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Cognitive psychology – study of mental processes, views the mind as an info processor Developmental – examines physical, psychological and social development through life Experimental – focuses on basic processes (learning, sensory, motivational) Industrial-Organizational – workplace (teamwork, leadership, satisfaction) Personality – how traits influence one another’s behavior Social – examines thoughts, feelings and social behavior Sept. 9 What is Psychology? Explanations of Behavior Schools of Psychology Pioneers Scientific study of behavior and the mind Different approaches to psychology What do psychologists do Who were the pioneers Long past, short history – EG Boring Wilhelm Wundt Explaining behavior Biological – neural, hormonal; what’s happening to body/brain (physically) i.e. aggression – serotonin Individual/Psychological – learning, cognitive processes; attributed to upbringing i.e. aggression – learned to be aggressive, environment (triggers) Cultural/Environmental – value system of society i.e. aggression – valued or rewarded by society, environmental factors s.a. temperature or noise INTERACTIONS through all three. Biology affects psychological make up which affects culture/environment. Or culture/environment affects psychology which affects biology. Different levels of analysis and approaches, all correct. Functionalism – focus on function or significance of behavior How does behavior help us to adapt/survive Primarily biological Psychobiology, neuroscience, ethology (field study of behavior) Psychodynamic – focus on subconscious/unconscious Unconscious experience… the mind Look for unresolved conflict Importance of personality Methods of interacting with this part of the mind Psychodynamic therapy (takes too long, usually briefed) Unconscious processing Behaviorism – focus on behavior, not mind How behavior changes under varying conditions (payment…) Primarily environmental Learning theories Behavior modification (environmental circumstances i.e. phobias) Gestalt Tradition (cognitive) – focus on perception and experience How people think and remember Consider in context (everything is changed by environment around it) Biological & environmental Cognition & information processing (human thought) Humanist – focus on value and choice Similar to psychodynamic (mind) but in a positive manner Help people fulfill potential Biological & environmental Carl Rogers – people striving to be their best (let patient talk) The “self” – who you are and what you want to do Biological & environmental Biological – focus on neural & chemical basis of behavior What’s going on inside body and brain Brain is mind and everything Biological (& environmental) Neuroscience Brain imaging Socio-cultural Tradition – focuses on cultural influence Humans embedded in culture (N.A. individualistic, Asia group oriented) Norms, group processes Environmental Cross-cultural psychology Issues in development, disorders and thinking Clinical, developmental, educational, experimental, IO, personality, school, social Renee Descartes Human physiology, reflex arc, stimulus response Hypothesized hydraulics Gustav Fechner Problem solving Measured response speed Psychophysics Wilhelm Wundt First psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany Univ. of Leipzig offers degrees in psychological study William James Psychological lab established 8 months after Wundt Degrees through Harvard medical school First textbook Socio-cultural, survival values Mary Calkins First female president of APA and graduate of Harvard medical school Developmental psychologist Sigmund Freud Trying to understand things that “don’t exist” Glove anesthesia – no feeling in hand/fingers but still feeling in upper arms Unconscious mind Carl Jung Went along with Freud until ‘crazy’ [penis envy, wild sexuality] New psychoanalytic school of thought without sexual Carl Rogers Focused on what one is striving to be Self-actualized, rather than conflict Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning and association Learning theory B.F. Skinner Reinforcement and punishment is learining Operant conditioning Jean Piaget Studied intelligence, worked with Binet on IQ scale Young kids don’t think the same way as adults (cognitive development) Researched on his own children Karl Lashley & Wilder Penfield Brain surgeons, investigating lesions in brain and their effects Lashley – animals; Penfield – epilepsy surgery stimulating brain Wolfgang Köhler Insight, understanding Gestalt Kurt Levin Social psychology, how people act in a social setting THEMES Psychology is empirical Theoretically diverse (explanation) Multiple causes for behavior Heredity and environment jointly influence Experience is subjective Evolves in a socio-cultural historical context Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Paid $20 to lie, must have been really bad Paid $1 to lie, can’t have been too bad When you do something without justification, you have to bring yourself to understand why Scientific Method Identify problem and formulate hypothesis Tentative relation statement between 2 or more events Theory: collection of hypotheses, more general & elaborate explanation (predictions) Good theory = testable hypotheses e.g. theory of relativity predicts red-shift, testable Freudian theory – not testable (unconscious) Behavior theory (response) – testable Design & execute the experiment IDENTIFY INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE Independent: manipulated Dependent: measured Independent -causes? dependent Without proper control, experiment is confounded (mistake in causal explanation) Example: Pepsi & Coke. Order effect. Association effect (red can, M vs. Q). Inaccurate testing (only test). Unconscious experimenter expectancy (commissioned by Pepsi). Double-blind procedure. “More than half?” Determine the “truth” Do results support the hypothesis? Are there any real differences? -Statistics Communicate results Publish report Present verbal description at a convention Discuss several related experiments in book chapter Perspectives – different ways of viewing people Mind-Body Dualism – belief that mind is a spiritual entity, not subject to physical laws that govern the body. Believed by early philosophers. Descartes suggested interactions were through pineal glands of brain. No physical research on the body or brain could reveal anything about the mind Monism – mind and body are one. Mental events correspond to physical events in the brain British Empiricism – all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically Physiology – linking sections of the brain to movement and behavioral/mental state Next time: Chapt.2 p. 65-73 (Methods and Bio Bases) Causes of behavior, using scientific method to investigate causal relations Research Methods Observation – (Unobtrusive, non-participant or participant) Naturalistic observation i.e. one way window Studying subjects from afar or within Survey – Survey/Questionnaire Answer questions to learn more about population’s behavior People can lie Case Study – In-depth study of one individual Luria’s “S” is a case-study on one individual (‘mnemonist’) Correlation – determining the degree of relationship between 2 or more variables Correlation =/= Causation Could be additional variable/cause Experimental – manipulate variables to determine effect on some behavior i.e. the effect of Vitamin B12 deprivation on maze learning Example – TV violence cause aggression 1. Observation – No control, correlation evidence, not causation 2. Experiments – a. Between group design (2 different groups used) i. Group 1: Violent TV show ii. Group 2: Non-violent TV show iii. Group 3: No TV control b. Within group design (same groups used) i. Stages of experimentation on same subjects Measure Aggression - Self-report (social desirability/self-enhancement) - Verbal attack - Physical attack - ‘Safe’ attack How do we validate claims? Internal Validity – experiment supports causal conclusion External Validity – results can be generalized Demand Characteristics – (suggestions) cues in experiment convey hypothesis to participants they “help” experimenter Experimenter Expectancy – experimenter ‘conveys’ hypothesis to participants i.e. Intons-Peterson map experiment Double Blind Study – neither experimenter nor participants know hypothesis (I.V.) Lab experiment = controlled, not real-life (Random subject sampling and) Random assignment takes care of differences btw people How do you design an experiment? What are advantages of experimental method? Between Groups/Between Subjects: different groups of subjects used Repeated Measures/Within Subjects: same group exposed to both conditions, potential order effect. Need to counterbalance. Placebo effect: those expecting results from drugs, procedure etc. will experience them from fake drugs, procedure etc. Descartes – Reflex Arc: Stimuli travel from periphery to brain and back “Animal Spirits” – gaseous hydraulics Pineal glands – receives signals Swammerdam’s Experiment – frog leg jerk response in jar of water, no volume incrs. Bell – Types of nerves: afferent sensory efferent motor interneuron relay btw neurons Bell & Müller – Different transmission types have specific energy patterns Nerve impulses are not instantaneous Reaction Time – Maskelyne & Kinnebrook: GMT monitors have different RT’s The Neuron Shape Bipolar has two poles (dendrites separate) Unipolar has one long pole with cell body attached at the side Multipolar has dendrites branching out of cell body (normal) Semi-permeable membrane – ions can’t flow Action Potential (Axon) High concentration of Na+ outside (resting potential = -70mV) Stimulation = depolarization, Na+ gates open Threshold potential = -55mV Full depolarization, lots of Na+ flows in, +40mV Repolarization [absolute refractory period], K+ pumped out until hyperpolarization Na+-K+ pumps exchange ions and return to resting potential [relative refractory] Neuron can fire only during relative refractory, only if strong signal Neural Communication – electrical chemical electrical All-or-none – either fires or doesn’t fire, and to same level Intensity frequency of firing (or recognizing thresholds of individual neurons) Absolute refractory period limits frequency (intensity) Sherrington’s Experiment Flexor response speed: 200ft/sec Reflex arc: 2ft Latency calculated: 10 msec Real latency: 100 msec Inferred existence of synapse – neurons aren’t touching (chem. signal slow) Vesicles in synaptic knob are excited and release neurotransmitter Reuptake as much NT back in so neuron can fire again, MAO clears out most of the rest Excitatory – Na open, ready to fire Inhibitory – K open, not ready to fire Monoamines Norepinephrine (NE) – Inhibitory & excitatory (depends on receptor site, whether it opens Na or K); arousal & eating Dopamine (DA) – voluntary movement, arousal Serotonin (5-HT) – sleep, thermoregulation, aggression Acetylcholine (ACh) – memory, motor, behavioral inhibition Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) – Inhibitory; motor behavior Inhibitory/Excitatory Neurons: Different transmitter, receptor sites Excitatory – EPSP (opens Na+) and increases resting potential Inhibitory – IPSP (opens K+) and hyperpolarizes (decreases potential) Graded potential – IPSP and EPSP are additive across space and time Constant inhibition – neuron constantly fires inhibitory chemicals to hyperpolarize Disinhibition – Inhibit inhibitory neuron and allow other neuron to fire Psycho-drugs: Increase or decrease amount of transmitter, terminate transmitter action, stimulate or block receptor sites Cocaine: Stimulates release of DA and prevents reuptake Curare: Blocks ACh receptor sites, paralyzes all muscles incl. heart Black Widow Venom: Stimulates release of ACh, muscles move rapidly, heart rate incrs. Botulism Toxin: Blocks release of ACh Nicotine (agonist – increase activity in PS membrane): Stimulates receptor molecules, “duplicates” ACh effects Caffeine (antagonist): Blocks Adenosine receptor sites Finish chapter 3 Pg 92-97 Amygdala – emotional signals, kept in check by pre-frontal cortex Corpus callosum – fiber bundle joining two hemispheres of brain Medulla – bundle around brainstem, relay from spinal cord, heart & lungs Pons – relay medulla and thalamus, sleep Thalamus – relay centre from cerebrum, pain reception Cerebellum – motor movement and balance Basal Ganglia – control fine movements through inhibitory control Hippocampus – memory storing, processing and recollection Hypothalamus – hunger, thirst, temperature and other basic drives; releases certain releasing hormones Pineal gland – secretions and hormones Cerebral Cortex Frontal Cortex – language, higher order thinking, personality; front to central fissure Motor area found at back Parietal Lobe – taste, smell, somatosensory area found at front Occipital Lobe – vision Temporal Lobe – hearing, smell Topographic Representation – specific parts of brain control specific parts of body Contralateral control – Left controls right and vv Functional Assignment of Space – less space given to less vital parts How do we know? Scan intact brain – MRI, PET, CAT, Angiogram Brain damage extrapolation Cortex stimulation Angiogram – X-ray with contrast dye (blood vessels) CAT scan – 360º X-ray; computerized, allows for ‘slicing’; can see ventricles PET scan – radioactive glucose injected, usage (activity) scanned in brain MRI – electron displacement and reassembly to form image; best for structure How are cortical areas organized? What happens if they are damaged? Is there a separate consciousness in each hemisphere? Association areas are located to primary sensory area – i.e. visual association area close to visual sensory cortex Integrate and Interpret information from sensory area Apraxia – inability to perform smooth actions (neurological, action sequence) Motor cortex works, but association area doesn’t Agnosia – inability to perform sensory information i.e. visual cortex works (can see), but assoc. area doesn’t (can’t interpret image) Prosopagnosia – inability to interpret faces Fusiform [facial] gyrus – facial processing area at bottom of brain Aphasia – Broca: difficulty in stringing words together in long sentences – Wernicke: difficulty in understanding messages and responding Broca – frontal lobe – pre-motor cortex, association Wernicke – temporal lobe – auditory association Lateralization Left Verbal Language Reading Logical thought Right Non-verbal Space, form Synthesis Emotion Hemi-Spatial Neglect: Results from damage to parietal and temporal on one side -Ignores signals from one side (contralateral spatial field-usually visual) -Very rarely cause by damage to left ignore right; more freq. damage right ignore left -In humans only b/c humans have language centre in left and spatial is only the right Images in right field of view (Right-Handed): express what is seen [language] Images in left field of view: general information (logical thought), point with left hand Karyotype: genetic blueprint of species – all chromosomes laid out (Genome: all genes on a set of chromosomes) Humans – 22 autosomal pairs and one sex chromosome pair Genes “for” something – protein synthesis i.e. “gene for intelligence”, coding for myelin Environment can influence protein synthesis, and degree of expression Genotype cannot be inferred from phenotype Phenotype can be predicted from genotype Locus: location of gene along chromosome Allele: different form of gene (homo/heterozygous) Heritability = h2 = (variance due to genes) / (total variance) *est.* h = 0 everything due to environment h = 1 everything due to genes no variance = no heritability (h=0) ‘h’ taps the relative contribution of genes to overall variation in population Applies to groups, not individuals Family Relationship Studies: identical twins (100%); fraternal twins & siblings, parents (50%); grandparent, uncle, aunt (25%); 1st cousin (12.5%) Bouchard: separated twin studies; similar psychological traits Jim Lewis & Springer: similar interests (subject, pastimes, cars, jobs, dog name, wife name, 2nd wife name, son name, vacationing, same brand of cigarettes) Galton – Believed intelligence was heritable, unitary (one thing), related to reaction time Found that identical twins have different reaction times Cyril Burt – study of twins, suggests intelligence is approaching heritability of 1.0 Convinces schools to adopt ‘streaming’ Faked data Bouchard Twin Studies – correlation coefficient values Identical apart – 0.72 Together – 0.86 Fraternal together – 0.6 Siblings – 0.47 Adopted siblings – 0.34 Same person tested twice – 0.87 Eysenck – argues that personality differences are linked to differences in brain development and function Environmental similarities for identical twins not taken into account for heritability calculations Labeled as identical, leads to greater similarity (cognitive & personality tests) Early estimates: 100,000 genes Genome project: 25,000 genes 5-7 genes are “defective”, can cause problems Single-Gene Disorders PKU (chr12, recessive); 1 in 10,000; lack of enzyme that converts Phe to Tyr Brain damage and intellectual impairment, treated by diet Tay Sachs (chr15, recessive); 1 in 3,600 in E. Europe; lack of enzyme that breaks down fatty acids, 1 in 30 French Canadians are carriers Probability of offspring acquiring disorder Detection possible through gene mapping Sex-Linked Disorder Men are more susceptible because Y chromosome has less DNA 50% chance of defective in males, unaffected by Y Baldness, Red-Green color blindness, hemophilia Any Y chromosome will cause individual to be phenotypically male XYY super male syndrome, believed to cause aggression but just carelessness Down Syndrom – nervous system abnormality, mild to moderate retardation, shorter life expectancy. Due to accumulation of Amyloid protein (like Alzheimer’s), intense cognitive stimulation can alleviate symptoms Not hereditary – caused by faulty meiotic division Incidence related to age, risk is 1/1000 or 6/1000 if over 40 Evolutionary causes: Distal – evolutionary history, individual DNA, inherited traits Proximal – social development, emotional reaction/info processing, phenomenological experience Functional approach to Evolution All traits are due to gene Phenotype ≠ genotype Traits not necessarily due to natural selection Genetic drift (lost alleles) Founder effect, chance Correlates of Structure: other related trait selected (i.e. larger hand unneeded, but cam along with larger/opposable thumb) Freud: Eros – good energy, happy Thanatos – anger, vengeance, murderous intentions Aggression is redirection on thanatos energy to non-murderous intentions Lorenz: Hydraulic model – aggression builds up until triggered by external stimuli (i.e. releaser, fixed-action pattern) Bighorn Sheep – releaser triggers fixed-action pattern of butting heads Build up of energy? Not consistent Releasers? High variability Probability of aggression increased with time? Species specific Berkowitz’s Weapon effect – anything associated with aggression is a releaser Frustration-Aggression hypothesis i.e. (Turner) gun in pick-up truck gun rack is a releaser for honking aggression i.e. (Boyanowsky) open-holster weapons effect on road-side questioning Stats: Trait .42 .48 .49 .54 .59 Statistics SD - units are distance from mean Z score = (score – mean) / SD Z scores have a mean of 0 and SD of 1 68% of Z scores are between ±1 SD 96% are between ±2 SD Heritability Extroversion Neuroticism Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness to experience STUDY Thorndike, Maslow, Watson; Psychology professions Throndike’s Law: reward and punishment reflect on behavior repetition 0.72 heritability intelligence estimated by Bouchard Mate preference (pages in Ch 4) Altruism Freud – Eros & Thanatos Lorenz – releasers and fixed action pattern Structuralism – experience perception, introspective & self-report Functionalism – significance (of behavior)