Social Simpson, Bob. 2004 Acting Ethically, Responding Culturally: Framing the New Reproductive and Genetic Technologies in Sri Lanka. Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 5 (3): 227-243. 19 Simpson is interested in the roles of reproductive and genetic technology in developing countries whose social practices, such as first cousin marriage, seem to pose strong ethical opposition to such technological innovations. Simpson explores the “relativization” of modern bioethics in relation to such cultural norms. He dissects the usage of the term “culturally appropriate” in the Sri Lankan medical/reproductive health community. Sri Lanka Reproductive technology Genetics Cousin Marriage Anthropology—sociocultural Tincher, Robert B. 1980 Night Comes to the Chromosomes: Inbreeding and Population Genetics in Southern Appalachia. Central Issues in Anthropology 2 (1): 27- 49. Tincher compares data on rates of cousin marriage and isonymy (marriage between people of the same surname) in the Appalachian region of the United States with recorded incidents of genetic disorder. He calls into question the “conventional” or prevailing view that Appalachian inbreeding is responsible for perceived genetic disabilities and low levels of intelligence, or that such unions have resulted in “widespread deleterious effects.” Appalachia—United States Consanguinous marriage Genetic Disorder Cultural Anthropology Zhaoxiong, Qin. 2001 Rethinking Cousin Marriage in Rural China. Ethnology 40 (4): 347-361. Zhaoxiong examines cross-cousin marriage in a rural Chinese village of central China’s Hubei Province. The author offers varying reasons for the acceptability of such marriages and villagers’ views of “outsider marriages” as less acceptable to local communities (this negative view of outsider marriage is common throughout cousinmarrying societies). Zhaoxiong identifies as central to rural Chinese villagers’ identity their emphasis on patrilineal descent through first cousin marriage. China—Hubei Province Central China—villages Rural China Cross-cousin marriage Cultural Anthropology 20 Child Labor in Cultural Context Sayaka Uchikawa I visited Battambang, Cambodia in 2003 to work as a volunteer at a youth house managed by a NGO called Kokkyo naki Kodomotachi (KnK, Children without Borders). Approximately forty former working, trafficked and street children were living and studying together in the youth house, and I assisted in organizing cultural exchanges and educational activities with them. While interacting with the children, I became increasingly aware of the fact that some of the children still wished to work. Even though the NGO provided them with a stable life with food, housing and education, they felt strong responsibilities toward and commitments to their family. Moreover, I began to doubt that whether anti-child labor interventions had considered the cultural context of the children including their time allocation for work, education and play. Expanding access to education is stressed in the common intervention strategies, yet it does not often fully address the traditions and local culture of the children, and roles of the children in households and communities. Although the worst forms of child labor, such as child prostitution, slavery and child soldier, should be unconditionally eliminated, such poorly informed anti-child labor interventions that ignore the local and cultural context can be a trigger for increasing risk and insecurity of working children and so-called child labor. All the sources in this bibliography demonstrate that anti-child labor programs and policies often underestimate the complex ways of life of child workers. They advocate for more child-centered or child-focused research with attention to the importance of their cultural context. Some studies even claim that, without comprehensive understanding of the cultural reality, the efforts to reduce child labor may 21 make conditions worse (Busza, Castle and Diarra 2004). For instance, immediately after the US Congress adopted the Harkin Bill in 1993 to ban the import of all garments produced by children in Bangladesh, about ten thousand Bangladeshi children were fired. However, despite the expectation that the liberated children would attend school, many of them had been sent to an even more exploitative situation (Seabrook 2001:21). When considering the individual level of risk and security of child labor, the following factors must be considered: family roles and cultural values, power relations in the social structure (Kuntay 2002), the perception of the community towards child labor (Montgomery 2001), and the interpretation of children’s roles in their villages (Rende Taylor 2005). Ignoring these factors can increase the vulnerability of the children. The anthropologists included in this bibliography do not support child labor. Instead of simply arguing that all the child labor should be eliminated, they tend to more focus on the work, status and roles of the children within their family and society, and describe their reality within the local cultural context. The reports by anti-child labor activists and journalists are also important sources of information about the situation of the children. Nevertheless, in order to understand why children work from a child and individual perspective requires a cultural anthropological approach. Otherwise danger, risk and insecurity of each child may not decrease and may even increase. Additional Works Cited Seabrook, Jeremy. 2001. Children of Other Worlds: Exploitation in the Global Market. London: Pluto Press. Annotated Bibliography Ajavi, A. O., and D. O. Torimiro. 2004. Perspective on Child Abuse and Labour: Global Ethical Ideals versus African Cultural Realities. Early Child Development and Care 174:181-191. 22 This article compares the two perspectives. The first is the theoretical perspective on child abuse and child labor in the global ethical and ideal framework that is often maintained by international agreements. The second is the African local cultural perspective. Qualitative data was collected from six rural farming communities in Nigeria and analyzed to see the African cultural perspective and reality. The article argues that it is not right to examine a case of child abuse and child labor without a close examination of the culture. It concludes that the use of children for farming in Nigeria is a training and a socialization process of children that fits within local cultural realities. Nigeria Child labor Child abuse Global ethics Child development and welfare studies Boyden, Jo, Birgitta Ling, and William Myers. 1998. What Works for Working Children. Smedjebacken, Sweden: UNICEF International Child Development Centre, & Rädda Barnen. The authors, an anthropologist and practitioners of child social welfare issues, argue that the most traditional and widely prescribed measures for calling for elimination of child labor usually do not work. They advocate for a child-centered perspective on child work drawing more attention to working children themselves and examining child work in relation to child development, family life, health, school, child protection laws, and the market economy. Their research is based on field studies, literature reviews, a mail survey of organizations and individuals considered to have substantive experiences in child work issues, interviews with working children in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Philippines, and Central American countries, and the professional experience of the authors. Comparative Working children Child-centered perspective Policy relevance Busza, Joanna, Sarah Castle, and Aisse Diarra. 2004. Trafficking and Health. BMJ: British Medical Journal 328:1369-1371. This article argues that efforts to reduce child trafficking may be making conditions worse for those who migrate voluntarily. In Mali and Cambodia, intermediaries have been assisting safe migration for vulnerable young migrants for a long time. However anti-trafficking groups often intervene without comprehensive understanding of the migrants’ motivations of the cultural and economic contexts, which can ironically increase migrants’ risk of harm and exploitation. Anti-trafficking programs need to incorporate culturally and economically appropriate services. 23 Comparative Mali Cambodia Child trafficking Child migration Policy studies Engebrigtsen, Ada. 2003. The Child’s – or The State’s – Best Interests? An Examination of The Ways Immigration Officials Work with Unaccompanied Asylum Seeking Minors in Norway. Child & Family Social Work 8:191-200. The author argues that immigration officials in Norway tend to see only the interests of the nation, such as border control and national security, rather than the interests of child migrants, such as family reunion. The article claims that the official definition of child migrants and the interpretation of their best interest do not take into account the background, issues and circumstances of those children but only legal framework. Norway Child migration Unaccompanied minors Asylum Family reunion Social work studies Gates, Hill. 2004. “I Can’t Read, but I Can Reckon”: Work, Emotion and Calculation among Early Twentieth-Century Sichuan Girls. Taiwan Journal of Anthropology 2:119-139. Gates interviewed Sichuan women who experienced cotton factory work and foot binding in their childhood. She argues that the psychological experience of the women has developed their skills of numeracy, even though they were never taught the skills in an institutionalized educational system. She advocates that biological research should be combined with cultural anthropology, in order to help understanding such practices as the foot binding, childhood work experience and numeracy skills of Sichuan women. China, Sichuan Women Psychological development Numeracy Biological anthropology Cultural anthropology Green, Linda. 2003. 24 Notes on Mayan Youth and Rural Industrialization in Guatemala. Critique of Anthropology 23:51-73. The article explores “configurations of production, power and culture” using an example of Mayan youth, waged workers in the maquila factories in Guatemala. The author discusses the change of and the impact on households, community and culture of rural Guatemala with development and modernization. She explains this issue in the various contexts such as land, labor, racism, culture, and gender, and argues that rural industrialization had produced powerlessness among the youth population. Guatemala Mayan Indians Youth Powerlessness Rural industrialization Modernity Cultural anthropology Hall, Tom, and Heather Montgomery. 2000. Home and Away. Anthropology Today 16:13-15. This article discusses the different representations of childhood and youth in Western and non-Western social categories. The authors argue that childhood can be a commodity in the power structures between developed and developing nations. For example, the British media consider young people engaged in prostitution in Thailand as innocent child prostitutes. Thus public reaction to the children is often sympathy. On the other hand, the media see youth working in streets in Britain as street children and criminals. The young homeless and prostitutes in Britain remain stigmatized and prosecuted even when they are under eighteen years old. Comparative Thailand Great Britain Homeless youth Social exclusion Cultural anthropology Helleiner, Jane. 2003. The Politics of Traveller ‘Child Begging’ in Ireland. Critique of Anthropology 23:17-33. The author discusses child begging in the cultural, historical and political contexts of the Travellers in Ireland. She describes how child begging has been a part of Travellers people’s culture and life, and also challenges the essentialized and universalized childhood concept. The article claims the needs to critically examine debates and policy initiatives for marginalized child labor, and to reassess the children’s work with their relations to parents and culture. 25 Ireland Travelling people, Travellers Begging Child labor Policy studies Cultural anthropology Kibride, Philip, Collette Suda, and Enos Njeru. 2000. Street Children in Kenya: Voice of Children in Search of a Childhood. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. This book describes street children in Nairobi, Kenya, and their lives as products of specific cultural patterns. The team of sociologists and anthropologists, two of whom are Kenyans, conducted individual interviews, discussions and surveys with the street children. They show the complex ways of lives of the children. Kenya Street children Childhood Urban city Sociology Cultural anthropology Kuntay, Esin. 2002. Family Backgrounds of Teenage Female Sex Workers in Istanbul Metropolitan Area. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 33:345-358. This article examines the family backgrounds of teenage female sex workers in Istanbul, Turkey, based on the in-depth interviews and questionnaires conducted in 1998. The research shows how cultural values reproduced over generations, such as “the institutionalized hierarchies and the power relations existing in the social structure” effect on the social problem of teenage female sex workers. Turkey, Istanbul Teenage female Sex workers Policy studies Social science May, Ann. 1996. Handshops and Hope: Young Street Vendors in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Anthropology of Work Review 17:25-34. May claims that the diversity of child labor in urban cities is ignored and underestimated, especially in Africa. She suggests working children are not one homogeneous group while many previous studies tend to combine all of them together 26 despite of their diversity. The studies did not distinguish beggars with street workers, or boys with girls. This article describes young workers in the informal sector, hand-shop vendors, of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. Tanzania, Dar es Salaam Child labor Street vendors Informal work Cultural anthropology Miles, Ann. 1993. Doing Housework: Children, Gender Socialization and Moral Development in Cuenca, Ecuador. Anthropology of Work Review 13-14:12-14. The author focuses on the household tasks of children in economically poor urban households in Cuenca, Ecuador. She discusses how the domestic chores and activities of children affect their moral good, family cooperation, reciprocity and interdependence within their family, and also their ideological commitments to the gender difference in the society. While in cities, more children tend to go to school instead of working. They still make contributions to the housework, a pattern that relates to their moral development. Ecuador, Cuenca Gender roles Socialization Urban households Cultural anthropology Montgomery, Heather. 2001. Modern Babylon?: Prostituting Children in Thailand. New York: Berghahn Books. Montgomery argues that the Western context of understanding of children’s rights does not always recognize children’s roles in different cultures such as Thailand. She indicates the importance of cultural contexts such as the children’s kinship, especially ties with mothers, the community’s perception towards prostitution, and the money and power relationships when understanding the situation of those child prostitutes in Thailand. Thailand Child prostitutes Child rights Kinship Child-centered perspective Cultural anthropology 27 Nieuwenhuys, Olga. 1996. The Paradox of Child Labor and Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 25:237251. This review describes anthropological and other approaches to the issue of child labor, and reveals the paradox, the limits of current notions such as work and gender among the approaches to child labor. The author criticizes the anthropological approaches that often romanticize the work of children as a form of socialization and nostalgic. The article argues that what is lacking in the issue of child labor is “to address the exclusion of children from the production value.” Theoretical Child labor Socialization Cultural anthropology Porter, Karen A. 1996. The Agency of Children, Work, and Social Change in the South Pare Mountains, Tanzania. Anthropology of Work Review 17:8-19. The author describes the agricultural work of children in South Pare Mountains, Tanzania, and argues that the work of children is not only determined or conditioned by households, gender, or kinship, but, also by the market, cultural meanings and social agencies embedded in work roles. Children increase their agency and cultivate their market strategies as they position themselves in the market economy. Porter suggests that policy makers and planners should be more aware of broad processes of economic transformation that affect the children. Tanzania, South Pare Child labor Cultural anthropology Policy relevance Post, David. 2002. Children’s Work, Schooling, and Welfare in Latin America. Colorado: Westview Press. This book is a comparative case study of child labor (age 12-17 years), schooling, and family welfare within and between Mexico, Chile, and Peru. Post, an educationalist, presents his original analysis of household survey and school enrollment data, and interprets the trends in the children’s time and energy allocation for home, family, school, and work. Comparative Mexico Chile Peru Child labor 28 Schooling Family welfare Social science Rende Taylor, Lisa. 2005. Dangerous Trade-offs: The Behavioral Ecology of Child Labor and Prostitution in Rural Northern Thailand. Current Anthropology 46:411-431. Rende Taylor, a regional counter-trafficking coordinator for the Asia Foundation, describes her findings about the relations between child labor, trafficking, prostitution and parental wealth, based on her field research in two northern villages in Thailand. For instance while first-born daughters may seen as vulnerable to exploitation and hazardous forms of work, they are often protected because of the recognition of their important roles at home, especially taking care of younger siblings. Thailand Child labor Child prostitutes Child trafficking Kinship and family Sociobiological anthropology Rigi, Jakob. 2003. The Conditions of Post-Soviet Dispossessed Youth and Work in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Critique of Anthropology 23:35-49. The author analyzes the condition of youth and their attitudes to work in postSoviet Kazakhstan. The neo-liberal reform created a large number of dispossessed youth. The government and markets saw the dispossessed youth as lacking knowledge and skills required in market values due to lack of formal qualification such as education. Rigi argues that those dispossessed youth actually have more sophisticated practical knowledge and more complex social survival skills than elite youth, due to their independent street life at an earlier age. Kazakhstan Youth unemployment Social marginalization Post-Soviet change Cultural anthropology Salazar, M.C. 1991. Young Workers in Latin America: Protection or Self-determination? Child Welfare 70:269-283. The article offers comprehensive pictures of child labor issues in Latin America, such as Brazil, Mexico and Colombia, and discusses the situation of child labor, their 29 relationships with adults, and community-level policies. The article calls a need for researchers to address the issues in regard to the cultural factors of child labor, such as the relationship between family and employment, the class of children, and also the selfdetermination of children and adolescents. Latin America Child labor Child rights Adolescent rights Child welfare studies Social science Sharp, Lesley A. 1996. The Work Ideology of Malagasy Children: Schooling and Survival in Urban Madagascar. Anthropology of Work Review 17:35-42. Sharp conducted her research in a plantation town of Ambanja in Madagascar, 19931995. Based on the data, this article challenges assumptions about child labor, such as that child laborers are helpless victims, forced to work, and not able to go to school. Sharp argues that the independent market-based work of young boys ensures their own survival and that of their families. Those who go to school have less economic benefits than the young entrepreneurs. Madagascar, Ambanja Youth work Kinship Schooling Cultural anthropology Sharp, Leslie A, 2003. Laboring for the Colony and Nation. Critique of Anthropology 23:75-91. Sharp conducted interviews with youth from three high schools in Madagascar and asked about national identity, colonial history, the cultural value of childhood, and their daily survival. Based on the data, this article discusses children’s political relevance and institutionalized labor practices in the colonial and postcolonial periods. Sharp explores relations among nationalism, labor ideology and youth, by looking at politicized understanding of the past of the youth and personal and national independence in Madagascar. Madagascar Youth labor Youth identity Colonialism Post-colonialism Cultural anthropology 30 Sikkink, Lynn. 2001. Home Sweet Market Stand: Work, Gender, and Getting Ahead among Bolivian Traditional Medicine Vendors. Anthropology of Work Review 22:1-6. The author spent six month in Cochabamba, Bolivia. She conducted research with women in the traditional medicine vendor markets. Sikkink argues, regarding children’s work, that those women want their children to have the economic base with their work as traditional medicine vendors. Thus the children can develop true professions. They grow up understanding their culture, family values, and knowledge of the use, sale, and worth of the medicines. Bolivia, Cochabamba Women’s work Traditional medicine vendors Cultural anthropology Sykes, Karen. 2003. Introduction: The Ethnography of Children’s and Youth’s Work in The Age of Capitalist Restructuring. Critique of Anthropology 23:5-16. This is an introduction article to a special issue of the Critique of Anthropology. The author calls for ethnographical discussions and explications on the issue of child and youth work. She states that the issue of child and youth work had been discussed among employers, activists and mass media, however it is necessary to be reassessed and researched by anthropologists. Theoretical Child labor Youth work Child-centered perspective Cultural anthropology Anthropology of work Weiner, Myron. 1991. The Child and the State in India. Princeton: Princeton University Press. This book is a study of child labor and education in India. Weiner, a political scientist, interviewed government officials, educators, and activists in India, and describes their different views toward child labor issues. He argues that the fundamental beliefs of government officials based on Indian culture, rather than social and economical reality, shape the policy and laws of compulsory education and child labor in India. India Child labor Education 31 State policy Political science Country to City, Country to Country: Traversing Resources of Migration, (Inter)national Security and Risk Kristen Norton Migration is tightly bound to issues of risk and security. Nations use borders to secure their people from other nations. The risky act of moving through borders, whether internally or externally creates physiological, cultural and psychological problems. Cultural ideas about risk and security affect decisions to migrate or coping strategies implemented post-migration. This annotated bibliography presents resources from a wide array of social science fields including medical and cultural anthropology, sociology and international affairs. Many sociologists such as Graves, Opresa and Landale use statistics to analyze effects of migration. Though quantitative methodologies are helpful in policy work on migration, it ignores context-rich environments. What do numbers tell us? Sociologists can make inroads to migration policy by including the participants in analyses instead of just presenting statistics about them. Politicians and international institutions perceive migration as a political risk and security issue. International affairs and political science focus on issues such as identification of immigrations, nationalism and displaced populations. Civil, legal and political repercussions of migration are a big part of risk and security issues. On the other hand, these disciplines must go further than the international and national levels. Cultural anthropologists study context-rich areas. Medical anthropology investigates the effects of migration on mental and sexual health as well as risks to 32 disease. Other anthropologists focus on shifts in identity perception and gender roles. Anthropological issues surrounding immigration and policy add to the literature as well. Anthropologists also contribute studies of changing ethnic identity, memories of trauma and liminality in the face of discrimination. Though anthropology has contributed much to the literature on migration, risk and security, many areas lack attention. More detailed analyses of cultures pre-migration can help to uncover paths that may aid research of post-migration. Cultural conceptualizations of risks are another area of focus that anthropologists must study. How do people of different cultures perceive their risks prior to migrating? How do these perceptions change? It is difficult to research people living in areas affected by war or violence. Anthropologists do, however, contribute to refugee and displacement studies by focusing on gender, class and ethnic categories pre- and post-migration. Another gap is research on risk-aversion, especially within areas afflicted with physical violence, political upheaval and economic deterioration. Migration involves the uprooting of individuals or groups and is largely risky. With this uprooting comes a major shift in cultural perceptions, shifts that anthropologists can help to investigate. Future anthropological research in the area of migration as it is connected to risk and security will involve lengthy but needed studies of cultures and cultural displacements. Annotated Bibliography 33 Becker, Gay, Yewoubdar Beyene, Pauline Ken. 2000. Memory, Trauma, and Embodied Distress: The Management of Disruption in the Stories of Cambodians in Exile. Ethos 28(3): 320-345. Refugees of the Cambodian Khmer Rouge genocide have memories of traumatic and violent experiences that have repercussions on their physical and mental health. Becker, Beyene and Ken study Cambodian exile narratives through interviews of refugees living in the United States. They illustrate how refugee’s memories of trauma resurface during post-migration and the ways these memories affect Cambodians physically and mentally. United States Cambodian refugees Memory narrative Coping strategies Medical anthropology Bletzer, Keith V. 2004. Open Towns and Manipulated Indebtedness among Agricultural Workers in the New South. American Ethnologist 31(4): 530-551. Bletzer conducts a six-year ethnography of rural, Southern community in the United States. Agricultural contractors employ a form of debt peonage on migrant labor workers in the rural Southern United States. The contractors advance commodities such as food, cigarettes, and alcohol to poor agricultural workers, which keep them underpaid and poor. In recent decades, contractors and workers have introduced illicit drugs such as crack cocaine into the commodity pool. Contractors will advance drugs to workers, placing them at higher risk for incarceration or addiction. Workers also trade drugs with other workers. Southern United States Migrant agricultural labor Labor exploitation Illicit drug trade Cultural anthropology Bletzer, Keith V. 2004b. Risk and Danger among Women Who Prostitute in Areas where Farmworkers Predominate. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 17(2): 251-278. This article explores risk and danger for female sex workers in three rural areas of Florida. Based on ethnographic research, the study analyzes how female sex workers manage risk and danger. Women seek backup from local men, cover a large area rather than remaining fixed in one location, build regular customer bases and avoid risky transactions. Farm-working men in the area perceive HIV risk as being low and thus increase the potential for an environment of transmission risk. Florida Sexual risk management 34 Sex workers Farm-working men and women Medical anthropology Brockeroff, Martin and Ann E. Biddlecom. 1999. Migration, Sexual Behavior and the Risk of HIV in Kenya. International Migration Review 33(4): 833-856. The study examines whether migrants in Sub-Saharan Africa are more likely than non-migrants to engage in sexually risky behavior. Sexual behavior is risky when people have multiple sex partners and do not use condoms. Using data from the Demographic Health Survey in Kenya, the researchers show that urban-rural or transnational migration is a factor in high-risk sexual behavior among migrant populations. The authors also conclude that migration affects the sexual behavior of men and women differently. Kenya High-risk sexual behavior Urban-rural migration Transnational migration Gender Public health Castañeda, Xóchitl; Patricia Zavella. 2003. Changing Constructions of Sexuality and Risk: Migrant Mexican Women Farmworkers in California. Journal of Latin American Anthropology 8(2): 126-150. Mexican migrant women farmworkers face many risks such as sexual harassment, illness, and economic hardship. Using participant observation, focal groups and interviews with Mexican migrant women laborers in a rural Californian community, Castañeda and Zavella explore the socio-political forces that affect changing constructions of gender and sexuality. These forces, such as the localization of popular culture and racism against Mexican migrants, affect how migrant women view their bodies and sexuality. California Female Mexican migrants Risky sexual behavior Racism Cultural anthropology Cernea, Michael and Christopher M. McDowell. 2000. Risks and Reconstruction: Experience of Resettlers and Refugees. Washington, DC: World Bank. Development, military conflicts and natural disasters displace resettlers and refugees. This World Bank publication is a comparative analysis of resettlers and refugees and explores central issues for both populations. These issues include: landlessness, reconstruction and relocation, resettlement, joblessness and reemployment, 35 marginalization and social inclusion, food insecurity and the maintenance of sustainable, natural resources. Resettlers and refugees Displacement and relocation Socioeconomic insecurity Land and food insecurity Applied anthropology Chavez, Leo R. 2004. Outside the Imagined Community: Undocumented Settlers and Experiences of Incorporation. American Ethnologist 18(2): 257-278. Many Latin American immigrants intend to remain in the United States due to economic and social links. Immigrants view themselves as integral parts of their communities but many resident Americans see them as outsiders. Because Latin American immigrants are marginalized, they are not fully incorporated into United States society. Chavez discusses how Central American and Mexican immigrants continually seek an end to their liminal status. United States Latin American immigrants Undocumented migration Social marginalization Cultural anthropology Eschbach, Kart, Jacqueline Hagan, Nestor Rodríguez, Ruben Hernandez-Leon, Stanley Bailey. 1999. Death at the Border. International Migration Review 33(2): 430-454. The United States border control policies have largely ignored deaths of undocumented migrants across the United States-Mexico border in the Southwest. The researchers conduct an epidemiological study of the deaths of undocumented migrants in the American southwest. Deaths occur due to drowning, exposure, dehydration, hypothermia and hyperthermia. From 1993-1997 intensified border enforcements redirected migration flows to more remote crossing areas, causing an increase of risk of death due to hyperthermia, hypothermia and dehydration. United States Mexico Border control Undocumented migration Epidemiology Feldman, Gregory. 2005. Culture, State, and Security in Europe: The Case of Citizenship and Integration Policy in Estonia. American Ethnologist 32(4): 676-694. 36 Feldman focuses on post-Soviet Estonia to frame an argument surrounding the imagery of territory, nationality, culture and security. The author also discusses how this imagery has formed integration policies in Estonia that deny citizenship to Soviet-era Russian speakers. Feldman draws on historical, archival and ethnographic research to demonstrate that the concept of national security in Estonia justifies the structure of these policies vis-à-vis immigrants. Estonia Immigration policy Territory and nationality National security Cultural anthropology Graves, Theodore D. 2004. The Personal Adjustment of Navajo Indian Migrants to Denver, Colorado. American Anthropologist 72: 35-54. The article reports on a study of 259 male Navajo Indian migrants living in Denver, Colorado over a ten year period. Graves examines the economic, social and psychological effects on male migrants and how they adjust to their new surroundings. In comparison with other local migrant groups, Navajo Indian men have higher rates of arrest and incidents involving alcohol consumption than other migrant communities in the area. The author concludes that Navajo Indian male migrants have problems adjusting to life in Denver, Colorado, and use alcohol to cope. Colorado Navajo Indian urban migrants Alcohol consumption Coping strategies Cultural anthropology Ho, Ming-Jung. 2003. Migratory Journeys and Tuberculosis Risk. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 17(4): 442-458. During the 1970s and 1980s, the United States experienced an increase in tuberculosis outbreaks among immigrant populations. Ho studies these outbreaks by analyzing migration narratives of Chinese immigrants living in New York City from 1978-1992. The author targets assumptions that immigrants carry diseases from donor countries such as China to host communities within the United States. Using the narratives, Ho discusses different cultural conceptions of risk. New York City Chinese immigrants Tuberculosis risk Migration narratives Medical anthropology 37 Kleine-Ahlbrandt, Stephanie T.E. 1998. The Kibeho Crisis: Towards a More Effective System of International Protection for IDPs. Forced Migration Review 2: 8-11. In 1995, the Rwandan military killed hundreds of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in a massacre of Kibeho, a refugee camp in southwest Rwanda. The Rwandan government suspected that genocide sympathizers were living in the camp and cut off their food and water supply. The IDPs, enraged, began throwing stones at military personnel who fired back with machine guns. Kleine-Ahlbrandt studies the causes of the Kibeho massacre as well as institutional roles. Rwanda Kibeho Internally displaced persons camp Military massacre Refugee studies Larson, Daniel O.; John R. Johnson; Joel C. Michaelson. 1994. Missionization among the Coastal Chumash of Central California: A Study of Risk Minimization Strategies. American Anthropologist 96(2): 263-299. Using Franciscan missionary documents, registers and paleoenvironmental data, Larson et al. study the effects of Spanish colonialism, specifically missionization, on the central coastal Californian Chumash. The Chumash people migrated to Spanish missions between the years 1786-1803. The researchers argue that the Chumash may have migrated in order to minimize risks in the wake of serious events such as drought, climatic changes and disease. California Chumash Indians Migration and risk aversion Spanish ethnohistory Cultural anthropology Lohrmann, Reinhard. 2000. Migrants, Refugees and Insecurity. Current Threats to Peace? International Migration 38(4): 3-22. Lohrmann discusses the real and perceived threats of migration on national and international security. He discusses issues such as immigration and crime, ethnic tensions and political instability, threats to donor and host countries, and the role of multilateral agencies. Lohrmann draws generally on examples from Eastern European, African and Southeast Asian countries. Comparative migration and security Migration and political instability Immigration and crime Multilateral agencies 38 International affairs Lubkemann, Stephen C. 2004. Situating Migration in Wartime and Post-war Mozambique: A Critique of “Forced Migration” Research. In Categories and Contexts: Anthropological and Historical Studies in Critical Demography. Simon Szreter; Hania Sholkamy; A. Dharmalingam, eds. Pp. 371-407. New York: Oxford University Press. In the context of post-civil war Mozambique, Lubkemann analyzes the social and cultural factors of agency in forced migration. The author critiques social scientists who over-emphasize political aspects in causing wartime migrations. Lubkemann emphasizes the historical and cultural perspectives of local-level struggles and how these struggles influence wartime migration. Finally, the author discusses the how the change in gender distributions effects marriage in the post-war context. Mozambique Post-war migration Wartime migration methodology Gender Cultural anthropology Malkki, Liisa H. 1996. Speechless Emissaries: Refugees, Humanitarianism, and Dehistoricization. Cultural Anthropology 11(3): 377-404. Using ethnographic fieldwork with Hutu refugees from Burundi living in Tanzania, Malkki examines the genocides in Burundi and Rwanda. She compares the social construction of Burundi and Rwandan communities and examines the different ways that Burundians and Rwandans categorize refugees. Malkki explains that Hutu refugees use the category as positive within refugee camps. She investigates how staffs of international humanitarian assistance organizations conceptualize and use the term refugee in everyday conversation. Tanzania Hutu refugees Conceptualization of refugee International humanitarian assistance organizations Cultural anthropology Mills, Mary Beth. 2005. Contesting the Margins of Modernity: Women, Migration, and Consumption in Thailand. American Ethnologist 24: 37-61. Commodity consumption is often a central goal of migration decisions. Mills studies consumption of migrant women workers in Bangkok, Thailand as a form of social practice. Using ethnographic research of rural women who have migrated to the city for employment opportunities, the author investigates how women construct new identities in the face of economic and social constraints such as low wage, low status and marginalization. Due to their urban consumption practices, migrant women view 39 themselves as modern. On the other hand, ties to kin in rural communities threaten this sense of self. Thailand Bangkok Consumption practices Migrant women identity Cultural anthropology Oropesa, R.S.; Nancy S. Landale. 2000. From Austerity to Prosperity? Migration and Child Poverty among Mainland and Island Puerto Ricans. Demography 37(3): 323-338. Using the 1990 Census Public Use Microdata samples for the United States and Puerto Rico, Oropesa and Landale compare the risks of child poverty at points of origin and destination. The researchers conclude that migration reduces the risk of child poverty due to better employment opportunities. In addition, economic benefits continue for native-born generations in the United States and return migration to Puerto Rico is associated with impoverishment. United States Puerto Rico Migration and impoverishment Child poverty Sociology Stivey, Rachel M. 2000. Stigmatized Spaces: Gender and Mobility Under Crisis in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Gender, Place and Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 7: 143-161. Stivey explores the economic decline of South Sulawesi, Indonesia, and the effect of the area’s gendered migration. The crisis transformed the labor market in the area, negatively affecting low-income migrants. The economic downturn has caused many women to live independently, a stigma among men and women in Sulawesi. Using surveys and interviews with men and women in immigrant and emigrant places before and after the economic decline, Stivey shows that threats to women’s sexual integrity are culturally formed. Ideas about women’s economic and sexual independence greatly influence women’s decision to migrate in this region. Indonesia South Sulawesi Gendered migration Sexual integrity Stigma of women’s independence Feminist geography 40 White, Jenny B. 1996. Belonging to a Place: Turks in Unified Berlin. City & Society 8: 15-28. White investigates the identity and concept of foreigner in Germany following the country’s economic instability post-unification. Political attacks on foreigners, including asylum-seekers and long-term immigrant residents, especially Turkish immigrants, increased during Germany’s unstable economy. In turn, many immigrant populations and long-term resident immigrant communities re-evaluated their identities vis-à-vis German national society. While some Turkish immigrants withdrew from Germany’s national identity by identifying themselves as foreigners, others chose to emphasize multi-ethnic identities. Germany Berlin Turkish immigrants National identity Cultural anthropology Cultural Constructions of HIV/AIDS and Risk through a Gendered Perspective Heather Papp A survey of anthropological and related literature pertaining to cultural constructions of HIV/AIDS and the risks of contracting the virus yields invaluable information that should be incorporated into any intervention program designed to prevent the spread of the disease. The sources appearing in this annotated bibliography primarily draw upon ethnographic research conducted in various regions of the world, including Africa, North America, and South Asia. The research reveals how local understandings of HIV/AIDS, gender, and identity vary across cultures. Moreover, such cultural constructions greatly influence the manner in which individuals understand and negotiate the risk of contracting the virus. Several of the sources in the bibliography indicate that gender roles have a significant impact on the risk of contracting the virus. This is the case for both men and women. For instance, the literature reveals that in some instances, men seek multiple sexual partners to establish their masculinity. Women, on the other hand, conform to 41 expectations of femininity, which influence their passivity and submissiveness in the face of male sexual aggression. Nonetheless, a few articles in this collection demonstrate that both men and women are able to contest such gender roles, although the effectiveness of such behavior has its limits within a context of established social norms. The concept of structural violence, which perpetuates gender inequality across generations and places women at a greater risk of contracting the virus, also appears frequently in the literature. Much of the literature places HIV/AIDS within a context of gender inequality, noting that such inequality diminishes a woman’s ability to reduce her risk of exposure to the virus. For instance, gender inequality reduces a woman’s power to insist on the use of a condom by her male partner. Moreover, economic dependency on men places some women in a vulnerable position. In some instances, women engage in transactional sex, through which they gain basic needs such as food and shelter, in exchange for sex. The role of agency in mitigating the risk of HIV infection connects with both gender inequity and structural violence. Many of the sources demonstrate how individuals lack the ability to make decisions as rational actors. Rather, they are bound by collective identities and shared norms. Their choices are constrained by cultural constructions of sexuality and HIV/AIDS, and by power inequalities spanning across generations between men and women. The literature in this bibliography primarily depicts women as having little agency to reduce the risk of contracting the virus. The collection of studies presented here lays the foundation for understanding how cultural factors facilitate the spread of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Health-related behaviors are shaped by collective cultural identities. Further ethnographic research 42 targeted at successful behavior change interventions would be useful in future designs of HIV-prevention interventions. Behavior change might rely on at-risk people understanding that cultural contexts constrain their choices and undermine their wellbeing. In turn, they might assume greater agency in contesting the structural violence and cultural expectations that place them at risk of contracting the virus. Annotated Bibliography Brown, Jill, James Sorrell, and Raffaelli Marcela 2005. An Exploratory Study of Constructions of Masculinity, Sexuality, and HIV/AIDS in Namibia, Southern Africa. Culture, Health, & Sexuality 7(6): 585-598. This study consists of thirteen open-ended interviews and three focus groups among 50 participants, both male and female, aged 19-50 in rural and urban Namibia. The article explores conceptualizations of masculinity, and their direct and indirect connections with HIV/AIDS among Owambo men and women in Namibia. Six principal themes emerged from the study: the evolving constructions of masculinity, engendered power dynamics, women as active agents, alcohol and masculinity, the merging of notions of masculinity and explanations of HIV/AIDS, and the conflict between education and HIV transmission. The author applies this qualitative analysis to emphasize the need for policymakers to consider cultural conceptions of masculinity when implementing prevention interventions. Namibia HIV/AIDS Power inequality Masculinity Gender roles Sexual relations Datta, Kavita, and Cathy McIlwaine 2004 Endangered Youth? Youth, Gender and Sexualities in Urban Botswana. Gender, Place & Culture: A Journal of Feminist Geography 11(4): 483-512. This study, based on participatory urban appraisal methodologies, examines sociocultural constructions of sexuality among urban youth in Botswana in order to highlight the need to include gender and cultural considerations in policy responses to high levels of HIV/AIDS and teenage pregnancy among youth. The authors emphasize the importance of changes in gender, cultural, and sexual identities when considering appropriate policy responses. 43 Botswana HIV/AIDS Gender Identity Youth Sexual relations Dawson, Maria Teresa and Sandra M. Gifford 2001 Narratives, Culture, and Sexual Health: Personal Experiences of Salvadorean and Chilean Women Living in Melbourne, Australia. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness & Medicine 5(4): 403-424. This study explores narratives about gender, culture, sexual health, and identity among Chilean and Salvadorean migrant women residing in Melbourne, Australia. By comparing the migrant women’s experiences in their native country with their experiences in Melbourne, the authors examine how these women have renegotiated their gender roles and how these changes have been experienced through sexual health. The authors evaluate Australia’s health promotion and HIV/AIDS prevention programs among migrant communities. The programs have generally failed to consider variations in cultural context and how gender roles of the women’s native country affect their behavior. Melbourne Australia Gender roles Identity HIV/AIDS Sexual relations Duffy, Lynne 2005 Culture and Context of HIV Prevention in Rural Zimbabwe: The Influence of Gender Inequality. Journal of Transcultural Nursing 16(1): 23-31. Based on ethnographic methods, this article examines the cultural factors that prevent or facilitate rural Ndau women’s participation in HIV prevention. Societal expectations that pressure women to become workers and mothers, within a context of violence, subservience, and economic dependence on men, inhibit HIV prevention among women. The author highlights how cultural beliefs that sustain gender inequalities must be considered when constructing HIV prevention strategies. Ultimately, the author suggests that gender analysis and the challenging of oppressive systems are vital to HIV/AIDS prevention. Zimbabwe HIV/AIDS Gender roles Gender inequality 44 Ethnography Haram, Liv 2005 AIDS and Risk: The Handling of Uncertainty in Northern Tanzania. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(1): 1-11. This study, based on longitudinal fieldwork in Arusha town and nearby northern districts in Tanzania, examines how people mitigate the risk of contracting HIV. The author demonstrates that contrary to theories of risk, in which the individual is seen as a rational actor that would choose behavior to reduce the risk of exposure to HIV, people particularly women, face constraints dictated by culture in their decision-making regarding sexual behavior. For example, risk and trust in sexual relationships are gendered, and imbalances in favor of men often place women at risk of contracting the virus. Northern Tanzania HIV/AIDS Risk Trust Gender Sexual relationships Hawkins, Kirstan, Fátima Mussá, and Sandia Abuxahama 2005 Milking the Cow: Young Women’s Constructions of Identity, Gender, Power, and Risk in Transactional and Cross-generational Sexual Relationships: Maputo, Mozambique. Options Consultancy Services and Population Services International. Retrieved on March 16, 2006 from <http://www.developmentgateway.org/pop/rc/ItemDetail.do~1057676>. This report provides knowledge concerning the behavior and sexual networking of young women in Maputo, Mozambique for use in behavior change interventions intended to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS. The study identifies the economic and social systems, within a context of gender and identity constructions, which facilitate and/or encourage cross-generational sex for money and material benefit. Many young women do not regard transactional sex as a survival strategy intended to secure basic needs such as food and shelter, but rather they view it as a strategy that empowers them as active agents who seek to improve their socioeconomic status and contest gender and power imbalances. The women use their sexuality to access financial resources from men and ultimately “milk the cow” in order to access lifestyles that symbolize modernity, success, and power. Maputo Mozambique HIV/AIDS Cross-generation Sex as power 45 Gender Identity Risk Women’s agency Sexual relationships Hoosen, Sarah and Anthony Collins 2004 Sex, Sexuality and Sickness: Discourses of Gender and HIV/AIDS Among KwaZuluNatal Women. South African Journal of Psychology 34(3): 487-505. This article examines cultural and social factors that influence KwaZulu-Natal women’s sexual behavior, with a particular emphasis on discourses of gender and HIV/AIDS. This study draws on data collected in seven focus groups with women living in a peri-urban area of Durban, South Africa. The authors’ findings demonstrate how women might lack the ability to make decisions about safe sex as rational actors. Such choices are related to sociocultural constructions of sexuality and HIV/AIDS, and are governed by power inequalities perpetuated within cultural discourse. The article identifies specific cultural practices that sustain gender roles and how these affect sexual practices. The authors conclude by analyzing the implications of these findings for HIV/AIDS education programs. Durban South Africa Gender inequality HIV/AIDS Discourse Sexual risk Psychology Hunter, Mark 2005 Cultural Politics and Masculinities: Multiple-partners in Historical Perspective in KwaZulu-Natal. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(4): 389-403. This article, supported by ethnographic, archival, and secondary research, examines the antecedents of contemporary constructions of masculinity in KwaZulu, Natal, a South African province, in an attempt to understand the rise and fall of isoka, the Zulu man with multiple-sexual partners. The author suggests that the high value associated with men having multiple partners arose from the 1970s when high unemployment rates prevented men from expressing their masculinity through traditional means, such as marriage and establishing oneself as the head of a household. With the rise in deaths from AIDS, however, men are contesting isoka. KwaZulu Natal South Africa HIV/AIDS Masculinity 46 Sexual relationships Jeltova, Ida, Marian C. Fish and Tracey A. Revenson 2005 Risky Sexual Behaviors in Immigrant Adolescent Girls from the Former Soviet Union: Role of Natal and Host Culture. Journal of School Psychology 43(1): 2-33. This article explores how acculturation processes of adolescent girls who recently emmigrated from the former Soviet Union to the United States affect their participation in risky sexual behavior, which puts them at a high risk for HIV/AIDS contraction and unintended pregnancy. The authors find that natal culture has a protective role for the girls, while a high level of acculturation to American culture is related to increased participation in risky sexual behavior. United States HIV/AIDS Acculturation Risk Sexual behavior Psychology Karlyn, A.S. 2005 Intimacy Revealed: Sexual Experimentation and the Construction of Risk Among Young People in Mozambique. Culture, Health, & Sexuality 7(3): 279-292. This study explores the sexual behavior and risk reduction practices of young people in urban and rural Mozambique. The author examines the contexts and rules regarding sexual risk-taking among youth and suggests that young people have redefined sexual identities to combine risk reduction with sexual behavior that is not based on gender roles defined by male domination. Young males and females have redefined the saca cena, or one-night stand, as a less risky sexual practice that includes exclusive condom use. Young males and females conceptualize the saca cena as an activity for both men and women to experiment and be adventuresome, outside of the traditional conceptions of male dominance through sexual conquest and female acquiescence. Mozambique HIV/AIDS Youth Risk Gender roles Sexual relations Khan, Sharful Islam, Nancy Hudson-Rodd, Sherry Saggers, and Abbas Bhuiya 2005 Men Who Have Sex With Men’s Sexual Relations with Women in Bangladesh. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(2): 159-169. 47 This article explores the nature and meaning of the sexual relations between MSM (men who have sex with men) and women. This study, based on qualitative research, explores the conceptualizations of gender and masculinity within Bangladesh that pressure men to marry and father children, in spite of their preference and desire to have sex with men. This article finds that men who have sex with men identify sex with women as “real” sex within masculine understandings of sexual potency. As a result, women face negative health consequences, such as contracting HIV from their husbands. Bangladesh HIV/AIDS Gender Masculinity Men who have sex with men Sexual relations LeClerc-Madlala, Suzanne 2001 Demonising Women in the Era of AIDS: On the Relationship Between Cultural Constructions of Both HIV/AIDS and Femininity. Society in Transition 32 (1): 38-46. This article draws on an ethnographic study conducted within a community in the Durban area of South Africa and explores the symbolic representations of sexual activity and HIV/AIDS. The author suggests that the Zulu community associates meaning to HIV/AIDS based on sociocultural constructions of femininity, which define women as being both the source and disseminators of the disease. Durban South Africa HIV/AIDS Gender Symbolism Sociocultural constructions Femininity Sexual relations 2001 Virginity Testing: Managing Sexuality in a Maturing HIV/AIDS Epidemic. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 15(4): 533-552. This article identifies virginity testing of girls in the KwaZulu-Natal province in South Africa as a consequence of the sociocultural construction of HIV/AIDS, which identifies women being sexually “out of control” as the underlying source of the epidemic. The author argues that virginity testing is a means through which society manages the risk posed by women’s sexuality and the virus it spreads when in discord with social norms. Moreover, the author points out that virginity testing reaffirms the gendered meaning of HIV/AIDS found in popular discourse, by diverting attention away from the role that men have in spreading the disease. 48 South Africa HIV/AIDS Gender roles Virginity testing Risk Sexual relations Lugalla, J.L.P., and M.A.C. Emmelin. 1999 The Social and Cultural Contexts of HIV/AIDS Transmission in the Kagera Region, Tanzania. Journal of Asian & African Studies 34(4): 377-403. In the Kagera region of northwestern Tanzania heterosexual contact is the primary means of HIV/AIDS transmission. Understanding the social and cultural factors that influence sexual behavior is vital to successful prevention interventions. Drawing from participant observation, interviews, and focus groups, the Kagera AIDS Research Project examine the sociocultural processes that facilitate the spread of HIV/AIDS, including war, poverty, and cultural factors such as gender inequality, trust in relationships, and sex meanings and beliefs. Kagera Region Tanzania HIV/AIDS Heterosexual relations Gender inequality Culture Trust Qualitative research Manuel, Sandra. 2005 Obstacles to Condom Use Among Secondary School Students in Maputo City, Mozambique. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(3): 293-302. This article examines perceptions of urban youth (male and female) in Mozambique concerning sexual behavior. It explores the factors that prevent them from practicing safer sex (particularly condom use) in the context of HIV/AIDS. Drawing from focus group discussions, interviews, and informal conversations with high school students in Maputo, Mozambique, the authors conclude that youth are less likely to use condoms in steady relationships based on trust than in casual sexual interactions. This perception is reinforced by previous prevention campaigns that promoted condom use between “occasional sexual partners.” The author finds that gender inequality also contributes to the lack of condom use between partners. Maputo Mozambique HIV/AIDS Gender inequality 49 Trust Risk Condoms Sexual relations Pattman, Rob. 2005 Boys and Girls Should Not Be Too Close: Sexuality, the Identities of African Boys and Girls and HIV/AIDS Education. Sexualities 8(4): 497-516. Drawing from interviews with and diaries of 6-18 year-olds in southern and eastern Africa, this UNICEF-funded study examines the significance of sexuality in the construction of identity. In particular, the article explores how girls and boys invoked and contested sexuality, and the types of identities they took on as they spoke and wrote about sexuality. The author argues that constructions of female sexuality, as framed by Carole Vance, are important for understanding and educating young girls and boys about sex and the risks of HIV/AIDS. Ultimately sex education must be framed in gender sensitive ways, and must include life skills training that address both sexual and non-sexual cultures. Southern and eastern Africa Gender Sexuality HIV/AIDS Identity Youth Sexual relations Schatz, Enid. 2005 ‘Take your Mat and Go!’: Rural Malawian Women’s Strategies in the HIV/AIDS Era. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(5): 479-492. Enid Schatz critically evaluates a common assumption in HIV/AIDS prevention literature that women are passive and unable to protect themselves against contracting HIV/AIDS. Drawing from data collected during in-depth interviews with married couples in rural Malawi, the author examines the extent to which married women believe they have agency in protecting themselves from contracting the virus from their husbands and the strategies they employ to do so. Methods include using social networks for advice, discussing HIV/AIDS with their husbands, publicly confronting their husbands’ mistresses, and divorcing men who threaten their sexual health. Although the women face constraints, such as economic dependency and inequality, they are not passive, but are acting to protect themselves by using locally appropriate strategies. Malawi (rural) HIV/AIDS Gender inequality Women’s agency 50 Risk Sexual relations Simpson, Anthony. 2005 Sons and Fathers/Boys to Men in the Time of AIDS: Learning Masculinity in Zambia. Journal of Southern African Studies 31(3): 569-586. Anthony Simpson explores how expressions of heterosexual masculinities, particularly those that require aggressive sexuality, help fuel the spread of HIV/AIDS in Zambia. While many studies have been undertaken to explore the various dimensions of female vulnerability to the virus, this article presents the vulnerability that Zambian men face as a result of social pressures to behave in a sexually aggressive manner. The author documents the life histories of a group of men that were educated in a Zambian Catholic mission, to find out how they came to construct and define themselves as men. Lastly, the author examines how such hegemonic constructions of masculinity are contested in an era of HIV/AIDS. Zambia HIV/AIDS Heterosexual identity Masculinity Sexual relations Singer, Merrill, Cándida Flores, Lani Davison, Georgine Burke, Zaida Castillo, Kelley Scanlon, and Migdalia Rivera. 1990 SIDA: The Economic, Social, and Cultural Context of AIDS Among Latinos. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 4(1): 72-114. This study explores why AIDS was disproportionately prevalent among US Latinos in the early 1990s by examining the sociocultural and socioeconomic conditions of Latinos living in the U.S. The article reviews existing literature concerning the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the Latino population, the prevalence of the disease within subgroups categorized by gender, age, and route of transmission, the knowledge and cultural understandings of HIV/AIDS, and the risk behaviors among Latinos living in the U.S., such as sexual practices, drug use, and gender relations. United States HIV/AIDS US Latinos Culture Gender relations Socioeconomic context Age Risk behaviors Medical anthropology Sexual relations 51 Smith, Daniel Jordan. 2001 Premarital Sex, Procreation, and HIV Risk in Nigeria. Studies in Family Planning 35(4): 223-235. This study presents various explanations of the observed disparity between people’s knowledge of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria, and their actions taken (or not taken) to mitigate the risk of contracting the virus. The author draws from survey data of 863 adolescent and unmarried young adults, interviews, and participant observation. He finds that values regarding the importance of procreation are gender-specific, and give men and women different negotiating power when it comes to sex and contraception. Nigeria HIV/AIDS Gender inequality Premarital sex Risk Sexual relations Smith, Daniel Jordan 2004 Youth, Sin and Sex in Nigeria: Christianity and HIV/AIDS-Related Beliefs and Behaviour Among Rural-Urban Migrants. Culture, Health & Sexuality 6(5): 425-437. This article explores how young men and women in two Nigerian cities interpret HIV/AIDS through moral and religious perspectives, primarily through evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity. The author examines how this understanding influences risk behavior. He suggests that religious interpretations of HIV lead many young people to believe that they are at little or no risk, which threatens their health by discouraging protective practices. Smith highlights the need for intervention strategies to consider the extent to which religion, sexuality, and morality affect risk behavior. Nigeria HIV/AIDS Religion Morality Trust Risk Gender Sexual relations Susser, Ida and Zena Stein. 2000 Culture, Sexuality, and Women’s Agency in the Prevention of HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa. American Journal of Public Health 90(6): 1042-1048. Based on ethnographic research carried out in South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia, this article examines HIV/AIDS awareness among women and their knowledge 52 of preventive practices. The research, conducted from 1992 through 1999 in urban and rural settings, concentrated on heterosexual transmission. Many men and women in southern Africa perceive the female condom and other women-controlled methods to be culturally appropriate methods of prevention. This acceptability varies among different communities, reinforcing the findings that local circumstances need to be taken into account when designing intervention programs. Ultimately, the authors found that historic patterns of gender inequality and societal neglect of women’s sexuality are the main barriers to the distribution and use of women-controlled prevention methods. Southern Africa HIV/AIDS Culture Heterosexual relations Gender inequality Power Women’s agency Sexual relations Whitehead, Tony L. 1996 Urban Low-Income African American Men, HIV/AIDS, and Gender Identity. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 11(4): 411-447. Tony Whitehead explores the sexual behavior of low-income African American males in Baltimore, other cities in Maryland, and Washington, DC in terms of their risk of contracting HIV. The author seeks to understand sexual health risk behavior through research on gender identity and sociocultural constructions. He draws attention to mainstream American constructs of masculinity and the meanings that low-income African American males attach to HIV/AIDS. Findings are based on data from several ethnographic and qualitative research projects. Baltimore Other cities in Maryland, and Washington, D.C. HIV/AIDS Gender African American males Masculinity Medical anthropology Cultural Heritage and Cultural Resistance through Ritual Performance in South Asia Kate Hohman This annotated bibliography focuses on culturally constructed identities and the ways in which those identities are negotiated within their South Asian context. Each entry 53 in the bibliography focuses on public performance, most notably in the form of a festival or public ritual as the sites of negotiation. References related to the simultaneous performance of gender, class, caste, religion/spirituality, and cultural identity demonstrate the intersection of multiple identities. The emphasis on the public performance of culturally respected and socially recognized rituals creates a space for critical social commentary that contests dominant ideologies, such as patriarchy, classism, and economic development discourses. Examples of the fluidity of resistance through events that promote cultural preservation include Skinner and Holland’s work on Tij in Nepal, Raheja and Gold’s studies of oral traditions in North India, and Reed’s work on the Beravā, classical dance and nationalism in Sri Lanka. Throughout this annotated bibliography the aspect of the public event becomes crucial in understanding it as a form of protest, as well as a strategy for defining cultural practices as a form of understanding group identity. Working within a system of tradition, groups of individuals create new definitions of themselves that emerge in opposition to existing social definitions. Resistance of this kind implies certain risk, considering that dominant social ideology is almost always formed by individuals or groups of individuals working to conserve their own power and preserving a system of structural violence. When groups fail to comply with ideologies such as patriarchy, classism, etc, they are risking social and political repercussions from those they are opposing. By embedding critical social commentary in ritual traditions groups are working in creatively subversive ways to manage their own security. For example, Skinner and Holland’s research on the Tij festival in Nepal focuses on the ways women exercise political agency during the initial phases of the democracy movement. Women’s use of the socially respected event 54 allowed a space for them to raise questions of political legitimacy in a specific period of Nepalese history when even the whisper of political opinions would land one in jail. Though the bibliography focuses primarily on ritual as resistance, agency exerted in the form of identity contestation is only one form of agency. Considering future research, the topics of resistance and contestation might be expanded to include a variety of identities not just limited to gender, class, or religion, or narrowed to focus solely on one of these aspects in greater depth. This bibliography’s regional focus on South Asia provides a basis for comparison with similar studies conducted in other world regions and cultural contexts. Cultural anthropologists’ attention to issues of cultural heritage and forms of resistance is necessary within an increasingly globalized world. Annotated Bibliography Aggarwal, Ravina. 2004. Beyond Lines of Control: Performance and Politics on the Disputed Borders of Ladakh, India. Durham: Duke University Press. This book focuses on the way in which cultural performances become sites for shaping political identity in Ladakh. By providing the context of the Kashmir border dispute, the author situates the importance of finding alternative ways to enact political expressions of struggle. In her examination of performances such as festivals and rites of passage ceremonies, Aggarwal demonstrates the influence of states’ political rhetoric on the region’s cultural history. India Kashmir Ladakh Performance Border dispute Political struggle Cultural anthropology 55 Ahearn, Laura. 1998. A Twisted Rope Binds My Waist: Locating Constraints on Meanings in a Tij Songfest. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8(1):60-86. Ahearn analyzes the lyrics of one Nepali Tij song by presenting a practice theory of meaning constraint. Her approach demands the recognition of sociospatial, temporal, textual, and intertextual dimensions to understand how individuals actively interpret discursive events. Ahearn rejects the idea that merely singing in a Tij festival is an act of resistance. Rather, the complexity of Tij songs and their intertextuality creates multiple relationships between the song, the performers and the audience. Nepal South Asia Hinduism, gender Ritual Songs Resistance Cultural anthropology Appadurai, Arjun, Frank Korom and Margaret Mills. 1991. Gender, Genre, and Power in South Asian Expressive Traditions. Philadelpia: University of Pennsylvania Press. This volume is separated into three sections: gender, genres and tradition. The construction of self in oral performance is the theme that threads these essays. Examples of topics include performance style in Afghanistan, song and speech in an Indian epic performance, aesthetics and enactment of tradition. Broadly, the authors explore representation through a discussion of community. South Asia Hinduism Expressive tradition Gender Power Cultural anthropology Bennett, Lynn. 1976. The Wives of Rishis: An Analysis of the Tij-Rishi Panchami Women’s Festival. Kailash 4(2):185-207. Bennett discusses the ritual that surrounds the Tij festival in Nepal. She explores the idea that the Tij-Rishi complex reinforces the Hindu patriarchal order, leaving little room for women’s agency in the festival. Bennett provides an in-depth description of each ritual performed, its purpose in Hindu ideology and, as such, its reason for being performed during Tij. Nepal, 56 Tij Hinduism Ritual Purity Agency Gender Cultural anthropology Calkowski, Marcia S. 1991. A Day at the Tibetan Opera: Actualized Performance and Spectacular Discourse. American Ethnologist 18(4): 643-657. The author analyzes a Tibetan Opera performed in Dharamsala, India, where a representation of an exorcism became a real exorcism. When the National Assembly of Deputies reprimands the Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts for lacking traditional Tibetan qualities, the actors modify their performance to parody the deputies’ stance. As a result, dramatic art and reality mirror one another and create the performance of a mock exorcism and thus political expression. Tibet Opera Speech Ritual performance Exorcism Cultural anthropology Enslin, Elizabeth. 1998. Imagined Sisters: The Ambiguities of Women’s Poetics and Collective Actions. In Selves in Time and Place: Identities, Experience and History in Nepal. Debra Skinner, Alfred Pach, III and Dorothy Holland, eds. Pp. 269-299. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. Enslin discusses song construction in Chitwan, Nepal, as it occurs in a women’s organization that was created to further literacy programs for women in the community. Enslin emphasizes the construction of critical consciousness and support among various castes/classes of women. Nepal Chitwan Women Social commentary Literacy Activism Songs Cultural anthropology 57 Holland, Dorothy and Debra Skinner. 1992. Not Written by the Fate Writer: Women’s Production of Critical Commentary in Nepal. Unpublished manuscript. The authors focus on agency as exhibited through song construction in a Hindu women’s festival in Nepal. Guided by the principle of “activity theory” Holland and Skinner present the women as possessing a creative intelligence that responds to cultural changes while also being bound by history and ritual. The authors emphasize the expanded ability of Nepali women to express political opinions in the Tij forum during the process of instituting democracy. Previously all political expression was banned according to Panchyat law with jailing as punishment. Examples of song lyrics are provided. Nepal Tij Ritual Gender Agency Political activism Language Song Cultural anthropology Holland, Dorothy C. and Debra G. Skinner. 1995. Contested Ritual, Contested Femininities: (Re)forming Self and Society in a Nepali Women’s Festival. American Ethnologist 22 (2):279-305. Holland and Skinner focus in this essay on the contemporary Tij festival, not as a space for reproducing the patriarchal structure, but instead presenting Tij as a space for women’s self consciousness, even social action in the wake of the democracy movement. The authors present three traditional song types and introduce an emerging fourth genre, which focuses on politics and government, calling women to action. This period of time is the first in which women are able to publicly express political opinions without experiencing repercussions by the government. Skinner and Holland follow the Tij participants in the Kathmandu Valley through song construction and present a number of examples of those lyrics. Ritual Festivals Gender Politics Cultural anthropology Holmberg, David. 2000. 58 Derision, Exorcism, and the Ritual Production of Power. American Ethnologist 27(4): 927-949. Studying a ten-day ritual performance event in a Buddhist Tamang community in northwest Nepal, Holmberg explores the production of power and the space that ritual provides for sociopolitical resistance to traditional Hindu subjugation. Holmberg provides background on the Indo-Nepali consolidation of power during state formation and the subsequent suppression of Tamang political expression. The author discusses the Tamang cultural practices of exorcism and dance skits as expressions of resistance. Nepal Tamang Resistance Power Dance Exorcism Cultural anthropology Narayan, Kirin. 1986. Birds on a Branch: Girlfriends and Wedding Songs in Kangra. Ethos 14(1): 47-75. Narayan focuses on the intersection of friendship, gender and social expression through the singing of wedding songs in a village in Kangra, North India. The author explores the system of support that the songs offer during life transitions for both married and unmarried women and girls. Narayan concludes that the songs provide an important temporal cohesion in the liminal friendship of women. Keywords: India, women, wedding songs, friendship, culture, social support, cultural anthropology Norberg-Hodge, Helena. 1991. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Norberg-Hodge presents the reader with a two-part vision of Ladakhi life. One of the first Westerners to live and research in Ladakh, she is able to describe life “untouched” in Ladakh prior to western style development in the region. In part two, the author paints the picture of development and its effects on spirituality, language, environment, community relations, etc. Norberg-Hodge presents an alternative version of development as carried out by the Ladakh Project which has been created to counter the culturally destructive elements of western style development while not denying the Ladakhis the right to enjoy the opportunities of economic development. Ladakh Culture Environment Development Cultural anthropology 59 Pecore, Joanna. 2004. Sounding the Spirit of Cambodia: The Living Tradition of Khmer Music and Dance Drama in a Washington, DC Community. College Park, Maryland: Dissertation in Ethnomusicology. This dissertation discusses two Khmer communities in the Washington DC area established by refugees who fled persecution under the Khmer Rouge. Both practice traditional Khmer music and dance dramas. The author focuses the ethnography on the founding members of the group and their commitment to transmitting traditional cultural practices to future generations of Cambodian Americans. The Khmer Rouge takeover in 1975 posed a formidable threat to the traditional arts, causing many musicians and dancers to flee the country. These refugee artists hold the importance of cultivating their rich cultural practices in the face of near destruction by Pol Pot and his regime. Washington, DC Cambodia Performance art Ethnomusicology Refugees Cultural heritage preservation Raheja, Gloria Goodwin and Ann Grodzins Gold. 1994. Listen to the Heron’s Words: Re-imagining Gender and Kinship in North India. Berkeley: University of California Press. Raheja and Gold explore women’s oral tradition in North India as a form of agency and resistance. Focusing on marriage and birth songs, stories and narratives, the authors demonstrate how the women in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, through multiply positioned voices, recreate their identities through sexualized lyrics. The authors highlight the women’s critical perspectives on gender subordinating kinship systems. Chapters in this collection explore such topics as gender, language and resistance; women’s expressions of sexuality; and songs of irony, ambiguity and subversion. India Hinduism Women Songs Sociolinguistics Ritual Performance Resistance Cultural anthropology Reed, Susan. 2002. Performing Respectability: The Beravā, Middle-Class Nationalism, and the Classicization of Kandyan Dance in Sri Lanka. Cultural Anthropology 17(2): 246-277. 60 Reed describes the evolution of the Kandyan dance, the national dance of Sri Lanka, from one of low caste status to one of respectability within the context of Sinhala nationalism. Reed attributes this evolution to three key factors: the “classicization” of the dance, conforming to ideals of order, the participation of key elites, and the dancers’ assertion of themselves through dress and conduct. Sri Lanka Dance Nationalism Cultural anthropology Saul, Rebecca. 1999. No Time to Worship the Serpent Deities: Women, Economic Change, and Religion in North Western Nepal. Gender and Development 7(1): 31-39. Saul examines the opening of the tourist industry in Mustang district in northwest Nepal. Women are primarily in charge of running lodges and, as a result, are restricted in their ability to attend community rituals and festivals. Saul argues that while men’s mobility has increased, women’s mobility is becoming restricted, resulting in women’s limited social participation within the community and neighboring villages. Nepal Economic development Tourism Gender Development anthropology Sax, William. 2002. Dancing the Self: Personhood and Performance in the Pandav Lila of Garhwal. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sax locates his analysis of performance in Garhwal, a village in North India. The community combines dance, drama and ritual to perform the Indian epic the Mahabharata. Sax focuses on the public aspect of the ritual as a means of asserting identity and self definition within a community. He argues against the binary concepts of “self” and “other” emphasizing this particular ritual performance as a way of obfuscating perceived differences. North India Ritual Identity Cultural anthropology Shah, Purnima. 1998. Transcending Gender in the Performance of Kathak. Dance Research Journal 30(2): 2-16. 61 Shah analyzes the performance of Kathak, a classical dance from Northern India. Working within Hindu concepts of gender, Shah discusses the fluidity of male/female roles in the performance. Shah argues that gender construction in colonial Indian ideology attempted to legitimate the social order and hierarchy of power. The Kathak dancers transcend the social constructs of gender and instead underscore the ideology of “unity” or “completeness” that resonates in Hindu philosophy. India Kathak Hinduism, Gender Anthropology of dance Skinner, Debra, Alfred Pach, III and Dorothy Holland.1998. Selves in Time and Place: An Introduction. In Selves in Time and Place: Identities, Experience and History in Nepal. Debra Skinner, Alfred Pach III and Dorothy Holland, eds. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. The authors provide an introduction to, and overview of, this volume of collected essays that focus on agency in various contexts in Nepal. Framed by the political revolution in 1990, the authors center on sociopolitical transformations and how those transformations are manifested in various representations and performances of identity in specific places and spaces in time. They emphasize the use of cultural resources, such as song production and children’s readers, in creative ways to produce new understandings of identity in response to new political and social circumstances. Keywords: Nepal, identity, sociopolitical movements, cultural protest, cultural resources, cultural anthropology Trawick, Margaret. 1988. Spirits and Voices in Tamil Songs. American Ethnologist 15: 193-215. Trawick focuses on “untouchable” women agricultural laborers in Tamil Nadu, India. Women construct songs that question hierarchal and social relations, in particular Trawick centers her discussion on the love song. Central to her argument is a thesis of polyvocality; each actor sings from different spaces as opposed to expressing one independent voice. South India Tamil women Folk songs Love Social commentary Cultural anthropology Vatuk, Ved Prakash and Sylvia Vatuk. 1979. 62 The Ethnography of Sang, A North Indian Folk Opera. In Studies in Indian Folk Traditions. Ved Prakash Vatuk and Sylvia Vatuk, eds. Pp. 15-37. New Delhi: Manohar Publications. The authors discuss the mutual development of folk and literary traditions in North India and their eventual congruence in the form of a folk opera accessible to the masses. They are interested in the sang performance as an “instrument of communication” in the rural setting. A sang troupe travels throughout the village and to nearby villages to perform on various occasions. North India Folk tradition Communication Performance Cultural anthropology Weidman, Amanda. 2003. Gender and the Politics of Voice: Colonial Modernity and Classical Music in South India. Cultural Anthropology 18(2): 194-232. This article explores the historical moment where upper caste Brahmin women in South India began to publicly perform classical music in the early 20th century. The author addresses the intersection of voice, subjectivity and agency among women of different castes. Weidman specifically locates the relationship of classical songs to upper class Indian women through their definition of “respectability”. India Karnatic music Gender Voice Cultural change Caste Cultural anthropology Cultural Risk Theory and the Survival Strategy of Breaking Maternal Bonds Meghan Moriarty The information in this bibliography covers a geographically broad and theoretically diverse range. The concept was to compile information that reflected current research on the topic of breaking maternal bonds as a survival strategy in a cross-cultural context. I found solid historical research on maternal bonding in the work of Harwood, Cassidy and Harkness who highlight the use of attachment theory globally and stress the 63 importance of multi-disciplinary approaches to research into parenting belief systems. Hardy and Wolf then turn these more traditional, historical approaches around stating that these ideologies are sentimentally appealing but not true to reality. I have discovered in my research that culture and the risk factors associated within it are more impactive to the practice of maternal separation as a survival strategy than biology or universal psychological bonding patterns. Changing gender ideologies, roles and inequalities in conjunction with economic policies have a greater impact on preserving the maternalchild bond. Economic risk factors for poverty, autonomy and security reoccur throughout the research. In all cultural contexts when the economic risk of poverty and scarcity are high the role of the mother as provider becomes more critical. This in turn creates the need for the mother to spend more time on providing materially for the family and less time on nurturing her children. This plays out differently in each cultural context. Maternal separation can take many different forms including neglect, rejection, infanticide or temporary transfer of nurturing to another individual but in all cases these are used as maternal tools for the survival of the members of the family. In Cairo, Colombia, and Ghana the research shows that in low-income households the mother focuses on the role of wife above that of the role of nurturing mother as a strategy to raise economic security for the entire family. Gupta and Scheper-Hughes take this a step further by focusing on the changing status of women globally and cross-culturally. They recognize that as women’s autonomy increases there is a reduction in the need for maternal separation. The importance they place on autonomy addresses the risk factors associated with gender inequalities. 64 The current research is lacking specifics about cultural practices that directly lead to maternal separation. It is noted in several geographic locations that changes in economic policies lead to greater autonomy for women and in turn reduced need for maternal separation, but no direct research is being done in areas that are not seeing this kind of economic transition. I am interested in seeing future research look into why communities have experienced maternal-child separation strategies over long periods of time with little or no change. Specifically looking into what risk factors, cultural and/or economic, promote the continuation of this survival strategy in the face of risk. Annotated Bibliography Browner, Carole and Ellen Lewin. 1982. Female Altruism Reconsidered: the Virgin Mary as Economic Woman. American Ethnologist. 9(1):61-75. Browner and Lewin argue against the standard ethnographic descriptions of Latin American women which portray the wife-mother role as a uniform entity despite the variety of socioeconomic settings in which it is found. They collected data in Cali, Colombia, and San Francisco, California, and discovered differences in the way workingclass Latin American women act in the wife-mother role. The role of wife and the importance of conjugal affiliation were found to be the primary focus of women from Colombia. San Francisco Latinas devote themselves to the maternal role and consider relations with husbands to be of secondary significance. These differences result from varying economic and social conditions present in the two settings. Colombia Cali California San Francisco Latino immigrants Motherhood Women’s roles Economic strategies Cultural anthropology Urban anthropology Cassidy, Jude. 1999 65 The Nature of the Child’s Ties. In Jude Cassidy and Phillip R. Shaver, eds. Handbook of Attachment. Pp. 3-20. New York: Guilford Press. Cassidy’s chapter is the introduction to the handbook and provides a review of the current state of knowledge in psychology about attachment and loss in children and adults. It establishes background information about accepted theories and research on the subject of a child’s ties to its parents with emphasis on ties with the mother. The chapter touches on the long term affects of the parent child bonding period. Theoretical Attachment theory Bonding Maternal-child attachment Patterns of attachment Socio-emotional development Developmental psychology Clark, Gracia. 1999. Mothering, Work, and Gender in Urban Asante Ideology and Practice. American Anthropologist 101(4):717-729. Clark’s ethnographic work since the late 1970’s in Ghana reveals how the Asante gender role focus is on biological mothering and not on nurturing contact with children. The mother’s role of working to provide for the family surpasses the need to physically mother and can be in conflict with her role of wife. This leads to emotional and often physical separation of mothers and their biological children. The role of nurturing children is placed on designated members of the family or women in the community. The article focuses on Asante ideals and practices about gender and parenting and how these roles are changing in modern practice. Ghana Asante Maternal-child bonds Gender roles Parenting Cultural anthropology George, Carol and Judith Solomon. 1999. Attachment and Caregiving: The Caregiving Behavioral System. In Jude Cassidy and Phillip R. Shaver, eds. Handbook of Attachment. Pp.649-670. New York: Guilford Press. This chapter focuses on the association, in psychology, between attachment theory and care giving theory. The former is centered around the child’s attachment to its mother and the latter is focused on the parent. George makes distinctions and connections between the two areas and states that caregiving is often left out of the data presented in the traditional attachment theory framework. 66 Attachment theory Maternal bonding Child separation Divorce Developmental psychology Gupta, Monica Das. 1995. Life Course Perspectives on Women’s Autonomy and Health Outcomes. American Anthropologist. 97(3): 481-491. Gupta points out that negative demographic consequences in many societies are due to gender inequalities. She states that patterns of household formation and inheritance strongly influence these consequences. In contemporary northern India the intergenerational bond is stronger than the conjugal bond. Instead of focusing on the cross-culturally lower status of women relative to men, she focuses on the changing status of women globally, during different periods in their lives. These different periods of life, position women in varying relationships of autonomy and increase their potential for marginalization. Female autonomy here is directly related to child survival and reducing fertility. Northern India Comparative Child survival Gender Female autonomy Women’s status Socio-cultural anthropology Harkness, Sara and Charles M. Super, eds. 1996. Parents’ Cultural Belief Systems: Their Origins, Expressions and Consequences. New York: Guilford Publications. This volume of collected chapters concentrates on a multi-disciplinary approach to researching parenting cultural belief systems. It explores the culturally constructed parental experience, cultural expression in practice, and the consequences for their children‘s well-being. Chapters are diverse in content and geographic area. All concentrate on the effects of parental belief system practices on the health and development of children. These chapters provide the foundation for a global history of parenting. Cross-cultural Parenting beliefs Parenting practices Child health Child development Cognitive anthropology 67 Social science Harwood, Robin L., Joan G. Miller and Nydia Lucca Irizarry. 1995. Culture and Attachment: Perceptions of the Child in Context. New York: Guilford Publications. Harwood et al. explore Puerto Rican culture and parent-child attachment. They explore attachment from the perspective of culture and then from the more specific mothers’ perceptions of attachment behavior. This book is a research guide providing frameworks for analysis of cross-cultural attachment studies, which are universal and culturally forged. The comparative study provided as an example of the framework focuses on Puerto Rican culture. Puerto Rico Child development Maternal-child attachment Cross-cultural attachment Cultural framework Social policy Developmental Psychology Cultural Psychology Hardy, Sarah. 1999. Mother Nature: A History of Mothers, Infants, and Natural Selection. New York: Pantheon Books. Hardy argues that contemporary views of motherhood are sentimentally appealing but fail to take into account the wide range of responses that comprise maternal "instincts," including many that may seem counterintuitive to reproductive goals. Using data from her non-human primate research as well as new evolutionary theories, literature and folklore, Hardy shows that animal mothers make constant "trade-offs" such as infanticide, to negotiate conflicts between their own needs and those of their offspring. She explores sexual selection of offspring, the use of helpers or various levels of withdrawal from particular babies, ranging from mild neglect to abandonment and infanticide. Hardy discusses the adaptive behaviors newborns use to ensure their mothers' attachment. Motherhood Maternal sentiment Attachment Infanticide Evolutionary theory Biological anthropology Hoodfar, H. ed. 1990. 68 Survival Strategies in Low Income Households in Cairo. Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies.13(4):22-41. This article focuses on the political economy of Egypt and the impact of the introduction of structural adjustment policies as they are reflected in the household economy and survival strategies of people living in low-income and newly-urbanized neighborhoods of Cairo. It examines socioeconomic and ideological changes in Egypt resulting from rapid structural adjustment policies implemented in the 1980’s. A portion of the paper focuses on changes in gender ideology and the women's variety of responses to structural adjustment policies. Egypt Cairo Women’s survival strategies Domestic politics Urban poverty Gender ideology Structural adjustment Cultural anthropology Last, Murray. 1992. The Importance of Extremes: The Social Implications of Intra-Household Variation in Child Mortality. Social Science & Medicine. 35(6): 799-810. This article looks at the extreme variation in child-rearing among women of the same polygamous household in Maguzawa in southern Katsina. It questions the factors involved in child mortality and the social processes that enhance the variation among households in West Africa, particularly in Nigeria. In households, child mortality rates increase dramatically with second and third wives. Risk factors for child survival include poverty and high divorce rates. Severe economic inequalities between men and women contribute to these socially anticipated variations. Maguzawa Nigeria West Africa Child mortality Birth order Gender inequality Cultural anthropology Miller, Barbara D. 1997. The Endangered Sex: Neglect of Female Children in Rural North India. Oxford University Press. USA. Miller focuses on the power of culture in shaping family attitudes towards children and determines how children are treated differently, depending upon their sex. Although focused on India, this is a cross-cultural look at gender imbalance based on 69 gender preference. This book addresses the practice of female infanticide as a reason for unbalanced sex ratios among children in present-day rural India. A regional and social pattern of infanticide shows that this practice is most prevalent in north-west India and among the higher castes there. Miller considers some of the cultural links between the present and the past. North India Cross-cultural Gender inequality Sex ratios Female infanticide Cultural anthropology Nations, Marilyn K. and L.A. Rebhun. 1988. Angels With Wet Wings Won’t Fly: Maternal Sentiment in Brazil and the Image of Neglect. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry.12(2):141-200. This multidisciplinary project evaluating current theories of fatalism and maternal detachment among the poor in Northeastern Brazil determined that that these theories are incomplete. Through intensive interviews and observations the researchers find that due to lack of access and bureaucratic or geographic barriers Brazilian mothers of severely ill children do not seek medical assistance rather than a lack of emotional attachment. Brazil, Northeast Maternal detachment theory Maternal grief Poverty Structural violence Medical anthropology Nations, Marilyn K. and Mara Lucia Amaral. 1991. Flesh, Blood, Souls and Households: Cultural Validity in Mortality Inquiry. Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 5(3):204-220. Nations and Amaral note that in the developing world the deaths of infants and young children are frequently unrecorded in vital event registries. They argue that cultural context grounds the meaning of mortality inquiries as much as statistical standards. Ethnographic findings from Northeast Brazil are incorporated into vital registries information and are found to increase accuracy and enrich the meaning of mortality rates. The ethnographic and statistical data analyzed give insight into the magnitude of infant and child deaths and explores the cultural context in which they occur. Brazil Child mortality Maternal grief 70 Infant mortality Mortality statistics Medical anthropology Sargent, Carolyn and Michael Harris. 1992. Gender Ideology, Childbearing and Child Health in Jamaica. American Ethnologist. 19(3):523-537. The research centers around the dominance of low-income Jamaican women as heads of household, kinship pillars, and participants in the labor force. This female centered society produces a strong favoritism for female children. The research shows not only a higher survival rate at the end of the first year of life for female children, but this trend continues until the ninth year of life. Sargent and Harris explore the social implications of this preference for female children. Jamaica Matrifocal households Kinship networks Infant mortality Daughter preference Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1985. Culture, Scarcity and Maternal Thinking: Maternal Detachment and Infant Survival in a Brazilian Shanty Town. Ethos. 13:291-317. Scheper-Hughes argues that maternal thinking and practices are socially produced rather than biologically constructed. She explores the conditions in one Brazilian shantytown that have developed due to changes in the economic environment. These changes have produced high levels of child neglect and infant mortality due to economic, material and emotional deprivation. Northeast Brazil Maternal detachment Child mortality Child neglect Economic insecurity Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy ed. 1987. Child Survival: Anthropological Perspectives on the Treatment and Maltreatment of Children. Boston: D. Reidel. This collection of 18 essays edited by Scheper-Hughes addresses important issues in nutritional/medical anthropology. Decisions by parents to kill a child or “let it die” are explored here in terms of cultural relativism. The western concept of child abuse is 71 addressed as to whether or not it is an anomaly of Western industrialized societies. The struggle for mothers to survive and provide for their children in poor Third World nations is analyzed with regard to their decisions about risk, time management, energy, money and cultural beliefs. Cross-cultural Cultural relativism Infanticide Child abuse Child neglect Medical anthropology Nutritional anthropology Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1997. Lifeboat Ethics: Mother Love and Child Death in Northeast Brazil. In Lancaster, Roger N. The Gender/Sexuality Reader: Culture, History, Political Economy. New York: Routledge Press. This essay targets the impact of Catholic church on the attitudes of indigenous people toward child death in a shantytown of Northeast Brazil. The environment is one of high risk for child mortality due to poverty and Scheper-Hughes argues that this factor along with other variables has created a “lifeboat ethic” guiding ideas about survival of the fittest. Research is focused on selective nurturing which leads to the prevention of over-attachment and grief at the death of a child. The role of the Catholic Church is highlighted as a contributing factor in the cultural acceptance of the reduction in maternal bonding. Northeast Brazil Child security Child mortality Infanticide Catholicism Lifeboat ethics Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy and Carolyn Sargent eds. 1998. Small Wars: The Cultural Politics of Childhood. Berkeley: University of California Press. Chapters in this book demonstrate how the treatment of children vary by geographic location and are affected by global political-economic structures. Everyday practices embedded in the micro-level interactions of local cultures affect the survival rates of children. Part 2 of the book entitled “The Cultural Politics of Child Survival” centers around the concepts of child mortality and patterns of abandonment and how they vary in several locations globally. Cross-cultural childhood 72 Child abandonment Child survival Child mortality Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2001. Saints, Scholars and Schizophrenics: Mental Illness in Rural Ireland. Anniversary edition. Berkeley: University of California Press. Originally published in 1977, the book examines the cultural context of schizophrenia in rural Ireland. Scheper-Hughes focuses on the effects of isolation and change on the family, in particular the effects on children. She describes the cultural basis for the high rates of mental illness and provides comparisons to the current rise in depression in many western societies. Separation of mother and child is portrayed here in the framework of structural violence by explaining the treatment of later-born sons by their mothers as controlling. Socialization of later-born sons is based on dependency as compared with the socialization of earlier born sons and all daughters, which is based on competency. Ireland Maternal bonds Gender socialization Structural violence Mental illness Schizophrenia Separation Wadley, Susan S. 1993. Family Composition Strategies in Rural North India. Social Science and Medicine. 37(11):1367-1376. Recent evidence on child mortality and fertility trends in the village known as Karimpur in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh shows increasing female bias in child mortality among the poor. Wadley contends that this trend can only be understood in the larger context of family composition strategies, which have changed due to the socioeconomic conditions of the past 25 years. She argues that mortality cannot be understood without considering fertility behavior and the overall shape of the resulting families. Wadley’s hypothesis is that the Karimpur poor are using high fertility and sex-specific child mortality to maximize the number of surviving males in attempting to insure family welfare. India, north rural Fertility Child mortality Gender specific mortality Family survival strategies 73 Cultural anthropology Wolf, Arthur P. 2003. Maternal Sentiments: How Strong Are They? Current Anthropology. 44(Supplement):S31-S49. This article exams the practice in Taiwan of women giving away their daughters as infants and young children. This separation is not forced by the family but is an act of maternal choice as part of a strategy for securing the future survival of the family. Wolf focuses on dispelling the assumption that this practice is psychologically painful for the mother and contests the commonly held idea in western psychology that mothers naturally bond with their children and find it incredibly difficult to part with them. Taiwan Maternal-child bond Poverty Family survival strategy Marriage and kinship Cultural anthropology How Adolescents Learn Risk Behavior: Violence, AIDS, Drug Use and Eating Disorders Matt McDonough The purpose of this review was to explore how adolescents learn behaviors that expose them to risk. Adolescence is defined as, “the time period around biological maturation termed puberty in English (Fabrega and Miller 1995).” Risk behaviors were identified as those exposing the adolescents to violence, HIV/AIDS, drug addiction, and eating disorders. The review necessarily assumed that adolescents have no natural desire to put themselves at such risks. Yet, research shows certain populations of adolescents suffer from high levels of these risks. Like Fabrega and Miller, I acknowledge difficulty in studying a basic concept such as adolescence cross-culturally, but still hope to uncover something useful about adolescent learning. In the oldest article within my review, Anthony Burton writes that anthropology does not have adequate methods for studying adolescents (1978). In the most recently 74 written article in my review, Jason Hart writes that anthropology could be, and is not being, used to help adolescents (2006). My review of articles written in the intervening years supports both authors, suggesting that anthropology of adolescents has produced few consistent methods, and little widely applicable knowledge. All articles, however, spend time describing an influence that precedes behavior. The influences are not consistent across all four identified risk behaviors, and within each one, trends emerge. Violent behavior seems to come from internal teaching of survival within marginalized populations. Drug use also seems to be tied to marginalization, and with identity issues. Risk for HIV/AIDS seems to rise when traditional teachings about sex fail to account for the dangers of STDs. Increase in eating disorders can only be linked to a combination of factors. Western media seems an important factor, but not the only factor, in these later two behaviors. The only real consistency between all articles is many cite a myriad of interrelated factors that encourage risk behaviors. Few of the adolescents themselves seem to seek the risk out. A second process in the establishment of risk behavior is replication. Many mechanisms that cause replication of risk behaviors exist in the articles, such as sexual scripting, peer standing, ethnic identity, a culture of fear, and many cultural traditions. Adolescents rely heavily on replication of adults’ and peers’ behaviors to understand what to do and many situations. In many cases replication overrides what outsider adults tell the adolescents. This research is too preliminary to draw any concrete conclusions. While suggesting two important processes, influence and replication, and some trends within them, this review can not define what they are, and should instead be used to identify 75 questions anthropologists need to ask. Anthropologists must explore all the avenues of influence, move beyond a myriad of interconnected factors and begin identifying and mapping individual ones. Anthropologist must understand the messages being received, or not received, and how this increases risk. Anthropologists must learn how replication works and how it might be used to change dangerous behaviors. Anthropologists may possibly come to understand adolescents as having a unique culture amidst a larger one. Annotated Bibliography Adams, Kimberly, Roger G. Sargent, Sharon H. Thompson, et al. 1998 A Study of Body Weight Concerns and Weight Control Practices of 4th and 7th Grade Adolescents. Ethnicity and Health 5(1): 79-94. The purpose of this study is to assess grade, race, socioeconomic status, and gender differences in perceptions of body size, weight concerns, and weight control practices between 4th and 7th grade students in South Carolina. Two random samples, consisting of a total of 1597 adolescents, participated in two questionnaire surveys. The study indicates that early in a child's sociocultural development, grade level, gender, race, and socioeconomic status are influential in the perception of ideal adult body size and opposite gender ideal adult body size. South Carolina Adolescents Ethnicity Weight control Body size perceptions Cultural anthropology Anderson-Fye, Eileen P. 2004 A “Coca-Cola” Shape: Cultural Change, Body Image, and Eating Disorders in San Andres, Belize. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 28:561-595. This article explores why the community of San Andres, Belize, has been relatively resistant to eating disorders when other postcolonial nations with similar characteristics of social transition, gender, role flux, and upward mobility have not. Anderson-Fye details that all adolescent girls participate in a local custom of pageantry that establishes “multiple attainable ideals” of feminine beauty. This local custom reinforces traditional Belizean forms of beauty and counters the influence of Western media in this community. 76 Belize Female body image Eating disorders Adolescents Globalization Cultural anthropology Asencio, Marysol W. 1999 Machos and Sluts: Gender, Sexuality, and Violence among a Cohort of Puerto Rican Adolescents. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 13(2):107-126. This article describes the beliefs and rationales for gender-based violence among a cohort of low-income Puerto Rican American adolescents. Asencio conducted a threeyear study of 150 low income, innercity Latino adolescents through participant observation, informal groups, and formal interviews. Asencio details the creation of gender-based identities in the adolescents, “machos” for boys, “sluts” for girls that inform their behavior toward the opposite sex. Puerto Rican adolescents can use these identities to justify violence and male dominance. New York City Puerto Ricans Adolescence Gender Violence Cultural anthropology Assal, Adel, and Edwin Farrell 1992 Attempts to Make Meaning of Terror: Family, Play, and School in Time of Civil War. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 23(4):275-290. This article describes the attempts of Lebanese adolescents to confer meaning onto their lives while living though intense periods of Civil War. Assal and Farrell first present an emic (insider’s) view of life for the children, and then frame their stories in categories such as war, politics, religion, family, play, boredom, career, school, and acceptance of a warrior identity. Children initially terrified by war are slowly pushed through the forces of poverty and boredom to join militias. Members of militias are able to explain and control the terror but ultimately begin a new cycle for the next generation of adolescents. Lebanon Children in war Culture of terror Ethnography in war Cultural anthropology 77 Burton, Anthony 1978 Anthropology of the Young. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 9(1):54-70. This author writes that anthropology, as a discipline, does not have adequate methods for studying the young. Burton states that youth differ from adults in two main senses, youth are dependent, biologically and economically, and youth “see the world in quite different terms.” Anthropological studies of youth, including adolescents, have focused on enculturation and cultural transmission, but these studies reveal problems in definition, description, dependence, and development of the youth. Anthropology must now “enter the head” of the youth to determine how this happens. Theoretical Enculturation Youth Anthropology of education Cultural anthropology Burton, Linda M. 1997 Ethnography and the Meaning of Adolescence in High-Risk Neighborhoods. Ethos 25(2):208-217. This article explores the question of how ethnography can help to understand adolescent development among African American adolescents growing up in high-risk neighborhood in a northeastern U.S. city. Burton states that human development researchers have not yet systematically examined meanings, patterns, roles, and behaviors involved in adolescent ethnic/racial minorities in high-risk environments. Burton conducts a five year study of urban African American adolescents. Her work shows high-risk adolescents experience accelerated life course, diffuse age hierarchies, and inconsistent role expectations creating a different conception of the period of adolescences versus those in lower risk environments. Northeastern United States African Americans Racial minorities Adolescence Life course Cultural anthropology Devine, John 1995 Can Metal Detectors Replace the Panopticon? Cultural Anthropology 10(2):171-195. This article tackles the complex problem of school violence. Devine reports that, at the time of writing, 41 New York City high schools had metal detectors and large squads of security guards. These security measures, however, have exacerbated the problem by decreasing the authority teachers can, and are willing to exercise over the situation. The result is a “climate of fear” that dictates violence as a necessary tool of 78 survival. Devine states that more ethnography is needed to understand how this violence is passed on from year to year. New York City High school Violence in schools Security in schools Cultural anthropology Eyre, Stephen L., Valerie Hoffman, and Susan G. Millstein 1998 The Gamesmanship of Sex: A Model Based on African American Adolescent Accounts. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 12(4):467-489. The authors draw on vernacular-term interviews, in which listed vernacular terms are explored for deep meaning, with 39 African American adolescents from suburban San Francisco, and sociological game theory, to develop a model of cognition related to sex. Stages of the sexual gamesmanship include courtship, duplicity, disclosure, and prestige. The article concludes by stating that sexual gamesmanship may play a role in the social learning process through constructing social reputations of boys and girls in an opposing fashion. San Francisco African Americans Adolescence Sexuality Game theory Medical anthropology Fabrega, Horacio, and Barbara D. Miller 1995 Towards a More Comprehensive Medical Anthropology: The Case of Adolescent Psychopathology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 9(4):431-461. The authors seek to demonstrate the need for a more holistic model of medical anthropology that includes contributions from such disciplines as social history, anthropology, and psychology. They explore this model through cross-culturally examining three areas of adolescent psychopathology: anorexia nervosa, spirit possession, and social aggression. The authors use their model to display the complex interplay of urbanization, modernization, ethnicity, socioeconomic inequality, racism, and government policy that can promote adolescent psychopathology in both Western and non-Western societies. Comparative Adolescence Eating disorders Aggression Medical anthropology 79 Cross-cultural psychiatry Ginsberg, Pauline E., and Moraa Gekonge 2004 MTV, Technology, the Secular Trend, and HIV/AIDS: Why Kenyan Parents Need to Learn about Adolescent Development. Dialectical Anthropology 28:353-364. Due to a generation gap, Kenyan adolescents are at an increasingly greater risk for HIV/AIDS. Ginsberg and Gekonge state that the life stage “adolescence” is not part of traditional Kenyan development. However, after increased urbanization and influence from the West, Kenyan children are displaying adolescent behaviors in increasing numbers. The introduction of Western technology has created a cultural gap between those that did and did not grow up exposed to Western ideas. The most dangerous result stems from Western television’s equating of sex with economic success and happiness. Against Western media, traditional Kenyan teaching of sexuality has been unable to protect Kenyan youth from the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Kenya HIV/AIDS Adolescence Puberty Social change Medical anthropology Hagan, John 1990 The Structuration of Gender and Deviance: A Power-Control Theory of Vulnerability to Crime and the Search for Deviant Role Exits. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 27(2):138-156. Hagen joins structuration theory and power-control theory to explain gender differences in vulnerability to crime and corresponding gender differences in “deviant role exits.” He uses an analysis of data gathered from 430 adolescents and accompanying mothers in Toronto to demonstrate how domestic controls create different vulnerability for males and females. While seeking to protect female family members from the violent crime males are exposed to, these controls reproduce oppressive patriarchal family structures. Women in this environment are more likely to seek “deviant role exits” leading to higher levels of psychosocial distress and attempted suicide. Toronto Gender roles Adolescents Structuration Theory Power-Control Theory Sociology Handwerker, W. Penn 2003 80 Traumatic Stress, Ecological Contingency, and Sexual Behavior: Antecedents and Effects of Sexual Precociousness, Sexual Mobility, and Adolescent Childbearing in Antigua. Ethos 31(3):385-411. This article reports a test of the hypothesis that adolescent sexual precociousness, sexual mobility, and childbearing are functions of family and economic factors that ultimately allow certain girls to empower themselves. Handwerker uncovers that two factors, exploitative family environment and current economic condition, existed in a complex relationship. Exploitative family environment, in which women were dominated by husbands and fathers created different behavior in different economic conditions, but different environments might create different behaviors in consistent economic conditions. Antigua Sexual development Gender Adolescence Exploitation in the family Cultural anthropology Hart, Jason 2006 Saving Children? What Role for Anthropology. Anthropology Today 22(1):5-8 The author discusses the role anthropology can play in saving children caught in modern day risk situations. The primary example used is the phenomenon of “child soldiers,” currently a priority for child-focused humanitarians and rights activists. Hart writes that labeling certain nations and peoples as “lesser primitives” is gaining fresh respectability. Anthropology must counter this overly simplistic and inaccurate notion by restoring the proper political and historic context. Ethnography of children’s everyday lives within war can reveal both the local and global forces at work. Afghanistan Child soldiers Child-centered ethnography Forced recruitment Cultural anthropology Jean-Klein, Iris 2000 Mothercraft, Statecraft, and Subjectivity in the Palestinian Intifada. American Ethnologist 27(1):100-127. Jean-Klein conducted work in approximately 60 households living in a neighborhood in Ramallah during 1989-90, the second year of Palestinian intifada. Building off of Peteet’s 1994 article, and Joseph’s work on cross-sibling relationships, this article explores the connection between the mother-son relationship and the nascent state. Jean-Klein shows that after claiming independence from their male elders, 81 adolescent males learn “morality” from their mothers and sisters. By encouraging their sons to fight for the state, these women gain social authority in their communities. Palestine Male adolescence Intergenerational relationships Personhood State building Cultural anthropology Kaufman, Carol.E., Janette Beals, Christina M. Mitchel, et al. 2004 Stress, Trauma, and Risky Sexual Behavior Among American Indians in Young Adulthood. Culture, Health & Sexuality 6(4):301-318. This article explores the relationship between adolescent trauma and later levels of sexual activity. The authors conducted their study among a population of Northern Plains Native American Indians with a vibrant family life, yet living in an impoverished areas and suffering from alcohol and drug addiction. A representative group of 289 17-25 year olds underwent interviews about 15 types of traumatic experiences and 10 types of stress. Kaufman et al. find that the presence trauma, and multiple traumas, in adolescent life correlates with more casual sex partners, especially for women. United States Northern Plains Native American Indian Adolescence Trauma Sexual behavior Medical anthropology Marcelin, Louis Herns, James Vivian, Ralph DiClemente, et al. 2005 Trends in Alcohol, Drug and Cigarette Use Among Haitian Youth in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 4(1):105-131. Marcelin et al. report on prevalence of alcohol, drug, and cigarette use of adolescent Haitians living in three communities in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The authors conduct participant observation and in-depth interviews with 557 adolescents including those both US and Haiti born, poor and middle class, and urban and rural. The authors find that use of drugs among Haitian youth is relatively low compared with regional and national adolescent data, but increasing due to marginalization and access to U.S. street culture. Florida Miami-Dade County Haitian adolescents Social marginalization Alcohol and drug use 82 Health science Marsiglia, Flavio Francisco, Stephen Kulis, and Michael L. Hecht 2001 Ethnic Labels and Ethnic Identity as Predictors of Drug Use Among Middle School Students in the Southwest. Journal of Research on Adolescence 11(1):21-48. The article explores survey data from 408 seventh-grade students from a large city in the southwestern U.S. to determine how the ethnic labels, Mexican American, White, African American, and mixed ethnicity combine with ethic identity to predict drug use. Findings indicate that two dimensions of ethnic identity, consistency and pride, predict drug use in opposing ways. Minorities, non-whites, who view their behavior, speech, and looks as consistent with their ethnic group report more drug use, while Whites report less, but ethnically proud white students report more drug use, while ethnically proud minorities report less. Southwestern United States Mexican Americans African Americans Mixed ethnicity Drug use Cultural anthropology Maticka-Tyndale, Eleanor, Melanie Gallant, Chris Brouillard-Coyle, et al. 2004 The Sexual Scripts of Kenyan Young People and HIV prevention. Culture, Health & Sexuality 7(1):27-41. This paper uses scripting theory to develop an in-depth understanding of Kenyan adolescent sexual experiences. Maticka-Tyndale et al. review interviews with single-sex focus groups of Kenyan children aged 11-16 years. The interviews reveal that sexual encounters are typically the end result of an elaborately scripted sequence of events that proceed from expression of interest through intercourse. Both boys and girls feel pressure to engage in sex and discomfort and reluctance to deviate from the script. MatickaTyndale et al. state that knowledge of the script will reveal points where effective HIV prevention knowledge and materials can be introduced. Kenya Scripting theory HIV Prevention Adolescence Sociology Public health Montgomery, Winifred 2004 Who is Informing our Young People about AIDS, and Why Aren’t They Listening. Dialectical Anthropology 28:365-376. 83 Montgomery explores the disconnect between the amount of information available to American adolescents about HIV/AIDS and the high incidence of the disease in certain populations. Montgomery identifies black and Hispanic youth, young injection users, and gay and bisexual youth as groups of Americans with disproportional high levels of HIV/AIDS. Montgomery concludes that at-risk populations of adolescents will listen if the message is linguistically and culturally appropriate, and that nongovernmental organizations must forge relationships with community-based organizations to deliver the prevention programs. United States HIV/AIDS Adolescents At-risk populations Clinical medicine Applied anthropology Peteet, Julie 1994 Male Gender and Rituals of Resistance in the Palestinian “Intifada”: A Cultural Politics of Violence. American Ethnologist 21(1):31-49. This article examines the attainment and enactment of manhood and masculinity among adolescent Palestinian males. Peteet argues that beatings and detention undergone by the youths are crucial for the creation of their adult moral selves and lay a cultural groundwork for their latter relations to foreign powers. Beating and detention create a power structure in which a lesser eventually overcomes a greater, paralleling a political and cultural aim of the people. Palestine Violence Masculinity Construction of self Cultural anthropology Quintero, Gilbert, and Sally Davis 2002 Why do Teens Smoke? American Indian and Hispanic Adolescents’ Perspectives on Functional Values and Addiction. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 16(4):439-457. Quintero and Davis examine reasons that Hispanic American and American Indian adolescents give to explain smoking. The authors compare the functional values of tobacco, including mood management, peer influences, and image maintenance, versus addiction. A total of 234 adolescents from 11 schools in 7 communities in New Mexico participated in 38 focus groups and 34 individual interviews. While emphasis of each factor involved in teen smoking varied across the groups, important similarities emerged in the basic reasons given by both ethnic groups for smoking, similarities that also tracked across other ethnic groups. 84 New Mexico American Indian Hispanic Americans Adolescents Smoking Medical anthropology Rogers, Angie, Jane R. Adamson, Mark McCarthy 1997 Variations in Health Behaviors Among Inner City 12-year-olds from Four Ethnic Groups. Ethnicity & Health 2(4):309-316. The authors conduct semi-structured interviews with approximately 50 adolescents from the four largest ethnic groups, Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, and White, present in secondary schools in two inner London boroughs. Participants answered questions in the fields Diet, Exercise, Tobacco and Alcohol, and Parental Control of Social Activities. Comparing answers cross-culturally reveals interrelated factors such as social and economic disadvantage, religion, religious observance, parental restrictiveness, and fear of racial violence contributes to variations in health behavior. London Low-income urban populations Adolescents Ethnic minorities Health behavior Cultural anthropology Ryan, Y.M., M.J. Gibney, and M.A.T. Flynn 1998 The Pursuit of Thinness: A Study of Dublin Schoolgirls Aged 15 y. International Journal of Obesity 22:485-487. Ryan, Gibney, and Flynn use a self-report questionnaire to collect data about body weight concerns and slimming practices from 420 15-year-old Dublin schoolgirls of varying economic background. 59 percent of the girls report unhappiness with weight and 72 percent of those trying to lost weight were within or below normal weight categories. The authors reveal that many adolescent girls are willing to engage in potentially harmful slimming strategies irrespective of health implications. Dublin Adolescent girls Obesity Weight perceptions Health science Thianthai, Chulanee 2004 85 Gender and Class Differences in Young People’s Sexuality and HIV/AIDS Risk-Taking Behaviors in Thailand. Culture, Health & Sexuality 6(4):189-203. This paper examines gender and class differences in Thai adolescent’s beliefs about sexuality and HIV/AIDS risk-related behaviors. Sixty female and male adolescents from three different socioeconomic backgrounds living in Bangkok volunteered for indepth interviews. Thianthai relates that these adolescents have a culturally determined unequal distribution of sexual burdens and responsibilities with males expected to engage in sex early on and females expected to maintain virginity until marriage. Thianthai details that while class has a complex relationship with knowledge of HIV/AIDS, adolescents of all classes fail to realize they are at risk. Thailand Adolescents HIV/AIDS Risk preception Class Medical anthropology Villenas, Sofia 2001 Latina Mothers and Small-Town Racisms: Creating Narratives of Dignity and Moral Education in North Carolina. Anthropology & Education Quarterly 32(1):3-28. This article highlights the difficulty a population of Latin American mothers faced while raising families in North Carolina. Villenas, after spending two years living in the community and recording histories, identified “benevolent racism” as the greatest challenge faced by the Latina mothers. Community members and social service professionals focused on identifying what Latino families lacked, as opposed to supporting their effective parenting methods. Latina mothers also had little help fighting against “bad influences”, exposure to violence and drugs, present in the community that did not exist in their home country. North Carolina Latina mothers Racism Motherhood Immigrants Cultural anthropology Human Trafficking: The Import and Export of Humans and Their Parts for Sale on the Global Market Johanna Yakova Twersky The field of anthropology has the capacity for great contributions to the study of human trafficking, particularly in the areas of individual agency, structural violence, 86 organizational behavior, conceptions of knowledge, and knowledge production. In February 2006, at an Americans for Informed Democracy conference at Georgetown University, eight faces of trafficking were identified: sex trafficking, labor trafficking, war slavery/kidnapping, internet child pornography, sex tourism, organ trafficking, skin trafficking, and ritual abuse torture. Of these categories, however, the field of anthropology currently offers research in barely half. For anthropologists wishing to study human trafficking, ethics are by far the most pertinent problem. The loudest voice advocating for anthropology’s entrance into the human rights scene is undeniably that of Nancy Scheper-Hughes. Scheper-Hughes argues the meaninglessness of “objectivity” and claims that anthropology’s most useful position is in the heat of battle. Despite the American Anthropological Association’s clearly stated position that, “the anticipated consequences of research should be communicated as fully as possible to the individuals and groups likely to be affected” (AAA’s Official Statement on Ethics and Principles of Professional Responsibility 1986), Scheper-Hughes fervently argues the invaluable nature of undercover research in combating trafficking. In December, 2004 Scheper-Hughes presented her work at the George Washington University, research which circulated around organ trafficking and the investigation of global crime rings. Scheper-Hughes’ underlying message, however –that conventional anthropology and its ethical constraints is not equipped to deal with an issue this dirty, therefore, concessions must be made— could not have been made more clear. As a research subject, human trafficking problematically lacks an easily accessible and well-defined scope. The range of issues relevant to human trafficking extends far beyond what most people would intuitively identify as a trafficking issue. 87 Child pornography, for example, has historically been an issue of law enforcement, morality, and deviant behavior, with relevant research focused on methods of censorship, and potential rehabilitation for pedophiles. Child pornography through the human trafficking lens, however, returns to the source. Concern shifts to identifying where exploited children come from and to where they are taken, whether parents are exploiting their own children for financial gain, or, whether parents are blackmailed and coerced, their children kidnapped. Trafficking researchers ask if identifiable patterns exist in the ethnicities of exploited children, and whether tracking child suppliers (traffickers) in additional to child demanders (pedophiles) proves more effective. Anthropologist Debra Budiani, who has spearheaded the Coalition for OrganFailure Solutions (www.transplantsmiddleeast.org), argues that despite her move towards applied anthropology, she need not abandon the anthropological standard of ethics in the fight for human rights. Compiling and annotating the few anthropology-based trafficking sources available creates a starting point for anthropologists who, like Budiani, seek to delve more deeply into the subject of human trafficking while still working within ethical guidelines. Since the anthropology and activism dialogue is undeniably important in developing a place for anthropology within the study of human trafficking, the attached bibliography also incorporates anthropologists like Sally Engle Merry and Steven Robins who discuss the thin borders between activism and research. The United Nations and the International Organization for Migration estimate that in one year, four million people are trafficked globally, generating $19 billion in income directly benefiting organized crime and corruption. The intimate connection that exists 88 between human trafficking, drug trafficking, arms trafficking, and subsequently, the spread of disease and violence world-wide makes human trafficking an international security risk that belongs at the forefront of governmental concern. Only recently, however, has human trafficking entered the realm of public awareness as a gross human rights violation requiring immediate attention. The severity of the situation necessitates that major strides be taken in the field of anthropology and across disciplines towards the understanding and prevention of human trafficking. Though largely anthropological, the attached sources provide a strong foundation for multidisciplinary, theoretical and fieldbased approaches to further research in human trafficking. Annotated Bibliography Adams, Abigail E. 1999. Gringas, Ghouls, and Guatemala: The 1994 Attacks On North American Women Accused of Body Organ Trafficking. Journal of Latin American Anthropology 4(1):112133. Since 1986, Adams has tracked stories that accuse U.S. citizens of baby trafficking in Central America and elsewhere. In spring 1994, Guatemalan papers reported the discovery of child-trafficking and organ harvesting networks run by former U.S. government officials and foreigners. These rumors lead to directed attacks on “gringas”, specifically U.S. ambassador Marilyn McAfee and Harvard lawyer Jennifer Harbury. Adams interprets the central figure of the gringa that provoked the anxieties of so many Guatemalans. Latin America Guatemala Child-trafficking Organ-harvesting Cultural anthropology Brennan, Denise E. 2002. Selling Sex for Visas: Sex Tourism as Stepping Stone to International Migration for Dominican Women. In Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New 89 Economy. Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russel Hochschild, eds. Pp.154-168. New York: Metropolitan Books. As an increasing number of rumors falsely relaying success among working women in the sex tourist town of Sosúa circulate throughout the Dominican Republic, more single mothers migrate there in hopes of procuring a European husband and, subsequently, a European visa. Men, mostly German, travel to Sosúa to take advantage of opportunities for sex with exotic women. Brennan identifies sex work in Sosúa as an economic advancement strategy for the women involved and examines the distinction working women make between marriage por amor and marriage por residencia. Brennan discusses whether these marginalized women are victims sold as exports or, acting as agents of their own destinies by initiating the traffic of German men into Sosúa to further their own goals. Dominican Republic Sosúa Sex work Migration Women’s agency Cultural anthropology Brennan, Denise E. 2005. Methodological Challenges in Research on Human Trafficking: Tales from the Field. International Migration 43(1/2):35-54. Drawing on her field experience studying victims’ lives after trafficking, Brennan discusses methodological challenges and ethical concerns that arose while conducting research with trafficked persons in the United States. Claiming that researchers on trafficking find themselves writing on an issue that has been sensationalized, misrepresented, and politicized, Brennan discusses the possibility of collaboration between academics across disciplines, trafficked persons, and social service providers. She urges anthropologists to provide committed, “on the ground accounts” of life in and after trafficking and advocates for the participation of trafficked persons in shaping the direction of the anti-trafficking movement. United States Trafficking survivors Agency Anti-trafficking movement Human rights Cultural anthropology Crowley, Megan. 1998. Troubling Boundaries: Organ Transplantation and Liberal Law. PoLAR 21(1):26-41. Crowley uses the Cartesian mind/body duality to differentiate between “the self that owns” and “the object that is owned” as a means of contextualizing issues in human 90 transplant. Drawing on her experience as an anthropological observer on the ethics committee of a large research hospital, Crowley provides a useful discussion of organ procurement and transplant including who provides organs, who gets them, and who makes those decisions, in the context of liberal law. Western world Theoretical Organ transplant Liberal law Ownership Medical anthropology Crowley, Megan.1999. Culture, Class, and Bodily Meaning: An Ethnographic Study of Organ Transplantation in Mexico. PoLAR 22(2):129-38. Situated in Guadalajara, Mexico, this twelve month long ethnographic study continues Crowley’s investigation into the ethical issues surrounding organ procurement and transplant. Using participant observation, interviews, analysis of hospital records, and popular media materials, Crowley interprets kidney transplant experiences among medical staff, patients, and patients’ families in three socio-economically distinct hospitals in Mexico. Crowley draws on Scheper-Hughes and Lock’s “body-self, social body and body politic” as frame work for interpreting the visions of the human body that transplant promotes, the notions of value that transplant implies, and how transplant intersects with existing local/global inequalities. Mexico Guadalajara Organ transplant The body Value Medical anthropology Gates, Hill. 1996. Buying Brides in China-Again. Anthropology Today 12(4):8-11. Gates ponders the connections between past and present China in order to contextualize the current outbreak of trafficking in women. She argues that attention to the well-established indigenous petty capitalism, and an understanding of the overall trajectory of change in China, are indispensable in unpacking this growing human rights infringement. China Mail order brides Sex-trafficking Capitalism 91 Cultural anthropology Hasnath, Syed Abu and Bimal Kanti Paul. 2000. Trafficking in Bangladeshi Women and Girls. Geographic Review 90(2):268-276. Geographers Hasnath and Paul examine the illegal trafficking of women and girls from Bangladesh to neighboring and Middle Eastern countries where they become a commodity for sale in sex markets. The authors shed light on the extent and routes of the trafficking including tracing where the women and girls come from and to which countries they are being sent. Research is based on a combination of newspapers and magazines from Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, field research, and interviews. Bangladesh Global Women and girls Sex-markets Sex-trafficking Geography Joralemon, Donald. 1995. Organ Wars: The Battle for Body Parts. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 9(3):335-356. Joralemon discusses transplant surgeries’ contribution to conceptions of the body as a collection of replaceable parts, as well as cultural resistance to such conceptions. Claiming that cultural aversion to transplant has caused the medical community to peddle social values as justification for transplant surgery, Joralemon addresses the tension between altruism and individual rights. Joralemon sees this binary as the ideological equivalent of immunosuppressant drugs taken to prevent the cultural rejection of transplantation. United States Biomedicine Organ transplant Social values Ethics Medical anthropology Koenig, Barbara A. and Linda F. Hogle. 1995. Organ Transplantation (Re)Examined? Medical Anthropology Quarterly 9(3):393-397. Koenig examines the acceptance of organ transplantation into the genre of standard therapy in western civilization since the 1970’s. Such acceptance, Koenig suggests, is proof of a larger transformation in individual conceptions of the body and self. Koenig offers a brief critique of Donald Joralemon and Lesley Sharp’s contribution to medical anthropology, commending them for their ethnographic approach on transplant research but urging them to push their research further. 92 Western society Theoretical Organ transplantation Body commodification Medical anthropology Merry, Sally Engle. 2005. Anthropology and Activism: Researching Human Rights Across Porous Boundaries. PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 28(2):240-257. Merry addresses the relationship or, “porosity” of the borders between activism and research in cultural anthropology. Her article discusses the consequences of anthropology’s recent entry into the human rights scene, as well as anthropology’s role in modernity. Comparative Theoretical Ethics Activism Modernity Human rights anthropology Robins, Steven. 1996. On the Call for a Militant Anthropology: The Complexity of “Doing the Right Thing”. Current Anthropology 37(2):241-346. By identifying himself as a South African anthropologist trained at the University of Cape Town, Robins establishes himself as someone qualified to refute Nancy ScheperHughes’ condemnation of anthropology’s inaction during apartheid. Though sympathetic to Scheper-Hughes’ call for a more aggressive and politically engaged anthropology, Robins attacks Scheper-Hughes for failing to investigate the actions of South African anthropologists during apartheid before condemning them for their inaction. Pointing to anthropological contributions made to South Africa in the field, in publications, and in lecture halls, Robins defends the anthropologist’s choice to take action in ways other than directly challenging the state. South Africa Review Ethics Human rights Cultural anthropology Rosga, AnnJanette. 2005. 93 The Traffic in Children: The Funding of Translation and the Translation of Funding. PoLAR: Political and Legal Anthropology Review 28(2):258-281. In 2002, Child Rights International and Children of the World partnered to conduct a study of the nature and extent of child trafficking in Bosnia-Herzegovina, a study for which Rosga soon became the “international technical consultant”. In this article, Rosga addresses the conditions of knowledge production involved in conducting an intensive study on a taboo topic in a post-communist country. She discusses the process of designing and implementing the study, focusing on conditions of knowledge production, translation, and transmission. Eastern Europe Bosnia-Herzegovina Sex-trafficking Expert knowledge Policy Human rights anthropology Sharp, Lesley A.2000. The Commodification of the Body and its Parts. Annual Review of Anthropology 29:287-328. In this review article, Sharp explores the significance of the body within anthropology and the definition of a body part. She lays the ground work for a larger discussion on theoretical approaches to commodification within anthropology. Sharp discusses historically well-documented forms of body commodification such as oppressive labor practices and advocates for the inclusion of an ethics of body commodification within the field of cultural anthropology. Theoretical Embodiment Body commodification Science and technology Medical ethics Medical anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1995. The Primacy of the Ethical: Propositions for a Militant Anthropology. Current Anthropology 36(3):409-440. Drawing on her experiences studying social conflict in Brazil and South Africa, Scheper-Hughes argues that anthropologists have an ethical responsibility to be not only researchers, but spokespeople and activists for the communities they study. Claiming that political and moral engagement are much nobler goals than objectivity, Scheper-Hughes condemns anthropologists for squeezing villages dry for research purposes and then leaving villagers to fend for themselves. Scheper-Hughes equates cultural relativism and moral relativism, condemning anthropological approaches that allow for human rights 94 violations in the name of cultural sensitivity, and she calls for a “militant anthropology” that not only studies injustice but openly fights it as well. Brazil South Africa Cultural relativism Moral relativism Applied anthropology Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 1996. Theft of Life: The Globalization of Organ Stealing Rumours. Anthropology Today 12(3):3-11. Scheper-Hughes examines the nature and circulation of rumors in the Third World regarding kidnapping, mutilation, dismemberment, blood- and organ stealing. Her primary research is situated in the shantytowns of Brazil, with subsequent examples from the Southern Cone, South Africa, Europe, and Asia. Scheper-Hughes focuses on the metaphorical nature of such “urban legends” as well as their potential for truth. Brazil Comparative Organ stealing rumors Medical anthropology Cultural anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2002. The Ends of the Body: Commodity Fetishism and the Global Traffic in Organs. SAIS Review 22(1):61-80. Scheper-Hughes comments on global market capitalism’s reduction of human beings, their parts, and their labor to objects, which can be bought, sold, traded, and stolen. This article draws from Scheper-Hughes’ field work in Brazil and discusses how “commodity fetishism” in the new global economy contributes to the illicit trafficking of organs, particularly those belonging to marginalized peoples. Brazil Organ-trafficking Body commodification Global economy Medical anthropology Human rights anthropology Scheper-Hughes, Nancy. 2004. 95 Parts Unknown: Undercover Ethnography of the Organs-Trafficking Underworld. Ethnography 5(1):29-73. In this journalistic essay, Scheper-Hughes reports on the ethical, ethnographic, and political dilemmas she experienced during her undercover exploration of the illegal activities surrounding the traffic in humans and their body parts. Scheper-Hughes tracked crime rings through North and South America, Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. The majority of the article, however, is spent discussing the ethical issues raised by this “militant” kind of anthropology. Comparative Organ-trafficking Undercover ethnography Hybrid research Ethics Activist anthropology Zarembka, Joy M. 2000. America’s Dirty Work: Migrant Maids and Modern-Day Slavery. In Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy. Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russel Hochschild, eds. Pp.142-153. New York: Metropolitan Books. Though Zarembka’s background is in international relations, her approach to research is sociological in nature, shaped by her Kenyan mother’s personal experiences as a migrant worker. This article draws on examples of migrant workers whose hopes for a better life lead them to accept deceptive job offers in the United States. Using such case studies as models, Zarembka demonstrates how manipulation and deception on the parts of American solicitors contribute to modern-day slavery, trafficking, and migrant domestic worker abuse. Additionally, Zarembka addresses how the new global economy permits transnational actors in developed countries to traffic people with the same ease as they would transport any other commodity. United States Migration Labor Slavery Global economy Human rights study Modernization and Ethnic Minorities in China Chen Shiuan-Ju China is a nation with more than one hundred minority ethnic groups. Integrating those minority groups under one single national structure has been an important goal of 96 every Chinese dynasty, including modern China. Since 1949, the ruling regime, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), has decided to modernize those groups. Modernization will help to accommodate different cultures by rising living standards in those regions and increasing interactions between the minorities and the Han people. With fewer cultural differences, the CCP expects greater social harmony and a united nation. Therefore, when discussing about the relationship between modernization and minority ethnic groups in China, governmental policies play an important role. Modernization policies, however, bring potential risks. Economically, the CCP currently incorporates minority groups into a national economic plan by assigning them certain roles. This plan defines their status regarding other parts of China. Despite the original economic activities, some regions become the natural resource bases for coastal cities, while some develop tourism to meet the desires of the Han people and foreigners. Those economic developments bring not only material improvement but also social risks within the minority groups. For example, language education becomes a prominent problem for the minorities. Learning Chinese gives minority people more opportunities of gaining economic welfare, but the ethnic languages might be sacrificed. Moreover, Han culture may dominate the ethnic cultures by creating internal orientalism, which means minority ethnic groups are exotic and “others” to Han culture. The CCP builds museums and villages for exhibiting those “official” minority cultures, especially in regions where ethnic tourism is developing. With the fear of losing minority cultures, minority groups strengthen their ethnic identities and resist to cultural integration and modernization. The struggle between preserving cultures and modernization is a dilemma for those groups. For example, when the local village asks 97 Tibetan women to perform traditional ceremonies for tourists, they are deprived of the right to pursue modernity. Growing anxiety of losing self-definition of minority people serves as a risk in modern China. Most current research in cultural anthropology on China’s modernization and ethnic minorities focuses on the negative effects of modernization on ethnic cultures. It is unlikely, however, that all changes are negative. The risks of ethnic cultures of resisting modernization is also worthy of research to provide a more complete picture. Crossovers, who accept both local culture and Han culture, also deserve further research. Compared to people who live in ethnic societies for all their lives, crossovers have greater dynamics of shifting their identities between the mainstream society and ethnic groups. Therefore, as part of both groups, crossovers can influence the future relationship between their ethnic groups and the Han society. Internal orientalism and the preservation of minority cultures are the most important issues of China’s modernization. In spite of the stereotype that government has the greatest power to determine the results of the issues, minority groups and individuals now have more power participating in the process of modernization and they are also important actors in deciding the future of ethnic minorities in China. Annotated Bibliography Adams, Vincanne. 1996. Karaoke as Modern Lhasa, Tibet: the Western Encounters with Cultural Politics. Cultural Anthropology 11(4):510-546. This article discusses Tibet modernization. Karaoke is a fashion in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet. Karaoke is a symbol of modernization. Thus, to accept Karaoke means to accept part of modernization. However, embracing Karaoke also invokes worries of Western cultural intervention and loss of traditional culture since Karaoke is a western product. 98 With closer observation, the author thinks the risk of losing traditional cultural does not exist because Tibetans do not forget their traditional songs after learning Han or foreign music. China Tibet Karaoke Modernization Cultural anthropology Adams, Vincanne. 2005. Saving Tibet? An Inquiry into Modernity, Lies, Truths, and Beliefs. Medical Anthropology 24:71-110. New technologies such as television and magazines facilitate governmental propaganda of modern Tibet Autonomous Regions. The government’s suppression forces the Tibetans to say what the governmental propaganda wants them to say. Since the official propaganda is inconsistent with Tibetan’s perception of the facts, Tibetans separate the government’s mandate to lie from their beliefs in order to accept it. By doing this, Tibetans are not morally responsible for telling the lies, which are the governmental propaganda. China Tibet Modernity Belief Medical anthropology Bulag, Uradyn E. 2000 Ethnic Resistance with Socialist Characteristics. In Chinese Society: Change, Conflict, and Resistance. Elizabeth J. Perry. Mark, Selden. eds. Pp178-197. London; New York: Routledge. Though focusing on Inner Mongolia, the author states a general picture of the relationship between the minority and national development. After 1989, Communist regime forces the minorities to accept economic developments according to the needs of the coastal cities. This policy is regarded as inner colonialism, which puts minorities in a lower status compared to Han people. In order to complete with Han people, Mongolians need to learn Chinese as well as Han culture. Economic development and modernization thus results in the loss of their original languages and cultures. China Mongolia Inner orientalism Economic development Ethnic resistance 99 Anthropology Bulag, Uradyn E. 2003. Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China. American Anthropologist 105(4):753-764. Because of increasing interactions with the dominant society and growing Chinese immigrants in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR), Mongolians need to increase their competency by learning Chinese. However, with the loss of their original language, Mongolians seem to loss their identity. Though Mongolian courses are offered now, the balance between Mongolian and Chinese remains the problem. Learning Chinese is the market-oriented demand while keeping Mongolian is important for cultural preservation. China Mongolia Autonomous Region Language policy Identity Cultural anthropology Gladney, Dru C. 2004. Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Chinese nationality was built upon the majority identity-Han ren (Han people) and many ethnic minorities. The government in China constructs ethnicity in binary minority/ majority terms. Han represents modernity, normality and unexotic while the minority represents the colorful, erotic, and exotic. China’s policy toward the minorities is termed as “internal colonialism” because the minority groups are still defined by the dominant groups. China Han ren Minority identity Representation Cultural politics Cultural anthropology Hillman, Ven. 2003. Paradise under Construction: Minorities, Myths and Modernity in Northwest Yunnan. Asian Ethnicity 4(2):175-190. Zhongdian County is one of three counties constituting the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture. It was renamed as Shangri-la for developing tourism. The whole town was constructed according to the Han people’s imagination of an exotic Tibetan village. Even though the government represents a specific image of Tibetan culture to 100 tourists, which the author called “on stage” performance, Tibetans keeps performing their ethnicity in an “off stage” platform. The continuing performance of ethnicity contests the official version of ethnicity. China Northwest Yunnan Tibet Ethnic tourism Cultural performance Cultural anthropology Hjorleifur, Jonsson. 2000. Yao Minority Identity and the Location of Difference in the South China Borderlands. Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology 65(1):56-82. Yao is a minority ethnic group living in South West China. They used to be rebels to Chinese regime. After the modern state was built, their relationship was redefined because of the Chinese government’s policy of building museums and documenting history. The policy defines cultural differences for the purpose of nation building. By doing this, the state becomes the cultural framework and the minority cultures are reconstructed within it. Southwest China Upland Yao Museumizing Minority identity Modern state Anthropology Janes, Craig R. 1999. Imagined Lives, Suffering and the Work of Culture: the Embodied Discourses of Conflict in Modern Tibet. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 13(4):391-412. “Rlung” in Tibetan culture means the balance of the body and mind. The imbalance brings physical illness, which happens during the modernization of Tibet. The imbalance is caused by the personal and social suffering that reflects the mix of classical Buddhist ontology with the modern politics of Tibetan identity. Thus, cosmopolitan ideas about the natures of Tibet, Tibetan Buddhism and Chinese modernity shape contemporary Tibetan cultural patterns. China Lhasa Tibet Rlung disorder Modernization Ethnomedicine 101 Jing, Ma. 2003. Transformation of the Social Organization of Some Minority Ethnic Groups in Yunnan over the Past Fifty Years. Chinese sociology and anthropology 35(3):10-36. The research is conducted in three Yunnan minority groups. Since the reform and opening policy of China, reconciliation and conflicts between different ethnic groups occur often. Social organizations control conflicts by coordinating tradition and modernity. But ethnic identities are also strengthened by identifying self and others during the conflicts. Therefore, with growing self-ethnic awareness, the creation of a unifying national identity becomes harder. China Yunnan Minority ethnic groups Social organization Economic development Modernization Anthropology Litzinger, Ralph A. 1998. Memory Work: Reconstituting the Ethnic in Post-Mao China. Cultural Anthropology. 13(2): 224-255. National identity is transforming in China today. By bridging the past, present, and the future, minority groups find their past history and act as participants in the main cultures. This transtion may turn the ethnic minorities from an unstable factor into active particiapants, which results in reshpaing China politics. The author uses the ethnic minority Yao as an example to illustrate the identity shift process. Southern China Yao Minority ethnics National identity Memory Cultural anthropology Litzinger, Ralph A. 2000. Other Chinas: the Yao and the Politics of National Belonging. Duke University Press. This book discusses the change of Yao society from Cultural Revolution to 1990s. Yao identity becomes complex because Yao’s relative status to main Chinese society is still changing. Relocating and redefining the place of ethnic minority by the government keeps influencing Yao’s identity and national belonging. Though Yao sees itself as part of Chinese society now, some Yaos are unsatisfied about being treated as a reactionary force in Chinese history. 102 China Yao Relocating Identity National belonging Anthropology McCormick, Barrett L. Su Shaozhi. Xiao Xiaoming. 1992. The 1989 Democracy Movement: A Review of the Prospects for Civil Society in China. Pacific Affairs 65(2):182-202. Chinese civil society has been forming since 1989. Democratic movement can be dated back to May Fourth movement in 1919. The author identifies the role of economic development, changes of social structure, and intellectual attitude as important factors of emerging Chinese civil society. The author also compares East European countries with China. China Civil society Democratic movements Tiananmen Square May Forth movements, 1919 Eastern Europe McKhann, Charlse. 1995. The Naxi and the nationalities Questions. In Cultural encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Stevan Harrell ed. Pp: 29-62. Seattle: University of Washington Press. The author examines the nationality questions from the division of a single ethnicity, Naxi, as Naxi and Mosuo. The author claims that the distinction is a result of policy imposition. The argument here is not about whether the Naxi and Mosuo are the same ethnic or not, but about the awareness of the man-made category, which may confuse the national identities of the minority groups. China Naxi Mosuo National identity Mackerras, Colin. 2003. China’s Ethnic Minorities and Globalization. London; New York: Routledge Curzon. The two minorities, the Uyghurs in Xinjian and Tibetans of Tibet, form secessionist movements in China. The state tries to integrate those minorities into the national framework by imposing economic development policies. The rising living standard in 103 Tibet and Inner Mongolia decreased separatist movements in the 1990s. Globalization, however, gradually diminishes cultural differences, which makes people want to preserve their local cultures and strengthens separatist movements of Uyghur. China Xinjian Uyghur Tibet Globalization Separation movement Makley, E. Charlene. 2003. Gendered Boundaries in Motion: Space and Identity on the Sino-Tibetan Frontier. American Ethnologist 30(4): 597-6l9. Females are important for maintaining Tibet ethnic identity under various assimilation pressures. Nowadays, young Tibetan men leave home searching for futures in the Chinese state. Tibetan women are given the burden of maintaining the traditional culture among Han and foreign tourists. Thus, Tibetan women distinguish Tibetans from the outsiders, helping to maintain Tibetan identity and traditional culture. China Tibet Gender Ethnic identity Assimilation Schein, Louisa. 1997. Gender and Internal Orientalism in China. Modern China. 23(1): 69-98. Internal orientalism is culturally imagined domination among different ethnics, which is brought by recent development of tourism in Kaili, Guizhou. As part of developing tourism, the village forces Miao women to perform traditional dancing and singing for male Han observers. The performance of traditional culture has an implication: by defining the performance as part of minority traditional cultures, those minority groups and females are frozen in time and cannot pursue modernity. China Miao Internal orientalism Ethnic tourism Gender Modernity Cultural anthropology 104 Schein, Louisa. 1999. Performing Modernity. Cultural Anthropology 14(3):361-395. The author presents his observation of Miao weddings in Xinjian. The wedding was a mixture of traditions and modernity from the set up of the new room and the constitution of participants. Many participants were crossovers, who performed both the tradition and modernity. Aside from the wedding, performing traditional culture for the public also represents the modernized Miao identity. Crossovers and the cultural performance show that to maintain traditional culture does not contradict modernity. China Xinjian Miao Cultural performance Modernity Cultural anthropology Schein, Louisa. 2000. Minority rules: the Miao and the Feminine in China’s Cultural Politics. Durham. Duke University Press. After 1949, China government re-categorized the minority groups because of the needs of nation building and economic development. Growing economics in the minority regions draws attentions from foreigners. Those foreigners’ interests of minority culture stimulate the development of ethnic tourism. In order to improve tourism’s quality for attracting more tourists, those regions pursue modernization. China Guizhou Miao Minority culture Modernization Cultural anthropology Tapp, Nicholas. 2002. In Defense of the Archaic: A reconsideration of the 1950s Ethnic classification Project in China. Asian Ethnicity 3(1):63-86. Ethnic classification in 1950s was dominated by the state and minority elites. It served a particular cultural nationalism. It brought several effects. First, it privileged ethnic elites. People who can speak Mandarin can deliver their opinions. Second, falsely categorizing minority groups altered the size and formation of existing minority groups and created confusion of identities. Third, the formalized classification intervened in local processes of cultural affiliation and separation by freezing social process, which could originally be more fluid and mobile. China 105 Ethnic classification Cultural essentialism History Yang, Mayfair Mei-hui.1988. The Modernity of Power in the Chinese Socialist Order. Cultural Anthropology 3(4): 408-427. This article analyzes the differences of the ancient Chinese political order and modern political order. New Life Movement of the Chiang Kei-Sheik regime, the Cultural Revolution during the Mao’s period, and redistributive economy of the community regime were all measures taken for the purpose of modernization. But those measures promoted values, which collided with traditional culture and thus cut off the relationship between the state and the traditional ethics. China Modernization Political order Cultural anthropology Shades of Pink: Socialist Views and Morals in Post Socialist Romania Sophia Lungu The goal of this study was to examine culture, risk and security in everyday life in post-socialist Romania. The research question which I seek to answer through this study is: How do communist values and ideology affect people’s lives in Romania today, fifteen years after the collapse of the communist regime? I have researched and analyzed the writings of anthropologists, political scientists, sociologist, and economists. My research on the anthropological literature about Romania reveals that Verdery (1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999), is a major contributor. She has written extensively on topics such as ethnic conflicts (Romanian-Germans, Romanians-Hungarians, Romanians and Roma/Gypsies) as well as post-socialists issues such as redistribution and political nationalism. Kligman’s work concerns women’s status in society and, 106 concentrates women’s reproductive rights under, communist Dictator Nicolae Ceausescu (1998). She has also pursed these topics with Gal (Gal and Kligman 2000). Some anthropological and sociological research has addressed people’s memories of the transition from communism and how the transition affects people’s lives today. Theoretically important to my study are Connerton’s piece on collective memory various historical eras, such as the French Revolution and the Crusades (1989) and Watson’s writing on memories in communist China (1994). Esbenshade has also been a key contributor by exploring what post-socialist government chose to remember in EastCentral Europe (1995). Most of the anthropological and related research on the post-socialist world in Eastern Europe has concentrated on states rather than people. It thus lacks important information about the cultural impact of communism on contemporary people’s lives in post-communist context. The focus on more macro political trends was prompted, at least in part, by the opportunity of studying this unique aspect of political change. The dominant focus on the state, however, should be shifted to a central focus on people. Along this line, Kligman and Verdery are beginning to undertake research that is more people-close; an example is Kligman’s (1998) study on reproduction and Verdery’s (1999) study of reburial as an act of post-socialist change. Annotated Bibliography Burawoy, Michael and Katherine Verdery. Eds. 1999. Uncertain Transition: Ethnographies of Change in the Post socialist World Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. This is a collection of ethnographies studies and documents, cultural change in post-socialist, Russia and Eastern Europe. Authors include anthropologists, political 107 scientists and a sociologist. Chapters describe local responses to institution transformations in Russia, Romania, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, in this time of transition. Eastern Europe Post-socialism Democracy Cultural anthropology Political science Sociology Connerton, Paul. 1989. How Societies Remember (Themes in Social Science). New York: Cambridge University Press This book provides an innovative introduction to social memory. It concentrates on how incorporated practices become traditions. The author argues that images and recollected knowledge of the past are conveyed through performance rituals and commemorative practices, thus becoming traditions. Theoretical Social memory Recollected knowledge Commemorative rituals Social psychology Drazin, Adam. 2002 Chasing Moths: Cleanliness Intimacy and Progress in Romanian. In Ruth Mandel and Caroline Humphrey, eds. Markets and Moralities: Ethnographies of Post-Socialism New York: Berg Publishers 2002, 101-126 This ethnographic study emphasizes domestic life in Romania. Focusing on post socialist changes in attitudes towards practices of cleaning and decorating the home in relation to international markets and influences. Demonstrating how products sold by Amway can be used to analyze domestic economic change in Romania, Drazin illustrates an image of change in the economy. Drazin explores how the symbolism of cleanliness became essential to Romania’s transition to democracy. Romania Nationalism Consumption practices Symbolism Markets Esbenshade, Richard S. 1995. 108 Memory, History, National Identity in Postwar East-Central Europe. Representations 49, Special Issue: Identifying Histories: Eastern Europe Before and After 1989. University of California Press. 72-96 This essay deals with the selective memory of former socialist governments in Eastern Europe. Specifically Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany. Analyzing methods of memory, Esbenshade looks at what states chose to remember. Restorations and compensation of the governments to the people in these countries has allowed for progression toward democracy. Hungary Poland East Germany Comparative Memory Sociology Field, John. 2003. Social Capital. New York: Routledge Field introduces social capital. He discuses the concept’s roots in the ideas of Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and Robert Putman. This work focuses on the effect of social capital on society and government institutions. Defining social capital as based in social networks, Field emphasizes the importance of social relationships to access vital resources in society. Theoretical Social capital Social networks Access to resources Sociology Gal, Susan and Gail Kligman. Eds. 2000 The Politics of Gender after Socialism A Comparative Historical Essay. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press This book offers an analysis that integrates gender into the understanding of rapid transformation of Eastern Europe. The study seeks to centralize gender rights into the greater process of transformation by focusing on two questions: how gender relations and ideas about gender shape political and economic change in the region, and what forms of gender inequality are being shaped. Eastern Europe Comparative Theory Socialism Gender 109 Cultural anthropology Gupta, Akhil.1995 Blurred Boundaries: The Discourse of Corruption, the Culture of Politics and the Imagined State. American Ethnologist, 22 (2): 375 – 402. Gupta analyzes discourse about contemporary corruption of translocal institutions, within the context of India. Examining the practices of lower level bureaucrats in a small north Indian town as well as the mass media on the state level, Gupta focuses on the European distinctions between state and civil society, and how the notions apply to his case study. India Public culture Discourse Corruption Cultural anthropology Humphrey, Caroline. 1994 Remembering an “Enemy”: The Bogd Khann in Twentieth-Century Mongolia in Rubie Watson. Ed. Memory, History, and Opposition Under State Socialism. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press Developing the idea of “evocative transcript” as a method of memory, to explain the notion of “non-oppositional opposition. As a common resource that is available to everyone in Mongolian society. Humphrey demonstrates how jokes, written texts and various actions may invoke a double life in which anyone may be come suspect or victim, in a former socialist environment. Western Asia Mongolia Theory Memory Discourse Post socialist Cultural anthropology Humphrey, Caroline. 1999 Traders, “Disorders,” and Citizenship Regimes in Provincial Russia in Michael Burawoy and Katherine Verdery, eds. 1999. Uncertain Transition: Ethnographies of Change in the Post socialist World. Lanham Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. This chapter describes the proliferation of Russian traders in Buryatia Russia, to new private conglomerates. Humphrey analyzes the source of popular anxiety in postsocialist Russia. Reflecting. Illustrating how the breakdown of Soviet structures has lead 110 to the redistribution of collective, causing old interests to break down around new economic interest and hybrid institutions to emerge. Russia Economic change Governmental policy Socialist Cultural anthropology Kligman, Gail. 1998. The Politics of Duplicity: Controlling Reproduction in Ceausescu’s Romania Berkeley: University of California Press Analyzing the role of key figures, Kligman examines the reproductive policies of the Ceausescu regime and the population’s response. She draws connections between official polices under Ceausescu and the steps post socialist leaders took to change those polices. Romania Reproductive Government policy Post socialism Cultural anthropology Lancranjan, Ion. Katherine Verdery translated in 1996 Patriotism: A Vital Necessity In Gale Stokes ed. 1996 From Stalinism to Pluralism: A Documentary History of Eastern Europe since 1945. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. New York, York. Writing for a Romanian audience about nationalism during Ceausescu rein, Lancranjan emphasizes characteristics, which are common to nationalist discourse in the context of increasing ethnic tensions between the Hungarians and Romanians in Transylvania. The chapter focuses on heroism, self-sacrifices and victimization as characteristics of the nationalism Eastern Europe Romania Hungary Theory Nationalism Ethnic tensions Sociology Mandel, Ruth and Caroline Humphrey, eds. 2002. Markets and Moralities: Ethnographies of Post-Socialism New York: Berg 111 Chapters in this collection of ethnographies address the effects of “shock therapy” in Russian and Eastern European markets. An underlying theme is the contradictions between the old, socialist moral values, and the new world market economies. This collection offers a glimpse into the harsh realities of life after socialism, through an anthropological perspective. Eastern Europe Russia Moral values Socialist Shock therapy Economy Cultural anthropology O’Rourke, P.J. 2000. Dispatch: The Godfather Decade. An Encounter with Post-Soviet Corruption. Foreign Policy 121: 74-80. Analyzing the media in Hungary, Romania and Ukraine, O’Rourke highlights corruption in the post-soviet era. He discusses Hungary’s capitalistic pigs, Romania’s cigarette colonels, and Ukraine’s red emotions. The article emphasizes the downturn of the countries with the fall of communism as an open gate for corruption. Eastern Europe Romania Hungry Ukraine Comparative Corruption Media Post socialism Sociology Roman, Denise 2003. Fragmented Identities: Popular Culture, Sex, and Everyday Life in Post-communist Romania. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books Through Roman’s unique perspective as a native and scholar she depicts life in post-socialist Romania. This book focuses on the transformation of identity of the Romanian people in response to the west and to the end of socialism in the country. Romania Narrative Post socialism Transformation Identity 112 Verdery, Katherine. 1991 Theorizing Socialism: A Prologue to the “Transition”. American Ethnologist 18 (3): 419439 Highlighting the theoretical model of socialism used in her work in Romania, Verdery compares the ideas of several social theorists who have modified Marxism in order to analyze Eastern Europe. Verdery takes advantage of the opportunity to observe Eastern Europe’s transition to democracy from socialism, as internal organizations reconfigure their place within the global community. Eastern Europe Theory Post socialism Political economy Cultural politics Social change Cultural and political anthropology Verdery, Katherine. 1993. Nationalism and National Sentiment in Post Socialist Romania. Slavic Review 52 (2): 179-203 Offering alternatives to ancient hatred as an explanation of nationalism and national sentiment in Eastern Europe, Verdery disagrees with the notion that socialism suppressed intra-state ethnic conflict. Instead she insists that socialism aggravated the issue. She also considers how democratic politics and market economies highlighted the issues of inter-ethnic group problems in post socialist Romania. Eastern Europe Theory Nationalism Inter-ethnic tensions Post socialism Cultural and political anthropology Verdery, Katherine. 1994. Beyond the Nation in Eastern Europe. Social Text, 38: 1- 19 Verdery defines transnationalism in the context of Eastern Europe, specifically in Romania, building upon Arujn Appadurai’s work. She defines transnationalism as “process taking place across state borders.” Verdery emphasizes that national is of necessity transitionally constituted. This report highlights the difficulty which Romania as state and various ethnic groups face in coming together as a nation. 113 Eastern Europe Romania Theory Transnationalism Post socialism Cultural and political anthropology Verdery, Katherine. 1995. National Ideology Under Socialism: Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceausescu's Romania. Berkeley: University of California Press An ethno-history of intellectual discourse, Verdery’s study is grounded in contemporary theory. Questioning national identity and nationalism, she examines cultural changes and ethnic tensions through the current transformations in Romania. Verdery discuses how the actions of the intellectuals undermined Ceausescu’s regime. Romania Contemporary theory Post socialism Nationalism Intellectuals Social transformations Cultural and political anthropology Verdery, Katherine. 1998. Transationalism, Nationalism, Citizenship, and Property: Eastern Europe Since 1989. American Ethnologist, 25 (8): 291-306. Verdery examines the themes of transtionalism, nationalism, and cultural identity. By treating transtionalism and nationalism as mutually constitutive, Verdery argues that the two ideals shape simultaneously and sequentially, as well as emphasizing how transtionalism nationalizes. Focusing on the topics of citizenship and property in Eastern Europe, she illustrates the challenges of transnationalism and nationalism occurring in Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe Theory Nationalism National identity Citizen property rights Post socialism Cultural and political anthropology Verdery, Katherine. 1999. 114 The Political Lives of Dead Bodies: Reburial and Post- Socialist Change. New York: Columbia University Press Growing out of the 1997 Harriman Lectures, Verdery’s book. Focuses on two cases studies, which symbolize change and acceptance of a new era in post-socialist Europe. Verdery illustrates the transition, which is occurring in Romania and the former Yugoslavia, through the reburial of important people as a process of reconciliation with the socialist era. Eastern Europe Romania Yugoslavia Comparative Social change Cultural and political anthropology Watson, Rubie S. ed. 1994. Memory, History, and Opposition Under State Socialism. Santa Fe, New Mexico: School of American Research Press. A result of a workshop held at the School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico, this collection of ethnographic studies address memories of socialist life in various contexts including: Mongolia, Post-Mao China, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Georgia. Chapter focus on the differences between official histories and the history which is remembered by the people. China Mongolia Georgia Eastern Europe Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia Memory Socialist Cultural anthropology Socially Constructed Identity Categories and Decision-Makers’ Approach to Risk Management Jacqueline S. Johnson In exploring the relationships between culture, risk and security in various cultural contexts, one inevitably discovers human communities’ vulnerability to risk and security. Identity criteria such as race, ethnicity, indigenousness and/or class shape people’s 115 experiences of risk and security. My research examines if and how identity criteria influence risk and security agents such as public policy makers’ decision-making processes. For the most part, my findings suggest that identity criteria strongly influence decision-making practices of policy makers. One way to conceptualize how race, ethnicity, indigenousness and/or class affect determinants of risk and security is to view the identity criteria as social constructs. Social constructs relate to the social realities and categories that societies create to characterize human differences, maintain social order in societies and effectuate power (Brodkin, 2000; Harrison, 1995). Identity criteria as social constructs create exclusionary relationships in the decision making process, contending that certain communities are more vulnerable than others to risk and security. For example, several authors highlight the historical precedence of racism and its discriminatory practices to explain public policy makers’ lack of response to environmental racism, resulting in the persistence of environmental injustice. Authors such as Lipuma and Metzoff (2005) and Field (2003) focus on the intersecting social structures of class and ethnicity to suggest that limited economic power and access to resources often exclude minorities from certain public policy decision-making processes. On the international level, Michael Barnett explores international bureaucracies’ indifference toward implementing policies that reduce violence and conflict (1997). Barnett’s investigation of the United Nations’ indifference toward the Rwandan genocide is due, in large part, to the interests of Rwanda being situated outside the scope of the interests of the international community. Several authors also suggest that 116 indigenousness influence policy makers’ in that policy-makers rely on expert knowledge in implementing policies for local communities (Kirsch, 2001; Stephen 2002). As the previously mentioned sources pinpoint unfavorable effects when policy makers consider identity criteria, I found several sources that suggest focusing on identity criteria may be conducive to public policy makers’ decision-making practices. For example, Buttedahl urges policymakers to consider race, class and indigenousness as human security concerns (1997). Buttedahl supports her claim by suggesting that policy makers’ consideration of such identity criteria will reduce incidents of human conflict. In Color-coded Cures, Kingland examines how medicines and cures based on biological factors could eventually affect health policies and possibly stem research toward improving health conditions of ethnic minority communities (2006). Are certain populations marginalized when identity criteria is considered in public policy decision-making processes? What are the alternatives to considering identity criteria in the decision-making process? How shall anthropologists get involved (or do ethnographies) in the decision making process to identify and describe human groups most vulnerable to risk and security? As existing research suggests policy makers’ decisions are influenced by identity criteria, future research should further investigate the inquiries previously cited to advance discussions relating to communities’ vulnerability to risk and security. Annotated Bibliography Austin, Regina and Michael Schill 1994 Black, Brown, Red and Poisoned. In Unequal Protection. Robert Bullard, ed. Pp. 53-76. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Austin and Schill’s legal discussion addresses the challenges such as covert indoctrinated practices and laws that communities of color face in their fight for 117 environmental justice. The authors establish their findings based on viewpoints expressed by individuals and various organizations involved in the environmental justice movement. Among several arguments the authors make, they suggest that the environmental decision-making process excludes minorities and that the mainstream environmental organizations’ goals often overshadow grassroots organizations’ goals. Comparative/general environmental racism Grassroots organization Mainstream organizations Legal studies Barnett, Michael N. 1997 The U.N. Security Council, Indifference and Genocide in Rwanda. Current Anthropology 12(4): 551-578. Barnett asserts that bureaucratic indifference toward peacemaking efforts in civil war-ravaged Rwanda stem from Rwandan “security interests” being outside of the international community bureaucracies’ “interests.” Interests of bureaucracies are influenced by but are not limited to economic and political power, and identity criteria such as race, religion and gender. Barnett uses data and documentation collected while serving as a political advisor for the mandated United Nations Assistance Mission in Rwanda. Rwanda Civil war Peacekeeping Bureaucratic indifference Political science Cultural anthropology Brodkin, Karen 2000 Global Capitalism: What’s Race Got To Do With It? American Ethnologist 27(2): 237256. Global capitalism shapes the formation of state power and nationalism, which also affects public policy in the process. Brodkin draws from the case study of Jewish communities and women in the U.S. capitalist labor-force to develop her argument that global capitalism is linked to the social constructs of race, class and gender. Brodkin’s analysis of the historically linked transformations among race, class and gender help anthropologists conceptualize the mutual relationships of social constructs in global capitalism. Comparative/global capitalism Class Gender U.S. Jews 118 Nationalism Cultural anthropology Buttedahl, Paz 1997 Viewpoint: True Measures of Human Security. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. IDRC: Resources: Books: Reports 22 (3). Buttedahl’s report suggests the urgent need of a conceptual model that alerts appropriate national and international actors, early on, of potential conflicts among human populations. Buttedahl’s proposed conceptual model departs from the traditional state-centered framework and moves toward a human-centered development and security framework and a risk analysis framework. The report urges policy makers in their development of foreign policies to consider and address human security concerns such as ethnicity, religion, the environment, governance, economy and human rights. Otherwise incidents of human conflict will occur. Comparative/global conflict State-centered framework Human-security framework Risk analysis framework Policy studies Checker, Melissa 2005 Polluted Promises: Environmental Racism and the Search for Justice in a Southern Town. New York: New York University Press. Checker uses an innovative anthropological methodology combining archival research and participatory environmental activism. Her focus is on Hyde Park, a lowincome southern U.S. African-American community in Georgia. Through activist ethnography, Checker provides scholars and general reading audiences with first hand knowledge of the environmental injustices that face the Hyde Park community and similar communities. Checker argues that the historical precedence of racism and its discriminatory practices contributes to the persistence of environmental injustice. U.S. South Environmental (social and ecological) pollution Environmental injustice Environmental activism Environmental racism Applied anthropology Farmer, Paul 2004 An Anthropology of Structural Violence. Current Anthropology 45(3): 305-323. Farmer’s essay on structural violence, as used to describe the cultural context of an impoverished Haitian community, provides theoretical insights about discriminatory 119 decision-making practices, which affect less powerful people. Structural violence is an analytical concept used by anthropologists to elucidate the historical embedded social structures imposed on oppressed communities. Haiti Structural violence Social inequality Racism Power Agency Medical anthropology Feinman, Gary M. and Christopher T. Fisher 2005 The Dangers of Ignoring the Evidence: Hurricanes, Hazards and Survival. Anthropology News 46(8): 20. Feinman and Fisher assert that a long-term perspective, human decisions, environment and unintentional consequences must be considered collectively in responding to situations of catastrophe. The anthropologists’ brief commentary, regarding the catastrophic events resulting from hurricanes Katrina and Rita may serve as a helpful research starting point for anthropologists examining decision-makers’ preparedness and response to disasters, and their possible social biases and blinders. Theoretical/risk assessment Catastrophe Structural violence Policy Environment Applied anthropology Field, John 2003 Social Capital. New York: Routledge. Field’s approach to social capital is an analytical tool to conceptualize how social networks, membership, and contacts affect peoples’ vulnerability to risk and security. For instance, race and class are considered strong indicators of accessibility to resources and power; hence, exclusion from public policy development and decision-making processes. Theoretical/social empowerment Social capital Social networks Sociology Fosher, Kerry and Stacey Lathrop 1996-2006 120 Human Practices Reveal Problems of Emergency Preparedness: How Anthropologists Can Respond. Electronic document, http://www.aaanet.org/kat_kosher_lathrop.htm, accessed March 18. Planners, policymakers, decision-makers and policy analysts face the challenge of compiling massive emergency preparedness and response information for situations of disaster. Fosher and Lathrop draw from experiences of working in emergency situations to suggest the necessity of emergency response personnel teaming with cultural anthropologists. Anthropologists may assist in the risk management process by providing to emergency response personnel a synthesis analysis of the massive information, including information regarding certain populations’ vulnerability to risk and security. An anthropological analysis helps reduce gaps between emergency personnel’ language and concepts, ultimately resulting in the development of more strategic and effective preparedness and response plans. Multidisplinary coordination Disaster response Applied anthropology Groskind, Fred 1994 Ideological Influences on Public Support for Assistance to Poor Families. Social Work 39(1): 81-89. U.S. public support and attitudes regarding public policies are critical factors, or should be, in the public policy decision-making process. Groskind provides a sociological analysis of how the public’s views regarding politics, racial or ethnic and class identity influence Americans’ support or non-support for government aid to lowincome or poor families. Basing his argument on the findings of a national opinion survey, Groskind suggests that public views are not heavily influenced by class or economic self-interests. Instead, he finds that political ideas shape the public’s views for support or non-support of assistance to low-income and poor families. U.S. political ideologies Poverty Racial attitudes Welfare Sociology Harrison, Faye V. 1995 The Persistent Power of “Race” in the Cultural and Political Economy of Racism. Annual Review of Anthropology 24:47-74. In this review article, Harrison explores the complex structural consequences of race, including anthropologists’ “no-race” biological approach to race discourse. Harrison’s descriptions of race over time and across cultures attest to the contention that “race” matters. “Race” is of importance in political and public ideologies, in maintaining 121 social order and in decision-makers’ assumption of oppressive power over less powerful communities, especially in situations of risk worldwide. Theoretical/social construction of race Neo-racism Neo-racism without races Scientific antiracism Racialized ethnicity Cultural anthropology Hollander, Gail M. 2006 ‘Subject to Control’: Shifting Geographies of Race and Labour in the U.S. Sugar Agroindustry, 1930-1950. Cultural Geographies 13(2): 266-292. Hollander analyzes the shift of the sugar agroindustry from south Florida to the Caribbean job market. Holland uses data collected from historical documents, reports, and publications of the United States Sugar Corporation (USSC) and the U.S. government. The analysis shows how the historic process of racialization structures labor markets. Hollander suggests that embedded racism of the Jim Crow South and the history of plantation slavery both shape the practices of the USSC, the sugar agroindustry’s administrator. South Florida U.S. Carribean Agricultural industries Slavery Labor market Cultural studies Kingsland, James 2006 Colour-coded Cures. New Scientist 186(2503): 42-47. The phenomenon of race-specific medicines based on ethnic biological features is a developing controversy among medical and social scientists. Kingsland examines the case of BiDil, the first ever race-specific medicine to be considered for approval by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA). BiDil is a treatment for heart related conditions. Based on clinical trials, the treatment appears to work better with African Americans than among other ethnic groups. As the term “race” continues to spark debate, medical and social scientists alike express skepticism of BiDil’s beneficial effects. The ground-breaking medical research has implications for health policy. U.S. health policy “Race” or ethnicity groups Heredity Medical anthropology 122 Kirsch, Stuart 2001 Environmental Disaster, “Culture Loss,” and the Laws. Current Anthropology 42(2): 167-198. Kirsh examines tribunal proceedings in response to nuclear weapons testing in the Marshall Islands to show how indigenous populations’ claims are overshadowed by “expert knowledge.” Kirsch cites several international court proceedings regarding indigenous cultural claims around the world. The court proceedings reveal that decisionmakers often rely on expert knowledge based on socially constructed definitions and terminology in describing and interpreting cultures. As a result, in the event of man-made disasters, decision-makers overlook indigenous populations’ perception and claims regarding “culture loss.” Kirsch’s article asserts that expertise influences the creation and implementation of laws, which often exclude indigenous populations’ viewpoints in situations of disaster. Marshall Islands Cultural loss Expert knowledge Indigenous populations Nuclear weapons testing Socio-cultural anthropology Klinenberg, Eric 2002 Heat Wave: A Social Autopsy of Disaster in Chicago. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Klinenberg’s “social autopsy” offers a “dissection” of the social structures and layers that contributed to the occurrence of the Chicago heat wave of 1995. Klinenberg, conducted interviews, observation, and library research to highlight the roles race, class, place, age and gender played in vulnerability to morbidity and mortality in the 1995 heat wave. Social and economic inequalities, concentrated areas of affluence and poverty, and increasing lifestyles of isolation created marked patterns in vulnerability and response. Klinenberg shows that the “timely and vigorous” response of local governments, media, organizations and citizens greatly reduces rates of heat-related morbidity and mortality. U.S. Chicago Excess death and disease Natural disaster Disaster response Racism Social inequality Sociology Liebow, Edward 1995 123 Inside the Decision-Making Process: Ethnography and Environmental Risk Management. National Association for the Practice of Anthropology Bulletin 16(1): 22-35. Liebow reviews the ethnographic literature on environmental risk management and suggests that effective risk assessment requires an “inside” involvement of laypersons in the decision-making process. Liebow further elaborates that excluding laypersons or non-specialists who possess, local cultural knowledge, from risk management processes, worsens vulnerable persons’ experiences in disasters. The article advises that researchers, in their study of disasters, should get “inside” local decisionmaking processes. Comparative/general decision-making process Expert/layperson dichotomy Local knowledge Environmental hazards Applied anthropology Lipuma, Edward and Meltzoff, Sarah K. 2005 The Crosscurrents of Ethnicity and Class in the Construction of Public Policy. American Ethnologist 24(1): 114-131. Lipuma and Meltzoff examine the creation of a land-use plan in the Florida Keys to demonstrate intersections of ethnicity and class in the plan’s implementation. They specifically focus on rezoning plans that counter the original plan’s design to curb development. The rezoning plans would permit tourist and vacation home development in communities zoned solely for commercial fishermen activity. The proposed amendments have been set forth by Anglo high-income retirees, sportfishermen and tourists. The planning of the proposed amendments exclude, yet most affect, Anglo and Cuban commercial fisherman of lower and working class communities. The article reveals that what the policy makers in south Florida consider “rational management” is, in fact, embedded in hidden relations of economic and symbolic power. Florida Keys Class Ethnicity Policy anthropology Okongwu, Anne F. and Joan P. Mencher 2000 The Anthropology of Public Policy: Shifting Terrains. Annual Review of Anthropology. 29: 107-24. Okongwu and Mencher’s review article focuses on how cultural anthropology contributes to international social policy research, practice, and advocacy. The review provides an analysis and description of several areas of social public policies and environmental public policies. Okongwu and Mencher recommend that anthropologists offer policymakers comprehensive analysis of social policies to influence more socially 124 sound public policy. Otherwise, policymakers will make decisions that have negative social affects. Comparative/globalization and policy Environmental policy Policy scientists Social scientists Applied anthropology Stephens, Sharon 2002 Bounding Uncertainty. In Catastrophe and Culture. The Anthropology of Disaster Susana M. Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith, eds. Pp. 91-111. Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. Stephens provides a case study of communication of expert knowledge by “protection experts” or professional leaders to mid-level government professionals. The chapter highlights the shortcomings associated with expert knowledge. In technological disasters expert knowledge based on “averaging-out” statistics considers minimally the cultural and historical contexts of individual communities. Stephens’ investigation of radiological protection experts in light of Chernobyl supports her claim that, in risk management, the policy-makers’ disregard of the human or the identity of human groups aggravates disastrous situations. Comparative/global expert knowledge Technological disaster Radiation exposure International studies Tucker, Jed 2004 Making Difference in the Aftermath of the September 11th 2001 Terrorist Attacks. Critique of Anthropology 24(1):34-50. Tucker compares two New York City school communities’ post 9/11 response to environmental hazards in the schools. He contends that the schools’ responses and the public’s perception of the schools’ responses are affected by class, race and access to knowledge. Tucker’s comparison of the schools also reveal that social constructs or lines of distinction are used to establish social order governed by the recovery decision-making process following a disaster. New York City Class difference Racialization Social capital Social order Sociology 125 Wigley, Daniel C. and Kristin S. Shrader-Frechette 1996 Environmental Racism and Biased Methods of Risk Assessment. Risk Health, Safety and Environment 7:55-88. Wigley and Shrader-Frechette assert that environmental decision-making involves “intentional” racial biases. The authors base their findings on case studies of U.S. minority communities that have experienced environmental racism and injustice. The case studies reveal that the decision-makers’ of environmental programs and policies rely on “sloppy”, fallacious, and outdated calculations and methodology. Using their backgrounds of law and philosophy, Wigley and Shrader-Frechett take a moral advocatory approach in describing the injustices minorities face in risk assessment. U.S. minority communities Biases in risk assessment Environmental injustice Law and philosophy The Risks of Secure Health Care Access for Marginal Communities in China Miranda Horan Access to good quality health care is difficult for people who live on the margins of society. In China, where the state health care has been decentralized and is now a privatized commodity, access to health care is biased against those who cannot afford expensive Western medicine and/or live in distant rural communities. The available research shows that because of this bias people are turning to other methods of healing to combat disease and injury. Traditional Chinese medicine, meditation and other ethnicbased methodologies are used as medical alternatives to modern Western medicine. Furthermore, as China continues to develop its economy and society, infectious disease prevention is no longer the focus of the health care system as the biggest health threats come from the dangers of chronic disease such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. Marginalized communities have the greatest risk of developing and succumbing to these diseases because they lack a secure and organized health care system that will provide them with the resources that they need. 126 The most difficult aspect in researching this topic was finding an adequate amount of anthropological sources. A significant amount of information came from biological and economic sources but very few from the field of anthropology. It was also difficult to find information on distinct marginalized groups: most research focused on the rural poor only and some focused on women, children and the larger ethnic minority groups such as Tibetans and Mongolians. Publications on the urban poor, immigrants, refugees, the mentally ill and smaller ethnic minorities was not available. Some of the most prolific research came from Arthur Kleinman, a medical anthropologist who works in China. Work also came from Iowa State University anthropologist Shu-Min Huang. Both have done research on the changing nature of the Chinese health care system, from collective to privatized, and from infectious diseases to chronic diseases. Kleinman has also done work on epidemic outbreaks (most notably SARS) and what effect a disease like that has not only biologically but socially as well which will become more important other epidemic diseases that originate in Asia, such as the avian influenza, spread around the world. Understanding the health care system of China and how it functions in such a diverse society is important as the country continues to develop socially, politically and economically. Marginalized communities, such as the rural poor and ethnic minorities, are continually at risk of suffering from treatable diseases but cannot seek treatment because they are without secure access to a health care system. Since they are without such a system they have learned to cope with the lack of health resources available by focusing instead on more traditional methods of healing. As China continues towards change, the health care system and its concerns reflect the shifting nature of the state. 127 Annotated Bibliography Adams, Vincanne, Suellen Miller, Sienna Craig, Nyima, Sonam, Droyoung, Lhakpen, and Michael Varner 2005 The Challenge of Cross-Cultural Clinical Trials Research: Case Report from the Tibetan Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 19 (3): 267-289. This article compares the research of Tibetan medicine with misoprostol for preventing postpartum hemorrhage in delivering women in an effort to determine how Western clinical research works in non-Western medical settings. As the health care system is largely decentralized in China, this large ethnic minority population utilizes what it does know about Western medicine in an effort to assert their independence. However, the ways in which Western methodologies are applied and the strategies of negotiation and translation across cultures are not easy to find. Tibet Postpartum hemorrhage Misoprostol Western medical methodology Medical anthropology Anderson, James G. 1992 Health Care in the People’s Republic of China: A Blend of Traditional and Modern. Central Issues in Anthropology 10 (1): 67-75. Anderson gives an overview of the health care system in China and how they have reconciled their traditional methods with modern/Western ideas of medicine and treatment. This article discusses how Chairman Mao brought the responsibility of health care to the masses by moving health care training facilities from urban to rural areas, where 85 per cent of the population was located, and training local people to treat a variety of ailments and injuries. This system allows for greater access to health care for everyone despite location or socioeconomic status. China, rural Barefoot doctors Traditional Chinese medicine Cultural Revolution Medical anthropology Chen, Nancy 2003 Breathing Spaces: Qigong, Psychiatry and Healing in China. New York: Columbia University Press. 128 The practice of qigong, meditative breathing exercises, in China allows people to seek a stable form of healing while the formerly state-subsidized medical care switches to for-profit market medicine. It also serves as a socially organizing function allowing practitioners to form new informal networks of social support. As new psychological diseases are being discovered, the Chinese government has medicalized some forms of qigong while promoting other more scientific forms. China Qigong Social change Medicalization Medical anthropology Farquhar, Judith 1996 Market Magic: Getting Rich and Getting Personal in Medicine after Mao. American Ethnologist 23 (2): 239-257. With the decentralization of the health care system by Chairman Mao, private medical practices have begun popping up across China. These private practices utilize popular healing methods and cultivate personal auras in efforts to attract patients. In addition to this, these private practices have also allowed the medical personnel of these places to use them as a means of getting rich - a move that essentially undermines the collectivism of the state. China Private medical practice State collectivism Cultural anthropology Furth, Charlotte and Ch'en Shu-yueh 1992 Chinese Medicine and the Anthropology of Menstruation in Contemporary Taiwan. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 6 (1): 27-48. Women in contemporary Taiwan are changing the way they view themselves in terms of social status and pollution beliefs within their culture. Outsiders view the traditional Chinese medicine and culture as constricting to women and as having created negative images of the female. However, the women feel that their traditional system provides them with a better alternative to Western-style medicine in terms of menstruation while the pollution beliefs are not negative but rather gives the women a sense of social decency and dignity. These women have found that their traditional health system gives them with what they need, medically, socially and culturally. Taiwan Traditional Chinese medicine Biomedicine Women’s culture 129 Pollution beliefs Menstruation Medical anthropology Gu X.Y., Tang S.L., and Cao S.H. 1995 The Financing and Organization of Health Services in Poor Rural China: A Case Study in Donglan County. International Journal of Health Planning and Management 10 (4): 265282. With the socio-economic reforms of the late 1970s, health sector resources expanded quickly but not always in a positive way. In the county of Donglan in southern China, the decentralization of health care along with the financial responsibility system have resulted in weak financing and provision of rural health services in the poorer areas. Preventive programs and basic health care, especially for the poor, are in decline in this area as they have financial difficulty in obtaining access to services. China, rural Donglan county Poverty Financial responsibility system Decentralization of health care Health studies Huang Shu-Min, Kimberly C. Falk and Su-Min Chen 1996 Nutritional Well-Being of Preschool Children in a North China Village. Modern China (22) 4: 355-381. As social and cultural reforms are creating change in society and the growth of the economy continues, China’s public health concerns are in a transitional stage, shifting the focus from acute and infectious disease prevention to chronic disease control. As the gap between rural and urban populations grows, data on nutrition and health status become important measures of how the reforms are affecting the population. By examining the nutrition of children in the rural village of Fengjiacun in the Shandong province of northern China, information is provided on individual health and the social dynamics of the community in relation to the state and how it cares for the rural poor. China, rural Fengjiacun village Nutrition Public health care reform Society-state relationship Nutrition and health studies Huang Shu-Min 1988 130 Transforming China’s Collective Health Care System: A Village Study. Social Science and Medicine (27) 9: 879-888. The health care system of Lin Village, Fujian Province in southeast China was established under the collective commune organization in 1968 and was transformed in 1978 when the government dismantled rural communal organizations. The changes caused the residents to reorganize the finances, training and operation of the villagebased medical facility. The paper also identifies both benefits and problems that could affect the villages as the system is turned into an individual profit-seeking venture. China, rural Lin Village Commune Individual Collective medicine Medical anthropology Janes, Craig R. 1995 The Transformations of Tibetan Medicine. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 9 (1): 6-39. This article explores how Tibetan medicine has become institutionally modernized through changes in theory, practice and methods. Despite Chinese rule, Tibet has not given in to state interests. Their medical practices have instead become a type of ethnic revitalization and resistance to the Chinese state, particularly the treatment of rlung, a class of sickness associated with rapid social, economic and political change. Tibet Tibetan medicine Rlung Cultural resistance Medical pluralism Medical anthropology Cultural anthropology Jianlin, Ji, Arthur Kleinman and Anne E. Becker 2001 Suicide in Contemporary China: A Review of China's Distinctive Suicide Demographics in Their Sociocultural Context. Harvard Review of Psychiatry 9 (1): 1-12. Data on suicide in China have not been publicly reported prior to this article and the information presented by the authors shows that, while low in the past, suicide is on the rise in certain groups: in rural areas, and among women and the elderly. These rates are indicative of the marginalization of particular social groups in China and how they feel they must cope with their social status. China Suicide Social marginalization 131 Women Elderly Cross-cultural psychiatry Medical anthropology Kaufman, Joan 2005 China’s Health Care Response. SARS in China: Prelude to Pandemic? Arthur Kleinman and James G. Watson, eds. pp. 53-68. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. In 2003, a SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) epidemic broke out in China. While it only lasted a few months, its impact is considered to be a warning of how society will be able to deal with a large-scale epidemic, short-term and long-term, economically, socially, politically and even morally. This chapter focuses on the health care system‘s response, such as early detection, isolating cases, quarantine, and disinfection, in order to bring the epidemic under control. China SARS Pandemic Globalization Medical anthropology Kleinman, Arthur 1995 Writing at the Margin: Discourse Between Anthropology and Medicine. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. The author of this book focuses on how issues of disease relate to larger social problems. The body, as such, connects the individual to the group experience where certain diseases, such as depression, are not isolated in the individual but are an experience in a broader social context. Social policy and health policy are therefore linked to the treatment of individuals who suffer from illnesses, such as epilepsy, in China where individuals are stigmatized by society. China Individual Collective Epilepsy Health policy Social policy Medical anthropology Kleinman, Arthur 1986 Social Origins of Distress and Disease: Depression, Neurasthenia and Pain in Modern China. New Haven: Yale University Press. 132 Kleinman discusses how expressions of depression, neurasthenia and pain in modern China are idioms of psychological distress. Psychological distress most likely comes in the form of somatization and how those physical symptoms become a factor in gaining access to scarce resources and perceived powerlessness and helplessness of individuals. He further discusses how the body’s relationship to society interpreted by society and how that interpretation informs social understanding of the interaction between culture and the self. China Depression Neurasthenia Somatization Medical anthropology Li, Victor H. 1975 Politics and Health Care in China: The Barefoot Doctors. Stanford Law Review 27 (3): 827-840. This article discusses China’s reaction to the breakdown of their health services just prior to the establishment of the Republic and the use of “barefoot doctors” in rural areas in order to provide health care to such a large population. Barefoot doctors were locally trained for a period of 3-6 months to diagnose and treat a variety of ailments, promote sanitation and pest control and even conduct minor surgical procedures. By using the barefoot doctors, the government was able to bypass its lack of trained professional doctors and physicians and still provide adequate care for the people while at the same time preventing professional elitism that is associated with persons of a certain education. China, rural Barefoot doctors Preventive health care Grassroots health care Medical anthropology Longde Wang, Lingzhi Kong, Fan Wu, Yamin Bai and Robert Burton. 2005 Chronic Diseases 4: Preventing Chronic Diseases in China. The Lancet 366 (9499): 1821-1824. Eighty percent of deaths that occur in China are due to chronic diseases such as cancer, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and obesity. With such high health risks being so prevalent, the government is stepping in and implementing prevention and control programs. These programs are aimed at reducing the frequency of chronic disease but resources and sustainability are difficult to maintain. China Chronic diseases 133 Health prevention and disease control programs Medical anthropology Stoner, Bradley P. 1986 Understanding Medical Systems: Traditional, Modern, and Syncretic Health Care Alternatives in Medically Pluralistic Societies. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 17(2): 44-48. This article is a discussion of how various populations blend traditional and modern/Western medical practices. Although modern medicine may provide better results for a patient, members of certain social or ethnic groups may prefer to use the traditional medical practices in addition to the available modern procedures as a way to maintain a connection with their culture. Maintaining traditional medicine is evident in many Asian countries, such as China, Japan and India. China, general Health care alternatives Traditional medicine Medical syncretism Medical anthropology Wang, Ruotao 2000 Critical Health Literacy: A Case Study from China in Schistosomiasis Control. Health Promotion International 15 (3): 269-274. In China, a social and political movement that began in the 1950’s aimed at increasing health education and literacy in the population at large in an effort to reduce infectious diseases. It was effective for some diseases but others, such as schistosomiasis still remain a major threat. The author argues that in order to fully combat infectious diseases, China must continue to develop in the field of health policy so that the state can better respond to social and cultural changes of disease. Using schistosomiasis as a case study, this article focuses on how higher rates of health literacy lead to positive outcomes in disease control and prevention. China health education health literacy schistosomiasis public health White, S.D. 1999 Deciphering "Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine" in the Rural Lijiang Basin: State Policy and Local Practice(s) in Socialist China. Social Science and Medicine 49 (10): 1333-47. 134 This article explores the practice of integrated medicine (Chinese and Western) in the rural southwest area of China known as the Lijiang Basin. Examined at both the state policy level and in the everyday practice by villagers, integrated medicine can be viewed as operating “syncretism from above” by state officials and “syncretism from below” by the lay people. The practice of integrated medicine in the rural basin shows how state policy and local operation work together to provide care to isolated communities. China, rural Lijiang Basin Integrated medicine Syncretism Cultural anthropology Williams, Dee Mack 1997 Grazing the Body: Violations of Land and Limb in Inner Mongolia. American Ethnologist 24 (4): 763-785. Some Mongol communities of Inner Mongolia are at risk for exposure to chronic cold stress and accidental injury and death from hypothermia. The global political economy and privatization of rangeland has led to the degradation of land with soil erosion and the body with limb deficiencies, amputation and death. The male herders of the Mongol communities are at the largest risk of death from the lack of available health care as China has decollectivized the region which has led to destabilization and left the Mongol communities out of the protection and support of the Chinese state. Inner Mongolia Decollectivization Health risks Lack of health services Hypothermia Globalization Land degradation Medical anthropology Xiang Biao 2005 Migration and Health in China: Problems, Obstacles and Solutions. National University of Singapore: Asian MetaCentre Research Paper Series, No. 17. Eighty-five million rural-urban migrants in mainland China face great health risks but are not recognized as being in need of or offered any protection and support from a medical care system. The author argues that this is due mainly to institutional arrangements around security from health risks and service provision, particularly for migrant workers who live in rural villages but work in cities. Because of their high mobility and indefinable status as either rural or urban, migrants are often unable to secure access to health care either privately or from the state. 135 China Rural-urban migrants Health care provision Access to health care Health policy studies 136
